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142-534: Fotogramas is a Spanish digital and print film magazine which has been in circulation since 1946. It is one of the early film magazines in Spain. Founded in Barcelona , it was first published on 15 November 1946 by Antonio Nadal-Rodó and María Fernanda Gañán. On 5 February 1951, the magazine awarded their first Placa de San Juan Bosco award to actor Jesús Tordesillas for his performance in 1950 film Pequeñeces . In

284-403: A Castilian -centric unitary national identity by repressing Spain's cultural diversity. Bullfighting and flamenco were promoted as national traditions, while those traditions not considered Spanish were suppressed. Franco's view of Spanish tradition was somewhat artificial and arbitrary: while some regional traditions were suppressed, Flamenco, an Andalusian tradition, was considered part of

426-569: A Maghribian and, ultimately, Subsaharan pool of slaves. The Bank or Taula de canvi de Barcelona , often viewed as the oldest public bank in Europe, was established by the city magistrates in 1401. It originated from necessities of the state, as did the Bank of Venice (1402) and the Bank of Genoa (1407). In the beginning of the Early Modern period, Barcelona lost political primacy, but

568-571: A high-speed rail line with a link to France and the rest of Europe. The name Barcelona comes from the ancient Iberian Baŕkeno , attested in an ancient coin inscription found on the right side of the coin in Iberian script as [REDACTED] , in Ancient Greek sources as Βαρκινών , Barkinṓn ; and in Latin as Barcino , Barcilonum and Barcenona . Other sources suggest that

710-624: A jihadist attack. Amaq News Agency attributed indirect responsibility for the attack to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). During the 2010s, Barcelona became the focus city for the ongoing Catalan independence movement , its consequent standoff between the regional and national government and later protests . In July 2023, Barcelona was announced as the UNESCO-UIA World Capital of Architecture for

852-410: A clergy that was bitter because of the violent anti-clericalism and the unacceptable level of secularisation that Spanish society had reached during the republican years" and the law of 1939 made the priests investigators of peoples' ideological and political pasts. The authorities encouraged denunciations in the workplace. For example, Barcelona's city hall obliged all government functionaries to "tell

994-568: A day) in December to 310 (average 10 hours of sunshine a day) in July. According to Barcelona's City Council, the city's population as of 1 January 2016 was 1,608,746 people, on a land area of 101.4 km (39 sq mi). It is the main component of an administrative area of Greater Barcelona , with a population of 3,218,071 in an area of 636 km (246 sq mi) (density 5,060 inhabitants/km ). The population of

1136-589: A fervent Catholic and a staunch defender of Roman Catholicism, the declared state religion . The regime favoured very conservative Roman Catholicism and it reversed the secularisation process that had taken place under the Republic. According to historian Julian Casanova , "the symbiosis of religion, fatherland and Caudillo" saw the Church assume great political responsibilities, "a hegemony and monopoly beyond its wildest dreams" and it played "a central role in policing

1278-442: A grid of streets to unite the old city and surrounding villages. There would also be wide streets to allow people to breathe clean air, gardens in the centre of each street block, integration of rich and poor giving both groups access to the same services, and smooth-flowing traffic. Urban quality, egalitarianism, hygiene, sunlight, and efficiency were all major keys for Cerdà's vision. Not everything he imagined would be realized within

1420-425: A largely industrial city. As part of the preparation for the games, industrial buildings along the sea-front were demolished and 3 km (2 mi) of beach were created. New construction increased the road capacity of the city by 17%, the sewage handling capacity by 27% and the amount of new green areas and beaches by 78%. Between 1990 and 2004, the number of hotel rooms in the city doubled. Perhaps more importantly,

1562-434: A larger, national identity. All cultural activities were subject to censorship and many were forbidden entirely, often in an erratic manner. This cultural policy relaxed over time, most notably in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Franco was reluctant to enact any form of administrative and legislative decentralisation and kept a fully centralised form of government with a similar administrative structure to that established by

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1704-506: A long-lasting influence in the catholic universities of Chile. The Guildists, presenting themselves as apolitical, were highly critical of perceived detrimental ideological influences in the Church , corporations (e.g. trade unions) and the Christian Democratic Party . Already in the first days after the 1973 Chilean coup d'état Guzmán became advisor and speechwriter of dictator Augusto Pinochet . While writing

1846-499: A monarchy through the Ley de Sucesión en la Jefatura del Estado act, but did not designate a monarch. He had no particular desire for a king because of his strained relations with the legitimist heir to the Crown, Juan of Bourbon. Therefore, he left the throne vacant with himself as regent and set the basis for his succession. This gesture was largely done to appease monarchist factions within

1988-490: A nearby mountain. Barcelona averages 78 rainy days per year (≥ 1 mm), and annual average relative humidity is 72%, ranging from 69% in July to 75% in October. Rainfall totals are highest in late summer and autumn (September–November) and lowest in early and mid-summer (June–August), with a secondary winter minimum (February–March). Sunshine duration is 2,524 hours per year, from 138 (average 4.5 hours of sunshine

2130-590: A new wave of immigration (particularly from Latin America and from Morocco ) has gathered pace. In 1987, an ETA car bombing at Hipercor killed 21 people. On 17 August 2017, a van was driven into pedestrians on La Rambla , killing 14 and injuring at least 100, one of whom later died. Other attacks took place elsewhere in Catalonia. The Prime Minister of Spain, Mariano Rajoy , called the attack in Barcelona

2272-757: A result of these reforms, Spain was allowed to join the United Nations in 1955 and during the Cold War Franco was one of Europe's foremost anti-communist figures: his regime was assisted by the Western powers , particularly the United States. Franco died in 1975 at the age of 82. He restored the monarchy before his death and made his successor King Juan Carlos I , who would lead the Spanish transition to democracy . On 1 October 1936, Franco

2414-476: A scholar of Spain notes that "scarcely any of the serious historians and analysts of Franco consider the generalissimo to be a core fascist". According to historian Walter Laqueur "during the Civil War, Spanish fascists were forced to subordinate their activities to the nationalist cause. At the helm were military leaders such as General Francisco Franco, who were conservatives in all essential respects. When

2556-531: A single-party regime under the FET y de las JONS . The end of the war in 1939 brought the extension of the Franco rule to the whole country and the exile of Republican institutions . The Francoist dictatorship originally took a form described as "fascistized dictatorship", or "semi-fascist regime", showing clear influence of fascism in fields such as labor relations , the autarkic economic policy , aesthetics , and

2698-995: A specific variant of Fascism marked by the preponderance of the Catholic Church , the Armed Forces and Traditionalism. While the regime evolved along with its protracted history, its primitive essence remained, underpinned by the legal concentration of all powers into a single person, Francisco Franco, " Caudillo of Spain by the Grace of God", embodying national sovereignty and "only responsible before God and History". The consistent points in Francoism included above all authoritarianism , anti-Communism , Spanish nationalism , national Catholicism , monarchism , militarism , national conservatism , anti-Masonry , anti-Catalanism , pan-Hispanism , and anti-liberalism —some authors also include integralism . Stanley Payne ,

2840-601: A strength of about 400,000 men until the end of the Second World War . Spain attempted to retain control of the last remnants of its colonial empire throughout Franco's rule. During the Algerian War (1954–1962), Madrid became the base of the Organisation armée secrète right-wing French Army group which sought to preserve French Algeria . Despite this, Franco was forced to make some concessions. When

2982-621: A typical Mediterranean climate. However, both June and August are wetter than February, which is unusual for the Mediterranean climate. This subtype, labelled as "Portuguese" by the French geographer George Viers after the climate classification of Emmanuel de Martonne and found in the NW Mediterranean area (e.g. Marseille ), can be seen as transitional to the humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) found in inland areas. Barcelona

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3124-465: Is 26 °C (79 °F). Generally, the summer or "holiday" season lasts about six months, from May to October. Two months – April and November – are transitional; sometimes the temperature exceeds 20 °C (68 °F), with an average temperature of 18–19 °C (64–66 °F) during the day and 11–13 °C (52–55 °F) at night. December, January and February are the coldest months, with average temperatures around 15 °C (59 °F) during

3266-432: Is a city on the northeastern coast of Spain . It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia , as well as the second-most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within city limits, its urban area extends to numerous neighbouring municipalities within the province of Barcelona and is home to around 5.3 million people, making it the fifth most populous urban area of

3408-588: Is a major cultural, economic, and financial centre in southwestern Europe , as well as the main biotech hub in Spain. As a leading world city, Barcelona's influence in global socio-economic affairs qualifies it for global city status (Beta +). Barcelona is a transport hub , with the Port of Barcelona being one of Europe's principal seaports and busiest European passenger port, an international airport, Barcelona–El Prat Airport , which handles over 50 million passengers per year, an extensive motorway network , and

3550-401: Is densely populated, thus heavily influenced by the urban heat island effect . Areas outside of the urbanized districts can have as much as 2 °C of difference in temperatures throughout the year. Its average annual temperature is 21.2 °C (70.2 °F) during the day and 15.1 °C (59.2 °F) at night. The average annual temperature of the sea is about 20 °C (68 °F). In

3692-498: Is extremely uneven. Half of the municipality or 50.2 km , all of it located on the municipal edge is made up of the ten least densely populated neighbourhoods containing less than 10% of the city's population, the uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area and Montjuïc forest park. Leaving the remaining 90% or slightly below 1.5 million inhabitants living on the remaining 52 km (20 sq mi) at an average density close to 28,500 inhabitants per square kilometre. Of

3834-467: Is found at and around the neighbourhood of la Sagrada Família where four of the city's most densely populated neighbourhoods are located side by side, all with a population density above 50,000 inhabitants per square kilometre. In 1900, almost a third (28.9 percent) of the population were children (aged younger than 14 years). In 2017, this age group constituted only 12.7% of the population. In 2017, people aged between 15 and 24 years made up 9 percent of

3976-561: Is home to two of the most prestigious universities in Spain: the University of Barcelona and Pompeu Fabra University . The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean are located in Barcelona. The city is known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as world-class conferences and expositions . In addition, many international sport tournaments have been played here. Barcelona

4118-635: Is understood almost universally. Catalan is also very commonly spoken in the city: it is understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% can speak it, 79% can read it, and 53% can write it. Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to a language immersion educational system. After Catalan and Spanish, the most spoken languages in Barcelona are those from North Africa, such as Amazigh and Arabic , followed by Bengali , Urdu , Panjabi , Mandarin Chinese , Romanian , English, Russian and Quechua , according to data collected by

4260-474: The Guardia Civil , a military police for civilians, which functioned as a chief means of social control. Larger cities, and capitals, were mostly under the heavily armed Policía Armada , commonly called grises due to their grey uniforms. Franco was also the focus of a personality cult , which taught that he had been sent by Divine Providence to save the country from chaos and poverty. Members of

4402-404: The 1992 Summer Olympics . The process of urban regeneration has been rapid, and accompanied by a greatly increased international reputation of the city as a tourist destination. The increased cost of housing has led to a slight decline (−16.6%) in the population over the last two decades of the 20th century as many families move out into the suburbs. This decline has been reversed since 2001, as

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4544-616: The Allied landings in North Africa and the German occupation of France bringing hostilities closer than ever to Spain's border, Franco ordered a partial mobilization, bringing the army to over 750,000 men. The Air Force and Navy also grew in numbers and in budgets to 35,000 airmen and 25,000 sailors by 1945, although for fiscal reasons Franco had to restrain attempts by both services to undertake dramatic expansions. The army maintained

4686-549: The Basque Country fared much better than others such as Extremadura , Galicia or Andalusia . Franco eliminated the autonomy granted by the Second Spanish Republic to the regions and abolished the centuries-old fiscal privileges and autonomy (the fueros ) in two of the three Basque provinces: Guipuzcoa and Biscay , which were officially classified as "traitor regions". The fueros were kept in

4828-530: The Chicago Boys and writings such as The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism . In 1975 Pinochet and his wife Lucía Hiriart attended the funeral of Francisco Franco. When Pinochet died in 2006 supporters of late Francisco Franco paid homage in Spain. Antonio Tejero , who led the failed coup of 1981 , attended a memorial service in Madrid. For nearly twenty years after the war, Francoist Spain presented

4970-704: The Communist Party of Spain (PCE) went underground. University students seeking democracy revolted in the late 1960s and early 1970s, which was repressed by the grises . The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) went into exile and in 1959 the armed separatist group ETA was created to wage a low-intensity war against Franco. Like others at the time, Franco evinced a concern about a possible Masonic and Judaic conspiracy against his regime. Franco continued to personally sign all death warrants until just months before he died despite international campaigns requesting him to desist. Franco's Spanish nationalism promoted

5112-535: The Constitution of Chile of 1980 Jaime Guzmán studied the institutionalization of Francoism in Spain with the aim of preventing undesired reforms in future as it happened in Spain with the post-Franco constitution of 1977 . Josemaría Escrivá , the founder of Opus Dei , visited Chile 1974 after which Opus Dei begun to spread in the country. Opus Dei helped establish the University of the Andes in 1989. Both

5254-511: The Crown of Aragon , which conquered many overseas possessions and ruled the western Mediterranean Sea with outlying territories in Naples and Sicily and as far as Athens in the 13th century. Barcelona was the leading slave trade centre of the Crown of Aragon up until the 15th century, when it was eclipsed by Valencia . It initially fed from eastern and Balkan slave stock later drawing from

5396-765: The European Union after Paris , the Ruhr area, Madrid and Milan . It is one of the largest metropolises on the Mediterranean Sea , located on the coast between the mouths of the rivers Llobregat and Besòs , bounded to the west by the Serra de Collserola mountain range. According to tradition, Barcelona was founded by either the Phoenicians or the Carthaginians , who had trading posts along

5538-737: The French protectorate in Morocco became independent in 1956, Spain surrendered its Spanish protectorate in Morocco to Mohammed V , retaining only a few exclaves, the Plazas de soberanía . The year after, Mohammed V invaded Spanish Sahara during the Ifni War (known as the "Forgotten War" in Spain). Only in 1975, with the Green March and the military occupation, did Morocco take control of all of

5680-519: The House of Bourbon and General Miguel Primo de Rivera . These structures were modelled after the centralised French state. As a result of this type of governance, government attention and initiatives were irregular and often depended more on the goodwill of government representatives than on regional needs. Thus inequalities in schooling, health care or transport facilities among regions were patent: historically affluent regions like Madrid , Catalonia or

5822-652: The Ministry of Education . He held the post for 12 years, during which he finished the purging of the ministry begun by the Commission of Culture and Teaching headed by José María Pemán . Pemán led the Catholicizing state-sponsored schools and allocating generous funding to the Church's schools. Romualdo de Toledo , head of the National Service of Primary Education, was a traditionalist who described

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5964-472: The Opus Dei ensured professorships were offered only to the most faithful. The orphaned children of "Reds" were taught in orphanages run by priests and nuns that "their parents had committed great sins that they could help expiate, for which many were incited to serve the Church". Francoism professed a strong devotion to militarism, hypermasculinity and the traditional role of women in society. A woman

6106-534: The Philippines . There is a Japanese community clustered in Bonanova , Les Tres Torres , Pedralbes , and other northern neighbourhoods, and a Japanese international school serves that community. In 2007 most of the inhabitants stated they are Roman Catholic (208 churches). In a 2011 survey conducted by InfoCatólica, 49.5% of Barcelona residents of all ages identified themselves as Catholic . This

6248-585: The Second Spanish Republic later in the Spanish Civil War , until its capture by the fascists in 1939. After the Spanish transition to democracy in the 1970s, Barcelona once again became the capital of an autonomous Catalonia. Barcelona has a rich cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre and a major tourist destination. Particularly renowned are the architectural works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner , which have been designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites . The city

6390-659: The Spanish Civil War , the city, and Catalonia in general, were resolutely Republican. Many enterprises and public services were collectivized by the CNT and UGT unions. As the power of the Republican government and the Generalitat diminished, much of the city was under the effective control of anarchist groups. The anarchists lost control of the city to their own allies, the Communists and official government troops, after

6532-571: The Umayyads in the early 8th century, it was conquered after a siege in 801 by Charlemagne 's son Louis , who made Barcelona the seat of the Carolingian " Hispanic March " ( Marca Hispanica ), a buffer zone ruled by the Count of Barcelona . The Counts of Barcelona became increasingly independent and expanded their territory to include much of modern Catalonia , although in 985, Barcelona

6674-580: The compulsory national educational system and the development of modern mass media, both controlled by the state and exclusively in Spanish, reduced the competency of speakers of Basque, Catalan and Galician. Franco's regime often used religion as a means to increase its popularity throughout the Catholic world, especially after the Second World War. Franco himself was increasingly portrayed as

6816-536: The single-party system . As time went on, the regime opened up and became closer to developmental dictatorships, although it always preserved residual fascist trappings. During the Second World War , Spain did not join the Axis powers (its supporters from the civil war , Italy and Germany ). Nevertheless, Spain supported them in various ways throughout most of the war while maintaining its neutrality as an official policy of "non-belligerence". Because of this, Spain

6958-554: The 1950s and Spain abandoned autarky, reassigned authority from the Falangist movement , which had been prone to isolationism, to a new breed of economists, the technocrats of Opus Dei . This led to massive economic growth, second only to Japan , that lasted until the mid-1970s, known as the " Spanish miracle ". During the 1950s the regime also changed from being openly totalitarian and using severe repression to an authoritarian system with limited pluralism and economic freedom . As

7100-673: The 1960s and 1970s these restrictions were somewhat relaxed. However, from 1941 until well into the Spanish transition to democracy , the Women's Protection Board confined ten of thousands of girls and young women deemed 'fallen or at risk of falling', even without having committed any crime, in centers run by Catholic religious orders where they were routinely brutalized. They could be admitted to these centers starting at age 16 through police raids, for "immoral behavior," arbitrary reports from family members and individuals ("guardians of morals"), requests from civil and religious authorities, or at

7242-733: The 1970s the magazine was part of the Nadal Group. New categories were added over time to the award which were renamed Fotogramas de Plata and in 2012 they absorbed the TP de Oro awards. In 2011, the magazine was acquired by Hearst Communications . In 2018, Hearst closed the editorial office in Barcelona in order to centralize editing efforts in Madrid . Barcelona Barcelona ( / ˌ b ɑːr s ə ˈ l oʊ n ə / BAR -sə- LOH -nə ; Catalan: [bəɾsəˈlonə] ; Spanish: [baɾθeˈlona] )

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7384-580: The 1980s and 1990s as more people sought a higher quality of life in outlying cities in the Barcelona Metropolitan Area. After bottoming out in 2000 with 1,496,266 residents, the city's population began to rise again as younger people started to return, causing a great increase in housing prices. Spanish is the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it

7526-653: The 1990s, and similar to other migrants, many Latin Americans have settled in northern parts of the city. There exists a relatively large Pakistani community in Barcelona with up to twenty thousand nationals. The community consists of significantly more men than women. Many of the Pakistanis are living in Ciutat Vella . First Pakistani migrants came in the 1970s, with increasing numbers in the 1990s. Other significant migrant groups come from Asia as from China and

7668-439: The 2024–2026 term. This means it will be the hub for discussion around global challenges including culture, heritage, urban planning and architecture. In addition to being the capital through 2026, it will also host the UIA World Congress of Architects for that year. The honour is befitting of Barcelona, as its history is peppered with architectural achievement and various iconic styles and influences. From its ancient Roman roots, to

7810-514: The 73 neighbourhoods in the city, 45 had a population density above 20,000 inhabitants per square kilometre with a combined population of 1,313,424 inhabitants living on 38.6 km at an average density of 33,987 inhabitants per square kilometre. The 30 most densely populated neighbourhoods accounted for 57.5% of the city population occupying only 22.7% of the municipality, or in other words, 936,406 people living at an average density of 40,322 inhabitants per square kilometre. The city's highest density

7952-403: The Catalans, shortly before the dynastic union between the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1492. Barcelona became the centre of Catalan separatism , briefly becoming part of France during the 17th century Reapers' War and again in 1812 until 1814 under Napoleon . It was the capital of Revolutionary Catalonia during the Spanish Revolution of 1936 , and the seat of government of

8094-403: The Catalonian coast. In particular, some historians attribute the foundation of the city directly to the historical Carthaginian general, Hamilcar Barca , father of Hannibal , who supposedly named the city Barcino after his family in the 3rd century BC, but this theory has been questioned. Archeological evidence in the form of coins from the 3rd century BC have been found on the hills at

8236-462: The Catalonian coast. In the Middle Ages Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona . After joining with the Kingdom of Aragon to form the confederation of the Crown of Aragon , Barcelona, which continued to be the capital of the Principality of Catalonia , became the most important city in the Crown of Aragon and the main economic and administrative centre of the Crown, only to be overtaken by Valencia , wrested from Moorish control by

8378-484: The Catholic Church, which traditionally supported the social subordination of women, had preeminence in all aspects of public and private life in Spain. The Catholic Church had a central role in upholding the traditional role of the family and women's place in it. Civil marriage had also been introduced in the country during the Republic, so the Church immediately asked the new Franco regime to restore its control of family and marriage laws. All Spanish women were required by

8520-423: The Civil War's momentum of mass mobilisation through their auxiliaries and trade unions by collecting denunciations of enemy residents and recruiting workers into the trade unions. While there were prominent Falangists at a senior government level, especially before the late 1940s, there were higher concentrations of monarchists, military officials and other traditional conservative factions at those levels. However,

8662-401: The Eixample district, but the iconic octagonal superblocks with chamfered corners for better visibility are his direct brainchild and remain immensely helpful even 170 years later. The district and its ideals were not appreciated at the time. The city council awarded the design of the extension plan to another architect. The Spanish government was the one to step in and impose Cerdà's plan, laying

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8804-419: The Europe-wide post-war economic normality centred on mass consumption and consensus, in contrast to the concurrent reality of the Soviet bloc". On 26 July 1947, Spain was declared a kingdom, but no monarch was designated until in 1969 Franco established Juan Carlos of Bourbon as his official heir-apparent. Franco was to be succeeded by Luis Carrero Blanco as Prime Minister with the intention of continuing

8946-486: The Falange remained the sole party. The Francoists took control of Spain through a comprehensive and methodical war of attrition ( guerra de desgaste ) which involved the imprisonment and executions of Spaniards found guilty of supporting the values promoted by the Republic: regional autonomy, liberal or social democracy, free elections, socialist leanings, and women's rights, including the vote. The right-wing considered these "enemy elements" to comprise an "anti-Spain" that

9088-467: The Falange was declared the sole legally sanctioned political party in Spain and it asserted itself as the main component of the National Movement. In a state of emergency -like status, Franco ruled with, on paper, more power than any Spanish leader before or since. He was not even required to consult his cabinet for most legislation. According to historian Stanley G. Payne , Franco had more day-to-day power than Adolf Hitler or Joseph Stalin possessed at

9230-438: The Franco regime recognition until it developed a more representative government. The Falange Española de las JONS , a fascist party formed during the Republic, soon transformed itself into the framework of reference in the National Movement. In April 1937, the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista (Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx and of the Councils of National Syndicalist Offensive)

9372-419: The Francoist regime, but those hopes ended with his 1973 assassination by the Basque separatist group ETA . With the death of Franco on 20 November 1975, Juan Carlos became the King of Spain . He initiated the country's subsequent transition to democracy , ending with Spain becoming a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament and autonomous devolved governments. After Franco's victory in 1939,

9514-528: The Gothic and Modernisme movements, Barcelona has thrived through the way it ties together architecture and culture. Barcelona is located on the northeast coast of the Iberian Peninsula , facing the Mediterranean Sea , on a plain approximately 5 km (3 mi) wide limited by the mountain range of Collserola , the Llobregat river to the southwest and the Besòs river to the north. This plain covers an area of 170 km (66 sq mi), of which 101 km (39.0 sq mi) are occupied by

9656-414: The Law of Succession). In 1973, due to old age and to lessen his burdens in governing Spain he resigned as Prime Minister and named Navy Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco to the said post, but Franco remained as the Chief of State, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and Jefe del Movimiento (Chief of the Movement). However, Carrero Blanco was assassinated in the same year and Carlos Arias Navarro became

9798-418: The Movement. At the same time, Franco wore the uniform of a captain-general (a rank traditionally reserved for the King), resided in the Royal Palace of El Pardo , appropriated the kingly privilege of walking beneath a canopy and his portrait appeared on most Spanish coins. Indeed, although his formal titles were Jefe del Estado (Head of State) and Generalísimo de los Ejércitos Españoles (Generalissimo of

9940-532: The Republic be relatively safe from imprisonment or unemployment. After the death of Franco, the price of the peaceful transition to democracy would be silence and "the tacit agreement to forget the past", which was given legal status by the 1977 Pact of forgetting . Civil marriages that had taken place in the Republic were declared null and void unless they had been validated by the Church, along with divorces. Divorce , contraception and abortions were forbidden. Children had to be given Christian names. Franco

10082-507: The Republic had granted them for the first time in the history of Spain. The former policy of promoting Spanish as the only official language of the state and education was resumed, even though millions of the country's citizens spoke other languages. The legal usage of languages other than Spanish was forbidden: all government, notarial, legal and commercial documents were to be drawn up exclusively in Spanish and any written in other languages were deemed null and void. The use of any other language

10224-476: The Republican government. Massive, but peaceful, demonstrations on 11 September 1977 assembled over a million people in the streets of Barcelona to call for the restoration of Catalan autonomy. It was granted less than a month later. The development of Barcelona was promoted by two events in 1986: Spanish accession to the European Community , and particularly Barcelona's designation as host city of

10366-582: The Roman walls have been incorporated into the cathedral. The cathedral, Catedral Basílica Metropolitana de Barcelona, is also sometimes called La Seu , which simply means cathedral (and see, among other things) in Catalan. It is said to have been founded in 343. The city was conquered by the Visigoths in the early 5th century, becoming for a few years the capital of all Hispania . After being conquered by

10508-480: The Romans, it was a colony with the surname of Faventia , or, in full, Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino or Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino . Pomponius Mela mentions it among the small towns of the district, probably as it was eclipsed by its neighbour Tarraco (modern Tarragona ), but it may be gathered from later writers that it gradually grew in wealth and consequence, favoured as it

10650-471: The Spanish Armies), he was referred to as Caudillo of Spain , by the Grace of God . Por la Gracia de Dios is a technical, legal formulation which states sovereign dignity in absolute monarchies and had been used only by monarchs before. The long-delayed selection of Juan Carlos of Bourbon as Franco's official successor in 1969 was an unpleasant surprise for many interested parties as Juan Carlos

10792-477: The University of Barcelona. Barcelona is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. For the year 2008 the city council calculated the population to 1,621,090 living in the 102.2 km sized municipality, giving the city an average population density of 15,926 inhabitants per square kilometre with Eixample being the most populated district. In the case of Barcelona though, the land distribution

10934-431: The University of the Andes and the political party Independent Democratic Union , founded in 1983 by Guzmán, have a Francoist heritage. In the 1970s Pinochet's dictatorship organized ritualized acts reminiscent of Francoist Spain, notably Acto de Chacarillas . After 1980 Francoist influence gave way to economic liberalism . Even Guzmán, once clearly influenced by Francoist corporatism , adopted economic liberalism from

11076-437: The base of the construction of the "communist menace" as a modern-day Eastern plague". The official position was therefore that the wartime Republic was simply a proto-Stalinist monolith, its leaders intent on creating a Spanish Soviet satellite. Many Spanish children grew up believing the war was fought against foreigners and the painter Julian Grau Santos has said "it was instilled in me and I always believed that Spain had won

11218-673: The city is Barna . Barça is only applied to the local football club FC Barcelona , not to the city. Another common abbreviation is 'BCN', which is also the IATA airport code of the Barcelona-El Prat Airport . The city is referred to as the Ciutat Comtal in Catalan and Ciudad Condal in Spanish (i.e., "Comital City" or "City of Counts"), owing to its past as the seat of the Count of Barcelona . The origin of

11360-477: The city itself. It is 120 km (75 mi) south of the Pyrenees and the Catalan border with France. Tibidabo , 512 m (1,680 ft) high, offers striking views over the city and is topped by the 288.4 m (946.2 ft) Torre de Collserola , a telecommunications tower that is visible from most of the city. Barcelona is peppered with small hills, most of them urbanized, that gave their name to

11502-599: The city may have been named after the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca , who was supposed to have founded the city in the 3rd century BC, but there is no evidence its name in antiquity, Barcino , was connected with the Barcid family of Hamilcar. During the Middle Ages , the city was variously known as Barchinona , Barçalona , Barchelonaa , and Barchenona . An abbreviated form sometimes used by locals for

11644-457: The civil war ended, Franco was so deeply entrenched that the Falange stood no chance; in this strongly authoritarian regime, there was no room for political opposition. The Falange became junior partners in the government and, as such, they had to accept responsibility for the regime's policy without being able to shape it substantially". The United Nations Security Council voted in 1946 to deny

11786-411: The coldest month, January, the temperature typically ranges from 12 to 18 °C (54 to 64 °F) during the day, 6 to 12 °C (43 to 54 °F) at night and the average sea temperature is 13 °C (55 °F). In the warmest month, August, the typical temperature ranges from 27 to 31 °C (81 to 88 °F) during the day, about 23 °C (73 °F) at night and the average sea temperature

11928-462: The conflict as a crusade against Bolshevism in defence of Christian civilization. In Francoist narrative, authoritarianism had defeated anarchy and overseen the elimination of "agitators", those "without God" and the " Judeo-Masonic conspiracy ". Since Franco had relied on thousands of North African soldiers, anti-Islamic sentiment "was played down but the centuries-old myth of the Moorish threat lay at

12070-404: The country's citizens". The Law of Political Responsibility of February 1939 turned the Church into an extralegal body of investigation as parishes were granted policing powers equal to those of local government officials and leaders of the Falange. Some official jobs required a "good behaviour" statement by a priest. According to historian Julian Casanova, "the reports that have survived reveal

12212-540: The country's new Prime Minister. During the first year of peace, Franco dramatically reduced the size of the Spanish Army —from almost one million at the end of the Civil War to 250,000 in early 1940, with most soldiers two-year conscripts. Concerns about the international situation, Spain's possible entry into World War II , and threats of invasion led him to undo some of these reductions. In November 1942, with

12354-484: The day and 9 °C (48 °F) at night. Large fluctuations in temperature are rare, particularly in the summer months. Because of the proximity to the warm sea plus the urban heat island , frosts are very rare in the city of Barcelona. Snow is also very infrequent in the city of Barcelona, but light snowfalls can occur yearly in the nearby Collserola mountains, such as in the Fabra Observatory located in

12496-761: The development of strong antisemitism. Primo de Rivera saw the solution to the "Jewish problem" in Spain as simple: the conversion of Jews to Catholicism. At the end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the regime's own figures there were more than 270,000 men and women held in prisons and some 500,000 had fled into exile . Large numbers of those captured were returned to Spain or interned in Nazi concentration camps as stateless enemies . Between six and seven thousand exiles from Spain died in Mauthausen . It has been estimated that more than 200,000 Spaniards died in

12638-404: The earliest settlement at the site of present-day Barcelona is unclear. The ruins of an early settlement have been found, including different tombs and dwellings dating to earlier than 5000 BC. In Greek mythology, the founding of Barcelona had been attributed to the mythological Hercules . According to tradition, Barcelona was founded by Punic ( Phoenician ) settlers, who had trading posts along

12780-420: The economy managed to achieve a balance between production capacity and imports. In the context of the wider early recovery of Catalonia from the 17th-century crisis in the second half of the century, increasing maritime activity since 1675 doubled traffic in the port of Barcelona compared to figures from the beginning of the 17th century. In the late 17th and early 18th century, Barcelona repeatedly endured

12922-472: The effects of war, including the 1691 bombing, the sieges of 1697, 1704, 1705, 1706, and the 1713 blockade and ensuing 1714 siege and assault. In the 18th century, the population grew from 30,000 to about 100,000 inhabitants, as the city became one of the key mercantile centres in the Western Mediterranean, with inland influence up to Zaragoza , and to the south up to Alicante . A fortress

13064-552: The end of hostilities in 1945, in the face of which Franco's strong anti-communism naturally tilted its regime to ally with the United States. Independent political parties and trade unions were banned throughout the duration of the dictatorship. Nevertheless, once decrees for economic stabilisation were put forth by the late 1950s, the way was opened for massive foreign investment—"a watershed in post-war economic, social and ideological normalisation leading to extraordinarily rapid economic growth "—that marked Spain's "participation in

13206-465: The first years of the dictatorship from 1940 to 1942 as a result of political persecution, hunger and disease related to the conflict. Spain's strong ties with the Axis resulted in its international ostracism in the early years following World War II as Spain was not a founding member of the United Nations and did not become a member until 1955. This changed with the Cold War that soon followed

13348-628: The foot of Montjuïc with the name Bárkeno written in an ancient script in the Iberian language . Thus, we can conclude that the Laietani , an ancient Iberian (pre-Roman) people of the Iberian peninsula, who inhabited the area occupied by the city of Barcelona around 3–2 BC , called the area Bàrkeno, which means "The Place of the Plains" (Barrke = plains/terrace). In about 15 BC, the Romans redrew

13490-536: The former Spanish territories in the Sahara. In 1968, under United Nations pressure, Franco granted Spain's colony of Equatorial Guinea its independence and the next year ceded the exclave of Ifni to Morocco . Under Franco, Spain also pursued a campaign to gain sovereignty of the British overseas territory of Gibraltar and closed its border in 1969. The border would not be fully reopened until 1985. Initially

13632-484: The fortress is a museum and Montjuïc is home to several sporting and cultural venues, as well as Barcelona's biggest park and gardens . The city borders on the municipalities of Santa Coloma de Gramenet and Sant Adrià de Besòs to the north; the Mediterranean Sea to the east; El Prat de Llobregat and L'Hospitalet de Llobregat to the south; and Sant Feliu de Llobregat , Sant Just Desvern , Esplugues de Llobregat , Sant Cugat del Vallès , and Montcada i Reixac to

13774-513: The government television network, debuted in 1956. The Roman Catholic Church had its own media outlets, including the Ya newspaper and the Cadena COPE radio network. Other pro-government media included Cadena SER , ABC , La Vanguardia Española , El Correo and El Diario Vasco . Notable independent media outlets included humour magazine La Codorniz . The 1966 Press Law dropped

13916-575: The government was not responsible to it: ministers were appointed and dismissed by Franco alone as the "Chief" of state and government. The Ley del Referendum Nacional (Law of the National Referendum), passed in 1945 approved for all "fundamental laws" to be approved by a popular referendum, in which only the heads of families could vote. Local municipal councils were appointed similarly by heads of families and local corporations through local municipal elections while mayors were appointed by

14058-654: The government. It was thus one of the most centralised countries in Europe and certainly the most centralised in Western Europe following the fall of the Portuguese Estado Novo in the Carnation Revolution . The referendum law was used twice during Franco's rule—in 1947, when a referendum revived the Spanish monarchy with Franco as de facto regent for life with sole right to appoint his successor; and in 1966, another referendum

14200-555: The groundwork for many more tensions between the Spanish and Catalan administrations. Regardless, some of the upper class citizens of Barcelona were excited by the new plan and began a race to build "the biggest, tallest, most attractive house" in the district. Their interest and money fueled the rich diversity that we now see in the district's architecture. In the end, Cerdà's ideas would have a lasting impact on Barcelona's development, earning it international recognition for its highly efficient approach to urban planning and design. During

14342-441: The latter having inner backing from within the regime. During the Cold War , Juan José Linz , either accused of whitewashing the regime or being praised as the elaborator of "the first scientific conceptualization" of the regime, famously early characterized it as an "authoritarian regime with limited pluralism". The Francoist regime has been described by other scholars as a " Fascismo a la española " ("Spanish-style Fascism") or as

14484-455: The model school as "the monastery founded by Saint Benedict ". The clergy in charge of the education system sanctioned and sacked thousands of teachers of the progressive left and divided Spain's schools up among the families of falangists, loyalist soldiers and Catholic families. In some provinces, like Lugo , practically all the teachers were dismissed. This process also affected tertiary education, as Ibáñez Martín, Catholic propagandists and

14626-473: The neighbourhoods built upon them, such as Carmel (267 m or 876 ft), Putxet (es) (181 m or 594 ft) and Rovira (261 m or 856 ft). The escarpment of Montjuïc (173 m or 568 ft), situated to the southeast, overlooks the harbour and is topped by Montjuïc Castle , a fortress built in the 17–18th centuries to control the city as a replacement for the Ciutadella. Today,

14768-603: The oppressed ranged from Catholic trade unions to communist and anarchist organisations to liberal democrats and Catalan or Basque separatists. The Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) trade unions were outlawed and replaced in 1940 by the corporatist Sindicato Vertical . The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC) party were banned in 1939 while

14910-413: The outside perception of the city was changed making, by 2012, Barcelona the 12th most popular city destination in the world and the 5th amongst European cities. The death of Franco in 1975 brought on a period of democratization throughout Spain. Pressure for change was particularly strong in Barcelona, which considered that it had been punished during nearly forty years of Francoism for its support of

15052-688: The passing of the organic law of 1942 and the Ley Constitutiva de las Cortes (Constituent Law of the Cortes) the same year, which saw the grand opening of the Cortes Españolas on 18 July 1942. The Organic Law made the executive government ultimately responsible for passing all laws, while defining the Cortes as a purely advisory body elected by neither direct nor universal suffrage. The Cortes had no power over government spending, and

15194-742: The period prior to 1980. Traditionalist historian Jaime Eyzaguirre was an admirer of Francoist Spain. The lawyer Jaime Guzmán, once a student of Eyzaguirre, helped establishing the Francoist-influenced Guildist Movement at the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile in the 1960s. This has been interpreted as a reaction inspired in Francoist corporatism against elements of the Chilean university reform . The movement rapidly gained

15336-463: The population; those aged between 25 and 44 years made up 30.6 percent of the population; while those aged between 45 and 64 years formed 56.9% of all Barcelonans. In 1900, people aged 65 and older made up just 6.5 percent of the population. In 2017, this age group made up 21.5 percent of the population. In 2016, about 59% of the inhabitants of the city were born in Catalonia and 18.5% coming from

15478-455: The proper authorities who the leftists are in your department and everything you know about their activities". A law passed in 1939 institutionalised the purging of public offices. The poet Carlos Barral recorded that in his family "any allusion to republican relatives was scrupulously avoided; everyone took part in the enthusiasm for the new era and wrapped themselves in the folds of religiosity". Only through silence could people associated with

15620-469: The regime embraced the definition of a " totalitarian state " or the nacional-sindicalista label. Following the defeat of Fascism in World War II, "organic democracy"  [ es ] was the new moniker the regime adopted for itself, yet it only sounded credible to staunch believers. Other later soft definitions include "authoritarian regime" or "constituent or developmental dictatorship",

15762-481: The regime evolved and changed during its existence. Months after the start of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936, Franco emerged as the dominant rebel military leader and was proclaimed head of state on 1 October 1936, ruling a dictatorship over the territory controlled by the Nationalist faction . The 1937 Unification Decree , which merged all parties supporting the rebel side, led to Nationalist Spain becoming

15904-456: The request of the women themselves or their parents. In practice, girls as young as 11 were forcibly interned. Young women and girls were routinely trafficked to men and forced to bear children, only to have their babies stolen immediately afterwards. Francoism had an influence abroad in Chile, where it found clear expressions in the military dictatorship era (1973–1990), in particular in

16046-476: The respective heights of their power. Payne noted that Hitler and Stalin at least maintained rubber-stamp parliaments, while Franco dispensed with even that formality in the early years of his rule. According to Payne, the lack of even a rubber-stamp parliament made Franco's government "the most purely arbitrary in the world." The 100-member National Council of the Movement served as a makeshift legislature until

16188-507: The rest of the country. In addition to that, 22.5% of the population was born outside of Spain, a proportion which has more than doubled since 2001 and more than quintupled since 1996 when it was 8.6% and 3.9% respectively. The most important region of origin of migrants is Europe, with many coming from Italy (26,676) or France (13,506). Moreover, many migrants come from Latin American nations such as Bolivia , Ecuador or Colombia . Since

16330-470: The restoration of a Bourbon) nor the republican "old shirts" (original Falangists). Franco ignored the claim to the throne of Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona , son of the last king, Alfonso XIII , who designated himself as his heir; Franco found him too liberal. Instead, in 1969, Franco selected the young Juan Carlos of Bourbon , son of Infante Juan, as his officially designated heir to the throne, shortly after his 30th birthday (the minimum age required under

16472-506: The rise and any outbreaks of disease would devastate the population. To solve the issue, a civil engineer named Ildefons Cerdà proposed a plan for a new district known as the Eixample . The citizens of Barcelona had begun to demolish the medieval wall surrounding and constricting the city. Cerdà thought it best to transform the land outside the walls into an area characterized by a scientific approach to urbanization. His proposal consisted of

16614-428: The role of women to family care and motherhood. Immediately after the civil war most progressive laws passed by the Republic aimed at equality between the sexes were nullified. Women could not become judges or testify in a trial. Their affairs and economic lives had to be managed by their fathers and husbands. Until the 1970s, a woman could not open a bank account without having it co-signed by her father or husband. In

16756-499: The state to serve for six months in the Women's Section ( Sección Femenina ), the female branch of the Falange state party, to undergo training for motherhood along with political indoctrination. Francoism professed a devotion to the traditional role of a woman in society; that is, being a loving daughter and sister to her parents and brothers, being a faithful wife to her husband, and residing with her family. Official propaganda confined

16898-469: The street fighting of the Barcelona May Days . The fall of the city on 26 January 1939, caused a mass exodus of civilians who fled to the French border. The resistance of Barcelona to Franco 's coup d'état was to have lasting effects after the defeat of the Republican government. The autonomous institutions of Catalonia were abolished, and the use of the Catalan language in public life

17040-558: The term "party" was generally avoided, especially after World War II, when it was commonly referred to as the "National Movement" or just as "the Movement". The main point of those scholars that tend to consider the Spanish State to be authoritarian rather than fascist is that the FET-JONS were relatively heterogeneous rather than being an ideological monolith. After World War II , the Falange opposed free capital markets, but

17182-598: The third Basque province, Alava , and also in Navarre , a former kingdom during the Middle Ages and the cradle of the Carlists, possibly due to the region's support during the Civil War. Franco also used language politics in an attempt to establish national homogeneity. Despite Franco himself being Galician, the government revoked the official statute and recognition for the Basque , Galician and Catalan languages that

17324-558: The town as a castrum (Roman military camp) centred on the " Mons Taber ", a little hill near the Generalitat (Catalan Government) and city hall buildings. The Roman Forum, at the crossing of the Cardo Maximus and Decumanus Maximus , was approximately placed where current Plaça de Sant Jaume is. Thus, the political centre of the city, Catalonia , and its domains has remained in the same place for over 2,000 years. Under

17466-502: The ultimately prevailing technocrats , some of whom were linked with Opus Dei , eschewed syndicalist economics and favoured increased competition as a means of achieving rapid economic growth and integration with wider Europe. The Spanish State was authoritarian: Non-government trade unions and all political opponents across the political spectrum were either suppressed or controlled by all means, including police repression. Most country towns and rural areas were patrolled by pairs of

17608-401: The urban area was 4,840,000. It is the central nucleus of the Barcelona metropolitan area , which relies on a population of 5,474,482. In 1900, Barcelona had a population of 533,000, which grew steadily but slowly until 1950, when it started absorbing a high number of people from other less-industrialized parts of Spain. Barcelona's population peaked in 1979 at 1,906,998, and fell throughout

17750-607: The war against foreign enemies of our historic greatness". About 6,832 Catholic clergy were murdered by the Republicans. Collectively, they are known as the martyrs of the Spanish Civil War . Under the 1938 Press Law, all newspapers were put under prior censorship and were forced to include any articles the government desired. Chief editors were nominated by the government and all journalists were required to be registered. All liberal, republican and left-wing media were prohibited. The Delegación Nacional de Prensa y Propaganda

17892-476: The west. The municipality includes two small sparsely-inhabited exclaves to the north-west. According to the Köppen climate classification , Barcelona has a hot summer Mediterranean climate ( Csa ), with mild winters and warm to hot summers, while the rainiest seasons are autumn and spring. The rainfall pattern is characterized by a short (3 months) dry season in summer, as well as less winter rainfall than in

18034-415: Was isolated by many other countries for nearly a decade after World War II, while its autarkic economy, still trying to recover from the civil war , suffered from chronic depression. The 1947 Law of Succession made Spain a de jure kingdom again, but defined Franco as the head of state for life with the power to choose the person to become King of Spain and his successor. Reforms were implemented in

18176-489: Was sacked by the army of Almanzor . The sack was so traumatic that most of Barcelona's population was either killed or enslaved. In 1137, Aragon and the County of Barcelona merged in dynastic union by the marriage of Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronilla of Aragon , their titles finally borne by only one person when their son Alfonso II of Aragon ascended to the throne in 1162. His territories were later to be known as

18318-492: Was built at Montjuïc that overlooked the harbour. Much of Barcelona was negatively affected by the Napoleonic wars , but the start of industrialization saw the fortunes of the province improve. In the mid-1850s, Barcelona was struggling with population density as it became an industrial, port city and European capital. The city's density was at 856 people per hectare, more than double that of Paris. Mortality rates were on

18460-618: Was created from the absorption of the Comunión Tradicionalista (Traditionalist Communion) by the Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista , which itself was the result of an earlier absorption of the Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista by José Antonio Primo de Rivera's Falange Española . This party, often referred to as Falange, became the sole legal party during Franco's regime, but

18602-417: Was established as a network of government media, including daily newspapers Diario Arriba and Pueblo . The EFE and Pyresa government news agencies were created in 1939 and 1945. The Radio Nacional de España state radio had the exclusive right to transmit news bulletins, which all broadcasters were required to air. The No-Do were 10-minute newsreels shown at all cinemas. The Televisión Española ,

18744-760: Was executed in November 1936 by the Republican government . He merged it with the Carlist Comunión Tradicionalista to form the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS . The sole legal party of Francoist Spain, it was the main component of the Movimiento Nacional (National Movement). The Falangists were concentrated at local government and grassroot level, entrusted with harnessing

18886-402: Was forbidden in schools, advertising, religious ceremonies and on-road and shop signs. Publications in other languages were generally forbidden, though citizens continued to use them privately. During the late 1960s, these policies became more lenient yet non-Castilian languages continued to be discouraged and did not receive official status or legal recognition. Additionally, the popularisation of

19028-705: Was formally recognised as Caudillo of Spain —the Spanish equivalent of the Italian Duce and the German Führer —by the Junta de Defensa Nacional ( National Defense Junta ), which governed the territories occupied by the Nationalists . In April 1937, Franco assumed control of the Falange Española de las JONS , then led by Manuel Hedilla , who had succeeded José Antonio Primo de Rivera , who

19170-403: Was held to approve a new " organic law ", or constitution, supposedly limiting and clearly defining Franco's powers as well as formally creating the modern office of Prime Minister of Spain . By delaying the issue of republic versus monarchy for his 36-year dictatorship and by refusing to take up the throne himself in 1947, Franco sought to antagonise neither the monarchical Carlists (who preferred

19312-614: Was made a member of the Supreme Order of Christ by Pope Pius XII whilst Spain itself was consecrated to the Sacred Heart . The Catholic Church's ties with the Franco dictatorship gave it control over the country's schools and crucifixes were once again placed in schoolrooms. After the war, Franco chose José Ibáñez Martín , a member of the National Catholic Association of Propagandists, to lead

19454-564: Was suppressed. Barcelona remained the second largest city in Spain, at the heart of a region which was relatively industrialized and prosperous, despite the devastation of the civil war. The result was a large-scale immigration from poorer regions of Spain (particularly Andalusia , Murcia and Galicia ), which in turn led to rapid urbanization. In 1992, Barcelona hosted the Summer Olympics . The after-effects of this are credited with driving major changes in what had, up until then, been

19596-508: Was the first time that more than half of respondents did not identify themselves as Catholic Christians. The numbers reflect a broader trend in Spain whereby the numbers of self-identified Catholics have declined. In 2019, a survey by Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas showed that 53.2% of residents in Barcelona identified themselves as Catholic (9.9% practising Catholics, 43.3% non-practising Catholics). Francoist Spain The nature of

19738-720: Was the product of Bolsheviks and a " Judeo-Masonic conspiracy ". The latter allegation pre-dated Falangism, having evolved after the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula from the Islamic Moors . Falangist founder, Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera, had a more tolerant position than the national socialists in Germany. This was influenced by the small size of the Jewish community in Spain at the time that did not favor

19880-573: Was the rightful heir for neither the Carlists nor the Legitimists. Women had first been granted the right to vote in Spain during the Second Republic. Under the new constitution they had gained full legal status and equal access to the labor market, abortion had been legalized and the crime of adultery abolished. The Franco regime's embrace of National Catholicism ( nacionalcatolicismo ) as part of its ideological identity meant that

20022-500: Was to be loving to her parents and brothers, faithful to her husband and to reside with her family. Official propaganda confined women's roles to family care and motherhood. Most progressive laws passed by the Second Republic were declared void. Women could not become judges, or testify in the trial. They could not become university professors. In the 1960s and 1970s, there was increasing liberalization, yet such measures would continue until Franco's death. In 1947, Franco proclaimed Spain

20164-652: Was with a beautiful situation and an excellent harbour. It enjoyed immunity from imperial burdens. The city minted its own coins; some from the era of Galba survive. Important Roman vestiges are displayed in Plaça del Rei underground, as a part of the Barcelona City History Museum (MUHBA); the typically Roman grid plan is still visible today in the layout of the historical centre, the Barri Gòtic (Gothic Quarter). Some remaining fragments of

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