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86-749: The 3,500 m (38,000 sq ft) museum occupies the lower three floors of the renovated Haus zur Enge, a ten-story mixed-use building located in the Enge quarter , across from the Zürich Enge railway station and the FIFA-owned Hotel Ascot. The building also contains a sports bar , a bistro , a café , a library, a museum shop and conference rooms; the upper floors have office spaces and 34 luxury apartments . The museum exhibits over one thousand objects. These include memorabilia from every FIFA World Cup and FIFA Women's World Cup ,

172-449: A pseudoscience . This angered the male-dominated urban planning profession. Jacobs was criticized with ad hominem attacks, being called a "militant dame" and a "housewife": an amateur who had no right to interfere with an established discipline. One planner dismissed Jacobs's book as "bitter coffee-house rambling". Robert Moses, sent a copy, called it "intemperate and also libelous ... Sell this junk to someone else." Later, her book

258-542: A catalyst for economic growth, may not serve their intended purpose if they simply shift economic activity, rather than create it. A study done by Jones Lang LaSalle Incorporated (JLL) found that "90 percent of Hudson Yards' new office tenants relocated from Midtown." Some of the more frequent mixed-use scenarios in the United States are: The first large-scale attempt to create mixed-use development in Australia

344-716: A city can be impacted by mixed-use development. With the EPA putting models in the spreadsheet, it makes it much easier for municipalities, and developers to estimate the traffic, with Mixed-use spaces. The linking models also used as a resource tool measures the geography, demographics, and land use characteristics in a city. The Environmental Protection Agency has conducted an analysis on six major metropolitan areas using land usage, household surveys, and GIS databases. States such as California, Washington, New Mexico, and Virginia have adopted this standard as statewide policy when assessing how urban developments can impact traffic. Preconditions for

430-511: A city replaces imports, it shifts its imports. It doesn't import less. And yet it has everything it had before. Reason : It's not a zero-sum game. It's a bigger, growing pie. Jacobs : That's the actual mechanism of it. The theory of it is what I explain in The Nature of Economies . I equate it to what happens with biomass, the sum total of all flora and fauna in an area. The energy, the material that's involved in this, doesn't just escape

516-423: A coalition of dozens of local neighborhood groups that opposed the roadway extension. Raymond S. Rubinow eventually took over the organization, changing its name to the "Joint Emergency Committee to Close Washington Square to Traffic". Jacob—recruited to the cause by Gerard La Mountain, a local Catholic priest whose church was in the path of the planned LOMEX route—had joined the committee under Hayes, but she took

602-579: A combination of public and private interests, do not show a decrease in carbon emissions in comparison to metropolitan areas that have a low, dense configuration. This is possibly because hybrid metropolises are prone to attract car traffic from visitors. Due to the speculative nature of large scale real estate developments, mega-mixed-use projects often fall short on meeting equity and affordability goals. High-end residential, upscale retail, and Class A office spaces appealing to high-profile tenants are often prioritized due to their speculative potential. There

688-472: A development in Philadelphia designed by Edmund Bacon . Although her editors expected a positive story, Jacobs criticized Bacon's project, reacting against its lack of concern for the poor African Americans who were directly affected. When Bacon showed Jacobs examples of undeveloped and developed blocks, she determined that "development" seemed to end community life on the street. When Jacobs returned to

774-678: A judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit . After graduation from Scranton High School , she worked for a year as the unpaid assistant to the women's page editor at the Scranton Tribune . In 1935, during the Great Depression , she moved to New York City with her sister Betty. Jane Butzner took an immediate liking to Manhattan's Greenwich Village , which deviated some from

860-432: A lecture at Harvard University . She addressed leading architects, urban planners, and intellectuals (including Lewis Mumford ), speaking on the topic of East Harlem. She urged this audience to "respect – in the deepest sense – strips of chaos that have a weird wisdom of their own not yet encompassed in our concept of urban order". Contrary to her expectations, the talk was received with enthusiasm, but it also marked her as

946-614: A mention of Jane Jacobs,' I think, 'But I wrote a lot about her.' Every time I'm asked about that, I have this sick feeling." Soon after her arrest in 1968, Jacobs moved to Toronto , eventually settling at 69 Albany Avenue in The Annex from 1971 until her death in 2006. She decided to leave the US in part because she opposed the Vietnam War , she worried about the fate of her two draft -age sons, and she did not want to continue fighting

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1032-455: A more prominent role under Rubinow, reaching out to media outlets such as The Village Voice , which provided more sympathetic coverage than The New York Times . The committee gained the support of Margaret Mead , Eleanor Roosevelt , Lewis Mumford , Charles Abrams , and William H. Whyte , as well as Carmine De Sapio , a Greenwich Village resident and influential Democratic leader. De Sapio's involvement proved decisive. On 25 June 1958,

1118-703: A museum dedicated to the 'history of world football' to be located in Zürich were proposed by then-FIFA president Sepp Blatter and the FIFA Executive Committee in 2012. In April 2013, FIFA signed a 40-year lease with Swiss Life for the Haus zur Enge, which would be dismantled and rebuilt to house the museum; an earlier proposal would have had a museum on the grounds of the FIFA headquarters. The City of Zürich Building Authority approved planning permission for

1204-515: A pedestrian tunnel. Jacobs also was active in a campaign against a plan of Royal St. George's College (an established school very close to the Jacobs residence in Toronto's Annex district) to reconfigure its facilities. Jacobs suggested not only that the redesign be stopped but that the school be forced from the neighbourhood entirely. Although Toronto council initially rejected the school's plans,

1290-474: A people that we no longer care how things do work, but only what kind of quick, easy outer impression they give. If so, there is little hope for our cities or probably for much else in our society. But I do not think this is so. In her book 'Death and Life of Great American Cities,' written in 1961, Ms. Jacobs's enormous achievement was to transcend her own withering critique of 20th-century urban planning and propose radically new principles for rebuilding cities. At

1376-603: A recent award to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for studies of urban aesthetics that would culminate in the publication of Kevin A. Lynch 's Image of the City . In May 1958, Gilpatric invited Jacobs to begin serving as a reviewer for grant proposals. Later that year, the Rockefeller Foundation awarded a grant to Jacobs to produce a critical study of city planning and urban life in

1462-417: A role in 1986 with a zoning bylaw that allowed for commercial and residential units to be mixed. At the time, Toronto was in the beginning stages of planning a focus on developing mixed-use development due to the growing popularity of more social housing. The law has since been updated as recently as 2013, shifting much of its focus outside the downtown area which has been a part of the main city since 1998. With

1548-458: A significant focus on affordable housing provisions in these plans. Mixed-use buildings can be risky given that there are multiple tenants residing in one development. Mega-mixed-use projects, like Hudson Yards , are also extremely expensive. This development has cost the City of New York over 2.2 billion dollars. Critics argue that taxpayer dollars could better serve the general public if spent elsewhere. Additionally, mixed-use developments, as

1634-563: A significant intersection in Toronto, portions of the Mirvish Village project site are zoned as "commercial residential" and others as "mixed commercial residential". Within the City of Toronto's zoning by-laws, commercial residential includes "a range of commercial, residential and institutional uses, as well as parks." Mirvish Village's programmatic uses include rental apartments, a public market, and small-unit retail, while also preserving 23 of 27 heritage houses on site. The project

1720-611: A single building, a block or neighborhood, or in zoning policy across an entire city or other administrative unit. These projects may be completed by a private developer, (quasi-)governmental agency, or a combination thereof. A mixed-use development may be a new construction, reuse of an existing building or brownfield site , or a combination. Traditionally, human settlements have developed in mixed-use patterns. However, with industrialization , governmental zoning regulations were introduced to separate different functions, such as manufacturing, from residential areas. Public health concerns and

1806-437: A stroke. She was survived by a brother, James Butzner (d. 2009); a daughter, Burgin Jacobs, her sons, James and Ned of Vancouver, and by two grandchildren and two great-grandchildren. Upon her death her family's statement noted: "What's important is not that she died but that she lived, and that her life's work has greatly influenced the way we think. Please remember her by reading her books and implementing her ideas". Jacobs

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1892-569: A strong ability to adapt to changing social and economic environments. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, New York retailers located on long, commercially oriented blocks suffered severely as they were no longer attracting an audience of passersby. By combining multiple functions into one building or development, mixed-use districts can build resiliency through their ability to attract and maintain visitors. More sustainable transportation practices are also fostered. A study of Guangzhou, China , done by

1978-446: A threat to established urban planners, real estate owners, and developers. Architectural Forum printed the speech that year, along with photographs of East Harlem. After reading her Harvard speech, William H. Whyte invited Jacobs to write an article for Fortune magazine. The resulting piece, "Downtown Is for People", appeared in a 1958 issue of Fortune , and marked her first public criticism of Robert Moses . Her criticism of

2064-477: A three-story building at 555 Hudson Street . Jane continued to write for Amerika after the war, while Robert left Grumman and resumed work as an architect. The Jacobses rejected the rapidly growing suburbs as "parasitic", choosing to remain in Greenwich Village. They renovated their house, in the middle of a mixed residential and commercial area, and created a garden in the backyard. Working for

2150-410: A time when both common and inspired wisdom called for bulldozing slums and opening up city space, Ms. Jacobs's prescription was ever more diversity, density and dynamism – in effect, to crowd people and activities together in a jumping, joyous urban jumble. Samuel R. Delany 's book Times Square Red, Times Square Blue relies heavily on The Death and Life of Great American Cities in its analysis of

2236-552: A time when he was seen as a longshot . During the mayoral campaign, Jacobs helped lobby against the construction of a bridge to join the city waterfront to island airport on the Toronto Islands . Following the election, the Toronto City Council's earlier decision to approve the bridge was reversed and the bridge construction project was stopped. The airport instead upgraded the ferry service and later built

2322-490: A trade magazine, as a secretary, then an editor. She sold articles to the Sunday Herald Tribune , Cue magazine, and Vogue . She studied at Columbia University 's School of General Studies for two years, taking courses in geology, zoology , law, political science , and economics. About the freedom to pursue study across her wide-ranging interests, she said: For the first time I liked school and for

2408-399: Is a differentiation of a previous thing, from a new shoe sole to changes in legal codes. Expansion is an actual growth in size or volume of activity. That is a different thing. I've gone at it two different ways. Way back when I wrote The Economy of Cities , I wrote about import replacing and how that expands, not just the economy of the place where it occurs, but economic life altogether. As

2494-618: Is also a trend towards making residential spaces in mixed-use developments to be condominiums, rather than rental spaces. A study done by the Journal of the American Planning Association found that a focus on homeownership predominantly excludes individuals working in public services, trades, cultural, sales and service, and manufacturing occupations from living in amenity-rich city centers. Despite incentives like density bonuses, municipalities and developers rarely put

2580-462: Is also absent in Germany and Russia where zoning codes make no distinction between different types of housing. America's attachment to private property and the traditional 1950s suburban home, as well as deep racial and class divides, have marked the divergence in mixed-use zoning between the continents. As a result, much of Europe's central cities are mixed use "by default" and the term "mixed-use"

2666-535: Is also found in these districts. This development pattern is centered around the idea of "live, work, play," transforming buildings and neighborhoods into multi-use entities. Efficiency, productivity, and quality of life are also increased with regards to workplaces holding a plethora of amenities. Examples include gyms, restaurants, bars, and shopping. Mixed-use neighborhoods promote community and socialization through their bringing together of employees, visitors, and residents. A distinctive character and sense-of-place

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2752-399: Is created by transforming single use districts that may run for eight hours a day (ex. commercial office buildings running 9am - 5pm) into communities that can run eighteen hours a day through the addition of cafes, restaurants, bars, and nightclubs. Safety of neighborhoods in turn may be increased as people stay out on the streets for longer hours. Mixed-use neighborhoods and buildings have

2838-490: Is credited, along with Lewis Mumford , with inspiring the New Urbanist movement. She has been characterized as a major influence on decentralist and radical centrist thought. She discussed her legacy in an interview with Reason magazine. Reason : What do you think you'll be remembered for most? You were the one who stood up to the federal bulldozers and the urban renewal people and said they were destroying

2924-422: Is incentivized in these regions. By taking undervalued and underutilized land, often former heavy industrial, developers can repurpose it to increase land and property values.  These projects also increase housing variety, density, and oftentimes affordability through their focus on multifamily, rather than single-family housing compounds. A more equal balance between the supply and demand of jobs and housing

3010-717: Is much more relevant regarding new areas of the city where an effort is made to mix residential and commercial activities – such as in Amsterdam's Eastern Docklands . Expanded use of mixed-use zoning and mixed-use developments may be found in a variety of contexts, such as the following (multiple such contexts might apply to one particular project or situation): Any of the above contexts may also include parallel contexts such as: Mixed-use developments are home to significant employment and housing opportunities. Many of these projects are already located in established downtown districts, meaning that development of public transit systems

3096-582: Is notable for its public consultation process, which was lauded by Toronto city officials. Architect Henriquez and the developer had previously collaborated on mixed-use projects in Vancouver , British Columbia , including the successful Woodward's Redevelopment . In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) collaborates with local governments by providing researchers developing new data that estimates how

3182-539: Is remembered as being an advocate for the mindful development of cities, and for leaving "a legacy of empowerment for citizens to trust their common sense and become advocates for their place". Despite the fact that Jacobs mainly focused on New York City, her arguments have been identified as universal. For instance, her opposition against the demolition of urban neighborhoods for projects of urban renewal had "special resonance" in Melbourne , Australia. In Melbourne in

3268-579: Is the US's largest project to ever be financed by TIF ( tax increment financing ) subsidies. It did not require voter approval, nor did it have to go through the city's traditional budgeting process. Rather, the project is financed by future property taxes and the EB-5 Visa Program. This program provides VISAs to overseas investors in exchange for placing a minimum of $ 500,000 into US real estate. Jane Jacobs Jane Jacobs OC OOnt ( née Butzner ; 4 May 1916 – 25 April 2006)

3354-661: The American Sociological Association awarded her its Outstanding Lifetime Contribution award in 2002. In 1997, the city government of Toronto sponsored a conference entitled, "Jane Jacobs: Ideas That Matter", which led to a book by the same name. At the end of the conference, the Jane Jacobs Prize was created. It includes an annual stipend of $ 5,000 for three years to be given to "celebrate Toronto's original, unsung heroes – by seeking out citizens who are engaged in activities that contribute to

3440-783: The HOPE VI Program, an effort by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development to demolish the high-rise public housing projects so reviled by Jacobs and to replace them with low-rise, mixed-income housing . Throughout her life, Jacobs fought to alter the way in which city development was approached. By arguing that cities were living beings and ecosystems, she advocated ideas such as "mixed use" development and bottom-up planning. Furthermore, her harsh criticisms of "slum clearing" and "high-rise housing" projects were instrumental in discrediting these once universally supported planning practices. Jacobs

3526-505: The Housing Act of 1949 , also called for several blocks to be razed and replaced with upscale high-rises. The plan forced 132 families out of their homes and displaced 1,000 small businesses – the result was Washington Square Village . As part of his efforts to revitalize the area, Moses had proposed the extension of Fifth Avenue through Washington Square Park in 1935. In the face of community opposition, Moses had shelved

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3612-606: The Lincoln Center was not popular with supporters of urban renewal at Architectural Forum and Fortune . C. D. Jackson , the publisher of Fortune , was outraged and over the telephone, demanded of Whyte: "Who is this crazy dame?" The Fortune article brought Jacobs to the attention of Chadbourne Gilpatric, then associate director of the Humanities Division at the Rockefeller Foundation . The foundation had moved aggressively into urban topics, with

3698-622: The World Trade Center as a disaster for Manhattan's waterfront. During the 1950s and 1960s, her home neighborhood of Greenwich Village was being transformed by city and state efforts to build housing (see, for example, Jacobs's 1961 fight to build the West Village Houses in lieu of large apartment houses), private developers, the expansion of New York University , and by the urban renewal plans of Robert Moses . Moses' plan, funded as "slum clearance" by Title I of

3784-672: The 1960s, resident associations fought against large-scale high-rise housing projects of the Housing Commission of Victoria , which they argued had little regard for the impact on local communities. Jacobs fought an uphill battle against dominant trends of planning. Despite the United States remaining very much a suburban nation, the work of Jacobs has contributed to city living being rehabilitated and revitalized. Because of her ideas, today, many distressed urban neighborhoods are more likely to be gentrified than cleared for redevelopment. It may be that we have become so feckless as

3870-472: The 1960s. Since the 1990s, mixed-use zoning has once again become desirable as it works to combat urban sprawl and increase economic vitality. In most of Europe, government policy has encouraged the continuation of the city center's role as a main location for business, retail, restaurant, and entertainment activity, unlike in the United States where zoning actively discouraged such mixed use for many decades. In England, for example, hotels are included under

3956-790: The Journal of Geographical Information Science, found that taxis located in regions where buildings housed a greater variety of functions had greatly reduced traveling distances. Shorter traveling distances, in turn, support the use of micro-mobility . Pedestrian and bike-friendly infrastructure are fostered due to increased density and reduced distances between housing, workplaces, retail businesses, and other amenities and destinations. Additionally, mixed-use projects promote health and wellness, as these developments often provide better access (whether it be by foot, bicycle, or transit) to farmer's markets and grocery stores. However, hybrid metropolises, areas that have large and tall buildings which accommodate

4042-609: The Loyalty Security Board at the US Department of State. In her foreword to her answer, she said: The other threat to the security of our tradition, I believe, lies at home. It is the current fear of radical ideas and of people who propound them. I do not agree with the extremists of either the left or the right, but I think they should be allowed to speak and to publish, both because they themselves have, and ought to have, rights, and once their rights are gone,

4128-525: The New York City government. She and her husband chose Toronto because it was pleasant and offered employment opportunities, and they moved to an area of Toronto that included so many Americans avoiding the draft that it was called the "American ghetto". She quickly became a leading figure in her new city and helped stop the proposed Spadina Expressway . A frequent theme of her work was to ask whether cities were being built for people or for cars. She

4214-640: The State Department during the McCarthy era, Jacobs received a questionnaire about her political beliefs and loyalties. Jacobs was anti-communist and had left the Federal Workers Union because of its apparent communist sympathies. Nevertheless, she was pro-union and purportedly appreciated the writing of Saul Alinsky , and therefore she was under suspicion. On 25 March 1952, Jacobs delivered her response to Conrad E. Snow, chairman of

4300-560: The Struggle over Separation . Jacobs was an advocate of a Province of Toronto to separate the city proper from Ontario . Jacobs said, "Cities, to thrive in the twenty-first century, must separate themselves politically from their surrounding areas." She was selected to be an officer of the Order of Canada in 1996 for her seminal writings and thought-provoking commentaries on urban development . The community and urban sociology section of

4386-585: The US. (From the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s, the foundation's Humanities Division sponsored an "Urban Design Studies" research program, of which Jacobs was the best known grantee.) Gilpatric encouraged Jacobs to "explor[e] the field of urban design to look for ideas and actions which may improve thinking on how the design of cities might better serve urban life, including cultural and humane value." Affiliating with The New School (then called The New School for Social Research), she spent three years conducting research and writing drafts. In 1961, Random House published

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4472-457: The United States came after World War II when planner and New York City Parks Commissioner , Robert Moses , championed superhighways to break up functions and neighborhoods of the city. The antithesis to these practices came from activist and writer, Jane Jacobs , who was a major proponent of mixed-use zoning, believing it played a key role in creating an organic, diverse, and vibrant streetscape. These two figures went head-to-head during much of

4558-412: The associated network of expressways in Toronto that were planned and under construction. As a woman and a writer who criticized experts in the male-dominated field of urban planning , Jacobs endured scorn from established figures. Routinely, she was described first as a housewife, as she did not have a college degree or any formal training in urban planning; as a result, her lack of credentials

4644-582: The city closed Washington Square Park to traffic, and the joint committee held a ribbon tying (not cutting) ceremony. Plans for LOMEX expressway continued despite growing community opposition in areas such as Little Italy. In the 1960s, Jacobs chaired the Joint Committee to Stop the Lower Manhattan Expressway . The New York Times was sympathetic to Moses, while The Village Voice covered community rallies and advocated against

4730-462: The city's grid structure . The sisters soon moved there from Brooklyn. During her early years in Manhattan, Jacobs held a variety of jobs working as a stenographer and freelance writer , writing about working districts in the city. These experiences, she later said, "gave me more of a notion of what was going on in the city and what business was like, what work was like". Her first job was for

4816-435: The city's vitality". Jacobs never shied away from expressing her political support for specific candidates. She opposed the 1997 amalgamation of the cities of Metro Toronto , fearing that individual neighbourhoods would have less power with the new structure. She backed an ecologist, Tooker Gomberg , who lost Toronto's 2000 mayoralty race , and she was an adviser to David Miller's successful mayoral campaign in 2003 , at

4902-428: The community as an export. It continues being used in a community, just as in a rainforest the waste from certain organisms and various plants and animals gets used by other ones in the place. While Jacobs saw her greatest legacy to be her contributions to economic theory, it is in the realm of urban planning that she has had her most extensive effect. Her observations about the ways in which cities function revolutionized

4988-643: The decision later was reversed – and the project was given the go-ahead by the Ontario Municipal Board (OMB) when opponents failed to produce credible witnesses and tried to withdraw from the case during the hearing. She also had an influence on Vancouver 's urban planning. Jacobs has been called "the mother of Vancouverism ", referring to that city's use of her "density done well" philosophy. Jacobs died in Toronto Western Hospital aged 89, on 25 April 2006, apparently of

5074-531: The early 1990s, when the local government wanted to reduce the then-dominant car-oriented development style. The Metropolitan Area Express , Portland's light rail system, encourages the mixing of residential, commercial, and work spaces into one zone. With this one-zoning-type planning system, the use of land at increased densities provides a return in public investments throughout the city. Main street corridors provide flexible building heights and high density uses to enable "gathering places". Hudson Yards project

5160-538: The expressway. Jacobs continued to fight the expressway when plans resurfaced in 1962, 1965, and 1968, and she became a local hero for her opposition to the project. She was arrested by a plainclothes police officer on 10 April 1968, at a public hearing during which the crowd had charged the stage and destroyed the stenographer's notes. She was accused of inciting a riot, criminal mischief, and obstructing public administration. After months of trials conducted in New York City (to which Jacobs commuted from Toronto), her charge

5246-415: The first time I made good marks. This was almost my undoing because after I had garnered, statistically, a certain number of credits I became the property of Barnard College at Columbia, and once I was the property of Barnard I had to take, it seemed, what Barnard wanted me to take, not what I wanted to learn. Fortunately my high-school marks had been so bad that Barnard decided I could not belong to it and I

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5332-456: The initial one with new policies focused on economic and urban renewal issues. In particular, the 1988 Plan was designed in collaboration with a transport strategy and was the first to recommend higher development densities. Since then, Australian planning authorities have given greater priority to mixed-use development of inner-city industrial land as a way of revitalising areas neglected by the decline in manufacturing, consolidating and densifying

5418-482: The lifeblood of these cities. Is that what it will be? Jacobs : No. If I were to be remembered as a really important thinker of the century, the most important thing I've contributed is my discussion of what makes economic expansion happen. This is something that has puzzled people always. I think I've figured out what it is. Expansion and development are two different things. Development is differentiation of what already existed. Practically every new thing that happens

5504-515: The most famous one being the original FIFA World Cup Trophy . The exhibition features various interactive and multimedia installations such as the biggest pinball machine ever made and an audiovisual media installation called Visions of Football using 8 metres (26 ft) LED screens. In 2017, the museum was nominated for the German Design Award . Every year, the museum participates in Zürich's Long Night of Museums . Plans for

5590-541: The museum in November 2013. Construction on the renovated Haus zur Enge began in 2014 and was completed in December 2015. The museum opened on 28 February 2016, during a ceremony presided by the newly elected president of FIFA, Gianni Infantino . On 22 December 2020, FIFA launched legal action against its former president Sepp Blatter for "suspected criminal mismanagement". Despite costing over SFr500 million ($ 563m),

5676-496: The museum made only $ 3m of Fifa's $ 766m 2019 overall revenues. Mixed-use development Mixed use is a type of urban development , urban design , urban planning and/or a zoning classification that blends multiple uses , such as residential, commercial, cultural, institutional, or entertainment, into one space, where those functions are to some degree physically and functionally integrated, and that provides pedestrian connections. Mixed-use development may be applied to

5762-568: The offices of Architectural Forum , she began to question the 1950s consensus on urban planning. In 1955, Jacobs met William Kirk, an Episcopal minister who worked in East Harlem . Kirk came to the Architectural Forum offices to describe the impact that "revitalization" had on East Harlem, and he introduced Jacobs to the neighborhood. In 1956, while standing in for Douglas Haskell of Architectural Forum , Jacobs delivered

5848-412: The previously underpopulated urban centres. This new urban planning approach has had a significant impact on the use of land parcels in major Australian cities: according to 2021 data from Australian Bureau of Statistics , mixed zoning already suppose more than 9% of new housing approvals. One of the first cities to adopt a policy on mixed-use development is Toronto . The local government first played

5934-610: The project, but revived the idea in the 1950s. Moses argued that the Fifth Avenue extension would improve the flow of traffic through the neighborhood and provide access to the planned Lower Manhattan Expressway (LOMEX), which would connect the Manhattan Bridge and Williamsburg Bridge with the Holland Tunnel . In response, local activist Shirley Hayes created the "Committee to Save Washington Square Park",

6020-441: The protection of property values stood as the motivation behind this separation. In the United States, the practice of zoning for single-family residential use was instigated to safeguard communities from negative externalities , including air, noise, and light pollution, associated with heavier industrial practices. These zones were also constructed to alleviate racial and class tensions. The heyday of separate-use zoning in

6106-501: The regulations in place, the city has overseen the development of high-rise condominiums throughout the city with amenities and transit stops nearby. Toronto's policies of mixed-use development have inspired other North American cities in Canada and the United States to bring about similar changes. One example of a Toronto mixed-use development is Mirvish Village by architect Gregory Henriquez . Located at Bloor and Bathurst Street ,

6192-433: The result: The Death and Life of Great American Cities . The Death and Life of Great American Cities remains one of the most influential books in the history of American city planning. She coined the terms "mixed primary uses", and "eyes on the street", which were adopted professionally in urban design, sociology, and many other fields. Jacobs painted a devastating picture of the profession of city planning, labeling it

6278-609: The right of workers to unionize. She became a feature writer for the Office of War Information and then a reporter for Amerika , a publication of the US State Department in the Russian language. While working there she met Robert Hyde Jacobs Jr., a Columbia-educated architect who was designing warplanes for Grumman . They married in 1944. Together they had a daughter, Burgin, and two sons, James and Ned. They bought

6364-420: The rights of the rest of us are hardly safe. Jacobs left Amerika in 1952 when it announced its relocation to Washington, DC . She then found a well-paying job at Architectural Forum , published by Henry Luce of Time Inc. She was hired as an associate editor. After early success in that position, Jacobs began to take assignments on urban planning and " urban blight ". In 1954, she was assigned to cover

6450-405: The same umbrella as "residential," rather than commercial as they are classified under in the US. France similarly gravitates towards mixed-use as much of Paris is simply zoned to be "General Urban," allowing for a variety of uses. Even zones that house the mansions and villas of the aristocrats focus on historical and architectural preservation rather than single family zoning. Single family zoning

6536-463: The success of mixed-use developments are employment, population, and consumer spending . The three preconditions ensure that a development can attract quality tenants and financial success. Other factors determining the success of the mixed-use development is the proximity of production time, and the costs from the surrounding market. Mixed-use zoning has been implemented in Portland, Oregon , since

6622-587: The urban planning profession and discredited many accepted planning models that had dominated mid-century planning. The influential Harvard economist Edward Glaeser , known for his work on urban studies, acknowledged that Jane Jacobs (1960s) had been prescient in attacking Moses for "replacing well-functioning neighborhoods with Le Corbusier -inspired towers". Glaeser agreed that these housing projects proved to be Moses' greatest failures, "Moses spent millions and evicted tens of thousands to create buildings that became centers of crime, poverty, and despair." She also

6708-488: Was an American-Canadian journalist, author, theorist, and activist who influenced urban studies , sociology, and economics. Her book The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) argued that " urban renewal " and " slum clearance " did not respect the needs of city-dwellers. Jacobs organized grassroots efforts to protect neighborhoods from urban renewal and slum clearance, in particular plans by Robert Moses to overhaul her own Greenwich Village neighborhood. She

6794-543: Was arrested twice during demonstrations. She also had considerable influence on the regeneration of the St. Lawrence neighbourhood, a housing project regarded as a major success. She became a Canadian citizen in 1974 and later, she told writer James Howard Kunstler that dual citizenship was not possible at the time, implying that her US citizenship was lost. In 1980, she offered a more urban perspective on Quebec 's sovereignty in her book, The Question of Separatism: Quebec and

6880-589: Was criticized from the left for leaving out race and openly endorsing gentrification , which Jacobs referred to as "unslumming". In 1962, she resigned her position at Architectural Forum to become a full-time author and concentrate on raising her children. In other political activities she became an opponent of the Vietnam War , marched on the Pentagon in October 1967, and criticized the construction of

6966-548: Was famous for introducing concepts such as the "Ballet of the Sidewalk" and "Eyes on the Street", a reference to what would later be known as natural surveillance . The concept had a huge influence on planners and architects such as Oscar Newman , who prepared the idea through a series of studies that would culminate in his defensible space theory . The work of Jacobs and Newman would go on to affect American housing policy through

7052-561: Was instrumental in the eventual cancellation of the Lower Manhattan Expressway , which would have passed directly through the area of Manhattan that would later become known as SoHo , as well as part of Little Italy and Chinatown . She was arrested in 1968 for inciting a crowd at a public hearing on that project. After moving to Toronto in 1968, she joined the opposition to the Spadina Expressway and

7138-555: Was reduced to disorderly conduct. New York: A Documentary Film devoted an hour of the eight-part, seventeen-and-a-half-hour series to the battle between Moses and Jacobs. Robert Caro 's biography of Moses, The Power Broker , gives only passing mention to this event, however, despite Jacobs's strong influence on Caro. In 2017, Caro told an interviewer about the difficulty in cutting more than 300,000 words from his initial manuscript: "The section that I wrote on Jane Jacobs disappeared. To this day, when someone says: 'There's hardly

7224-491: Was seized upon as grounds for criticism. The influence of her concepts eventually was acknowledged by highly respected professionals, such as Richard Florida and Robert Lucas . Jacobs was born Jane Isabel Butzner in Scranton, Pennsylvania , the daughter of Bess Robison Butzner, a former teacher and nurse, and John Decker Butzner, a physician. They were a Protestant family. Her brother, John Decker Butzner Jr. , served as

7310-670: Was the Sydney Region Outline Plan , a plan that identified Sydney 's need to decentralise and organise its growth around the metropolitan area. Its main objective was to control the city's rapid post-war population growth by introducing growth corridors and economic centres that would help prevent uncontrolled sprawl and the overuse of the car as a means of transport Several city centres such as Parramatta or Campbelltown benefited from these policies, creating economic hubs with his own inner-city amenities along Sydney's main thoroughfares. Subsequent plans complemented

7396-739: Was therefore allowed to continue getting an education. After attending Columbia University's School of General Studies for two years, Butzner found a job at Iron Age magazine. Her 1943 article on economic decline in Scranton was well publicized and led the Murray Corporation of America to locate a warplane factory there. Encouraged by this success, Butzner petitioned the War Production Board to support more operations in Scranton. Experiencing job discrimination at Iron Age , she also advocated for equal pay for women and for

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