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117-484: The fall armyworm ( Spodoptera frugiperda ) is a species in the order Lepidoptera and one of the species of the fall armyworm moths distinguished by their larval life stage. The term "armyworm" can refer to several species, often describing the large-scale invasive behavior of the species' larval stage. It is regarded as a pest and can damage and destroy a wide variety of crops , which causes large economic damage. Its scientific name derives from frugiperda, which

234-508: A divergence into two separate species. These two strains have major genetic differences that are connected to the plants they feed on, even though both still exist in the same area ( sympatric speciation ). These two strains can be loosely categorized into a rice strain and a corn strain. This separation is occurring because of differences in habitat (preferred host plant ), and differences in reproductive behavior. The reproductive differences can be divided into two categories: difference in

351-514: A larva , a pupa , and an imago or adult. The larvae are commonly called caterpillars , and the pupae of moths encapsulated in silk are called cocoons , while the uncovered pupae of butterflies are called chrysalides . Unless the species reproduces year-round, a butterfly or moth may enter diapause , a state of dormancy that allows the insect to survive unfavorable environmental conditions. Males usually start eclosion (emergence) earlier than females and peak in numbers before females. Both of

468-457: A lepidopterist . Butterflies and moths are mostly herbivorous ( folivorous ) as caterpillars and nectarivorous as adults. They play an important role in the natural ecosystem as pollinators and serve as primary consumers in the food chain ; conversely, their larvae (caterpillars) are considered very problematic to vegetation in agriculture, as they consume large quantity of plant matter (mostly foliage ) to sustain growth. In many species,

585-415: A 0-day pre-harvest interval (see: maximum residue limit ), success under moderate to severe disease pressure, and the ability to use as a tank mix or in a rotational program with other fungicides. Because some market studies estimate that as much as 20% of global fungicide sales are directed at downy mildew diseases, the integration of biofungicides into grape production has substantial benefits by extending

702-504: A European RNA partner. Startup Forest Innovations is investigating RNAi as a solution to citrus greening disease that in 2014 caused 22 percent of oranges in Florida to fall off the trees. Mycopesticides include fungi and fungi cell components. Propagules such as conidia, blastospores, chlamydospores, oospores, and zygospores have been evaluated, along with hydrolytic enzyme mixtures. The role of hydrolytic enzymes especially chitinases in

819-611: A brown or gray forewing , and a white hindwing . There is slight sexual dimorphism , with males having more patterns and a distinct white spot on each of their forewings. The first larval instar is light colored with a larger dark head. As they develop through instars, they become browner with white lengthwise lines. They also develop dark spots with spines. The fall armyworm is widely distributed in eastern and central North America and in South America. It cannot survive overwinter in below freezing temperatures, so it only survives

936-645: A caterpillar-specific virus packaged as Fawligen biopesticide was approved under emergency regulations in 2020 to help control the armyworm, and the parasitoid wasp Trichogramma pretiosum is also used. Directorate of plant protection Quarantine and storage, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt of India regularly issues advisories from time to time to manage the menace of Fall Army Worm in India. Lepidoptera Aglossata Glossata Heterobathmiina Zeugloptera Lepidoptera ( / ˌ l ɛ p ɪ ˈ d ɒ p t ər ə / LEP -ih- DOP -tər-ə ) or lepidopterans

1053-511: A cost-effective tool in combating the pest, compatible with eco-friendly management practices, although further studies were required. Farmers in Australia have struggled to control the pest which has been destroying crops, prompting concerns about potential food shortages which could cause an increase in food prices for consumers. The N. rileyi research has given them hope that this can be avoided. The fall armyworm may be presently undergoing

1170-771: A divergence of a species into different morphs. A good example is the Indian white admiral Limenitis procris , which has five forms, each geographically separated from the other by large mountain ranges. An even more dramatic showcase of geographical polymorphism is the Apollo butterfly ( Parnassius apollo ). Because the Apollos live in small local populations, thus having no contact with each other, coupled with their strong stenotopic nature and weak migration ability, interbreeding between populations of one species practically does not occur; by this, they form over 600 different morphs, with

1287-516: A few millimeters long, to conspicuous animals with a wingspan greater than 25 centimetres (9.8 in), such as the Queen Alexandra's birdwing and Atlas moth . Lepidopterans undergo a four-stage life cycle : egg ; larva or caterpillar ; pupa or chrysalis ; and imago (plural: imagines) / adult and show many variations of the basic body structure, which give these animals advantages for diverse lifestyles and environments. The head

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1404-492: A form of acoustic courtship, or attract mates using sound or vibration such as the polka-dot wasp moth, Syntomeida epilais . Adaptations include undergoing one seasonal generation, two or even more, called voltinism (Univoltism, bivoltism, and multivism, respectively). Most lepidopterans in temperate climates are univoltine, while in tropical climates most have two seasonal broods. Some others may take advantage of any opportunity they can get, and mate continuously throughout

1521-663: A heavy infestation of fall armyworm was recorded in corn plantations in Sri Lanka . The pest was first detected in China in the southwest province of Yunnan in January 2019 (or June 2019). Through 2019, the pest infested a total of 26 provinces. The armyworm is expected in 2020 to hit China's Northeast wheat belt. A report issued by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs rates the situation as "very grave". The fall armyworm

1638-433: A large army. A few sweet corn varieties have partial, but not complete, resistance to armyworms. The resistance comes from a unique 33-kD proteinase that the corn produces when it is being fed on by fall armyworms or other larvae. This protein was found to significantly decrease fall armyworm larva growth. When possible, larvae will cannibalize the larvae of smaller instars. A 1999 study showed that cannibalism only benefits

1755-476: A means of fighting armyworm attacks on crops. One suggested approach would be to introduce parasites from South America to North American fall armyworms, and vice versa. In February 2021, it was reported that an Australian agronomist Georgia Rodger had found at a property near Beaudesert (southern Queensland) the tropical fungus Nomuraea rileyi which was known to be effective in killing and consuming fall armyworms. Samples of this were sent to Maree Crawford,

1872-499: A night. Some examples of targeted crops include cotton , tobacco , sweet corn , rice , peanuts , and even fruits such as apples , oranges , and many more. The list of possible food sources for the worms is extensive, so crop damage is wide-ranging. It is estimated that almost 40 percent of those species that armyworms target are economically important. Because the larvae eat so much of the plant, they are very detrimental to crop survival and yield. In corn, larvae will even burrow into

1989-471: A number of micropyles , or tiny funnel-shaped openings at one end, the purpose of which is to allow sperm to enter and fertilize the egg. Butterfly and moth eggs vary greatly in size between species, but they are all either spherical or ovate. The egg stage lasts a few weeks in most butterflies, but eggs laid prior to winter, especially in temperate regions , go through diapause , and hatching may be delayed until spring. Other butterflies may lay their eggs in

2106-466: A pair of legs on each segment. The thorax is also lined with many spiracles on both the mesothorax and metathorax, except for a few aquatic species, which instead have a form of gills . The abdomen, which is less sclerotized than the thorax, consists of 10 segments with membranes in between, allowing for articulated movement. The sternum, on the first segment, is small in some families and is completely absent in others. The last two or three segments form

2223-493: A population of a particular species. Polymorphism occurs both at specific level with heritable variation in the overall morphological adaptations of individuals, as well as in certain specific morphological or physiological traits within a species. Environmental polymorphism, in which traits are not inherited, is often termed as polyphenism, which in Lepidoptera is commonly seen in the form of seasonal morphs, especially in

2340-431: A population, but also between the sexes as sexual dimorphism , between geographically separated populations in geographical polymorphism , and between generations flying at different seasons of the year ( seasonal polymorphism or polyphenism ). In some species, the polymorphism is limited to one sex, typically the female. This often includes the phenomenon of mimicry when mimetic morphs fly alongside nonmimetic morphs in

2457-493: A ready female. There is an order to which the females call and mate: virgin females do first, females who have mated once next, and females who have already mated multiple times call and mate last during the night. S. frugiperda cells ( Sf9 and Sf21 cell lines) are commonly used in biomedical research for the purpose of recombinant protein expression using insect-specific viruses called baculoviruses . Because of their food preferences, fall armyworm larvae can wreak havoc on

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2574-831: A repellent. Agricultural Ministry also decided to use drone technology for the spraying of insecticides to control the spreading of caterpillars. Because of the fall armyworms' great destructive power, farmers must go to great lengths to deter the larvae. Insecticide is a widely used form of protection; in southern regions, farmers may have to apply insecticide to corn every day. Agricultural drones have been used to apply pesticides, used in China, Vietnam, Zambia and other regions. The CABI -led programme, Plantwise and partners have several recommendations for managing fall armyworm, these include: planting early, avoiding staggered planting, and inter-cropping with crops that are not susceptible to fall armyworm, such as cassava or yam. They also recommend conserving shelters and flowering plants on

2691-657: A risk to people from eating RNA. However, in 2012, the Australian Safe Food Foundation claimed that the RNA trigger designed to change the starch content of wheat might interfere with the gene for a human liver enzyme . Supporters countered that RNA does not appear to survive human saliva or stomach acids. The US National Honey Bee Advisory Board told EPA that using RNAi would put natural systems at "the epitome of risk". The beekeepers cautioned that pollinators could be hurt by unintended effects and that

2808-482: A separate organ for mating, and an external duct that carries the sperm from the male. The abdomen of the caterpillar has four pairs of prolegs, normally located on the third to sixth segments of the abdomen, and a separate pair of prolegs by the anus, which have a pair of tiny hooks called crotchets. These aid in gripping and walking, especially in species that lack many prolegs (e. g. larvae of Geometridae ). In some basal moths, these prolegs may be on every segment of

2925-458: A series of stages called instars . Once fully matured, the larva develops into a pupa . A few butterflies and many moth species spin a silk casing or cocoon for protection prior to pupating, while others do not, instead going underground. A butterfly pupa, called a chrysalis , has a hard skin, usually with no cocoon. Once the pupa has completed its metamorphosis, a sexually mature adult emerges. Lepidopterans first appeared in fossil record in

3042-409: A variety of plants e. g., hepialids and some nymphalids ) while most lay their eggs near or on the host plant on which the larvae feed. The number of eggs laid may vary from only a few to several thousand. The females of both butterflies and moths select the host plant instinctively, and primarily, by chemical cues. The eggs are derived from materials ingested as a larva and in some species, from

3159-487: A wide range of crops . The first historical account of the fall armyworm's destruction was in 1797 in Georgia. Destruction can happen almost over night, because the first stages of a caterpillar's life require very little food, and the later stages require about 50 times more. Because of this rapid change in food consumption, the presence of larvae will not be noticed until they have destroyed almost everything in as little as

3276-409: A wide range of wing patterns and coloration ranging from drab moths akin to the related order Trichoptera , to the brightly colored and complex-patterned butterflies. Accordingly, this is the most recognized and popular of insect orders with many people involved in the observation, study, collection, rearing of, and commerce in these insects. A person who collects or studies this order is referred to as

3393-478: A year; however, some species may take up to 3 years to develop, and exceptional examples like Gynaephora groenlandica take as long as seven years. The larval stage is where the feeding and growing stages occur, and the larvae periodically undergo hormone-induced ecdysis , developing further with each instar , until they undergo the final larval-pupal molt. The larvae of both butterflies and moths exhibit mimicry to deter potential predators. Some caterpillars have

3510-476: Is Latin for lost fruit , named because of the species' ability to destroy crops. Because of its propensity for destruction, the fall armyworm's habits and possibilities for crop protection have been studied in depth. It is also a notable case for studying sympatric speciation , as it appears to be diverging into two species currently. Another remarkable trait of the larva is that they consistently practice cannibalism , despite its fitness costs. The fall armyworm

3627-409: Is about 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 –2 inches (38–51 mm) in length. This is the most destructive life stage as the larvae have biting mouth parts. The larvae have a distinctive inverted Y suture on the forehead. The larvae then pupate underground for 7 to 37 days in a cocoon they form of soil and silk. Duration and survival of the pupal stage depend on the temperature of the environment. Once emerged,

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3744-567: Is active at a different time of year from the true armyworm , another species in the order Lepidoptera and family Noctuidae , but of the genus Mythimna . Outbreaks of the true armyworm usually occur during the early part of the summer; the fall armyworm does most damage in the late summer in the southern part of the United States, and early fall in the northern regions. The adult moths are 32 to 40 millimetres ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 to 1 + 1 ⁄ 2  in) wing tip to wing tip, with

3861-496: Is advertised using bright red, orange, black, or white warning colors. The toxic chemicals in plants are often evolved specifically to prevent them from being eaten by insects. Insects, in turn, develop countermeasures or make use of these toxins for their own survival. This "arms race" has led to the coevolution of insects and their host plants. No form of wing is externally visible on the larva, but when larvae are dissected, developing wings can be seen as disks, which can be found on

3978-500: Is an order of winged insects which includes butterflies and moths . About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera have been described, representing 10% of the total described species of living organisms, making it the second largest insect order (behind Coleoptera ) with 126 families and 46 superfamilies , and one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world. Lepidopteran species are characterized by more than three derived features. The most apparent

4095-423: Is another African braconid wasp suitable for the biological control of this lepidoptera. Fifty-three different parasite species have been discovered in fall armyworm larvae, spanning ten different families. Often larvae can survive through much of their crop consumption despite outbreaks of disease, because of the larva's fast life cycle. Despite this, parasites of the fall armyworm are being studied extensively as

4212-572: Is causing significant damage to maize crops in Africa and has great potential for further spread and economic damage. It has since spread to 28 countries in Africa. S. frugiperda was first detected in Bangladesh in late 2018. As of 23 January 2020 it has reached 37 districts . As a result of the introduction of S. frugiperda and Lumpy Skin Disease within a few months of each other,

4329-418: Is completed within 30 days during summer, and 60 days during the spring and autumn seasons; during the winter, these caterpillars' life cycle lasts about 80 to 90 days. The number of generations a moth will have in a year varies based on climate, but in her life span a female will typically lay about 1,500 eggs. Because larvae cannot enter into diapause they cannot survive cold temperatures. The armyworm's egg

4446-509: Is developing an RNA spray to kill Colorado potato beetles . One challenge is to make it stay on the plant for a week, even if it's raining. The potato beetle has become resistant to more than 60 conventional insecticides. Monsanto lobbied the U.S. EPA to exempt RNAi pesticide products from any specific regulations (beyond those that apply to all pesticides) and be exempted from rodent toxicity, allergenicity and residual environmental testing. In 2014 an EPA advisory group found little evidence of

4563-547: Is dome-shaped, and measures around 0.4 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 64  in) in diameter and 0.3 millimetres ( 3 ⁄ 256  in) in height. Females prefer to lay eggs on the underside of leaves, but in high populations they will lay them just about anywhere. In warm weather, the eggs will hatch into larvae within a few days. The larvae go through six different instars , each varying slightly in physical appearance and pattern. The larva process lasts from 14 to 30 days, again depending on temperatures. The mature caterpillar

4680-543: Is expected to severely impact Queensland's wool industry because it feeds on all major grazing plants. It was observed in traps baited with a male pheromone lure, firstly on Darnley Island and Saibai islands in the Torres Strait , and subsequently on the mainland near Croydon . Within a week it was officially declared ineradicable. In April 2020, it was detected in Papua New Guinea , spreading across

4797-433: Is lost in current butterflies and moths. Instead, all the digestive enzymes, other than initial digestion, are immobilized at the surface of the midgut cells. In larvae, long-necked and stalked goblet cells are found in the anterior and posterior midgut regions, respectively. In insects, the goblet cells excrete positive potassium ions, which are absorbed from leaves ingested by the larvae. Most butterflies and moths display

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4914-401: Is made of three fused segments, the prothorax , mesothorax , and metathorax , each with a pair of legs. The first segment contains the first pair of legs. In some males of the butterfly family Nymphalidae , the forelegs are greatly reduced and are not used for walking or perching. The three pairs of legs are covered with scales. Lepidoptera also have olfactory organs on their feet, which aid

5031-529: Is more environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides. Other microbial control agents include products based on: Various animal, fungal, and plant organisms and extracts have been used as biopesticides. Products in this category include: Microbial agents, effective control requires appropriate formulation and application . Biopesticides have established themselves on a variety of crops for use against crop disease. For example, biopesticides help control downy mildew diseases. Their benefits include:

5148-732: Is remarkably fast, estimated at 300 miles (483 km) per generation. Some scientists speculate that this fast migration is aided by the movement of air in weather fronts. Allatotropin and allatotropin+ allatostatin C – neuropeptides – extracted from Manduca sexta were both found to suppress feeding in all life stages, increase larval mortality, and reduce adult lifespan, by Oeh et al 2000. Fall armyworm caterpillars are directly preyed upon by many invertebrates and vertebrates . Common predators include birds , rodents , beetles , earwigs , and other insects . It has been shown that direct predation can cause significant losses to caterpillar populations. The larva's main defense against enemies

5265-435: Is the presence of scales that cover the bodies , large triangular wings , and a proboscis for siphoning nectars . The scales are modified, flattened "hairs", and give butterflies and moths their wide variety of colors and patterns. Almost all species have some form of membranous wings, except for a few that have reduced wings or are wingless. Mating and the laying of eggs is normally performed near or on host plants for

5382-550: Is their ability to reach large numbers and migrate before seasonal conditions are suitable for predators. Fly and wasp parasitoids target the fall armyworm, most commonly Archytas marmoratus , Cotesia marginiventris , and Chelonus texanus . The armyworm is also vulnerable to additional parasitoids, varying with location. In 2018, egg parasitoid wasps of the genera Telenomus and Trichogramma were discovered to attack army worm eggs in East Africa. Cotesia icipe

5499-439: Is to plant crops earlier to avoid the increase in armyworm numbers as the summer progresses. In South Africa, farmers are using pheromone lures with a combination of Dichlorvos blocks to trap and eliminate male armyworms, with the intention of disrupting mating cycles. CIMMYT and its partners are using forward genetics to breed for better S. frugiperda resistance in maize. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are

5616-486: Is transferred to the rest of the body when conditions are unfavorable. In lepidopteran species, hemolymph is circulated through the veins in the wings by some form of pulsating organ, either by the heart or by the intake of air into the trachea . Air is taken in through spiracles along the sides of the abdomen and thorax supplying the trachea with oxygen as it goes through the lepidopteran's respiratory system . Three different tracheaes supply and diffuse oxygen throughout

5733-413: Is under study for use in spray-on insecticides ( RNAi insecticides ) by companies including Syngenta and Bayer . Such sprays do not modify the genome of the target plant. The RNA can be modified to maintain its effectiveness as target species evolve to tolerate the original. RNA is a relatively fragile molecule that generally degrades within days or weeks of application. Monsanto estimated costs to be on

5850-486: Is where many sensing organs and the mouth parts are found. Like the adult, the larva also has a toughened, or sclerotized head capsule. Here, two compound eyes , and chaetosema , raised spots or clusters of sensory bristles unique to Lepidoptera, occur, though many taxa have lost one or both of these spots. The antennae have a wide variation in form among species and even between different sexes. The antennae of butterflies are usually filiform and shaped like clubs, those of

5967-595: The Sinhapura area of Polonnaruwa. In January 2019, caterpillars were also recorded from paddy cultivations of the Nochchiyagama area in the Anuradhapura district. The Sri Lankan Department of Agriculture recommended 12 pesticides under three categories, to be used alternately every seven days. Organic farming expert, Thilak Kandegama said that the threat can be overcome by sprinkling rice husk ashes as

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6084-562: The Sri Lankan Ministry of Agriculture issued a warning notice to farmers in the northwestern and north central provinces about possible fall armyworm invasion. At the time of warning, crop destruction had already been reported from the Ampara , Anuradhapura , and Polonnaruwa areas. The larvae are known among the local people as Sena dalambuwa (armyworm caterpillar). Not only corn, but also sugarcane plantations were attacked by

6201-743: The Triassic - Jurassic boundary and have coevolved with flowering plants since the angiosperm boom in the Middle / Late Cretaceous . They show many variations of the basic body structure that have evolved to gain advantages in lifestyle and distribution. Recent estimates suggest the order may have more species than earlier thought, and is among the five most species-rich orders (each with over 100,000 species) along with Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (flies), Hymenoptera ( ants , bees , wasps and sawflies ) and Hemiptera ( cicadas , aphids and other true bugs). They have, over millions of years, evolved

6318-513: The genomes of many insects are still undetermined. Other unassessed risks include ecological (given the need for sustained presence for herbicides) and possible RNA drift across species boundaries. Monsanto invested in multiple companies for their RNA expertise, including Beeologics (for RNA that kills a parasitic mite that infests hives and for manufacturing technology) and Preceres (nanoparticle lipidoid coatings) and licensed technology from Alnylam and Tekmira . In 2012 Syngenta acquired Devgen,

6435-460: The larvae . Like most other insects, butterflies and moths are holometabolous , meaning they undergo complete metamorphosis . The larvae are commonly called caterpillars , and are completely different from their adult moth or butterfly forms, having a cylindrical body with a well-developed head, mandible mouth parts, three pairs of thoracic legs and from none up to five pairs of prolegs . As they grow, these larvae change in appearance, going through

6552-458: The English word moth are clearer, deriving from Old English moððe (cf. Northumbrian dialect mohðe ) from Common Germanic (compare Old Norse motti , Dutch mot and German Motte all meaning "moth"). Perhaps its origins are related to Old English maða meaning " maggot " or from the root of " midge ", which until the 16th century was used mostly to indicate

6669-688: The FAO, the World Food Programme , Bangladesh Government officials, and others agreed to begin improving Bangladesh's agricultural emergency response capabilities. The use of two biopesticides – Spodoptera frugiperda nuclear polyhedrosis virus /SfNPV (the SNPV/ single nuclear polyhedrosis virus specific to S. frugiperda ) and Habrobracon hebetor – is recommended. In December 2018, the Fall armyworm began to spread widely in India. In January 2019,

6786-650: The Torres Strait. Fall armyworm was first detected in New Zealand in February 2022. Biosecurity New Zealand and sector partners ran a biosecurity response to limit the spread of Fall armyworm and try to eradicate it from New Zealand. This included surveillance and research to better understand the moth, its spread, and potential impacts in New Zealand. By April 2023, it became clear that Fall armyworm

6903-424: The abdominal prolegs, degenerate, while others such as the legs and wings undergo growth. After finding a suitable place, the animal sheds its last larval cuticle, revealing the pupal cuticle underneath. Depending on the species, the pupa may be covered in a silk cocoon, attached to different types of substrates, buried in the ground, or may not be covered at all. Features of the imago are externally recognizable in

7020-490: The ability to inflate parts of their heads to appear snake-like. Many have false eye-spots to enhance this effect. Some caterpillars have special structures called osmeteria (family Papilionidae ), which are exposed to produce smelly chemicals used in defense. Host plants often have toxic substances in them, and caterpillars are able to sequester these substances and retain them into the adult stage. This helps make them unpalatable to birds and other predators. Such unpalatability

7137-421: The adults live for about 10 days, and sometimes up to 21 days, with the female laying most of her eggs early in life. Adults are nocturnal and fare best during warm and humid nights. Adults are capable of flying long distances, so even though they are unable to overwinter north of the southern region of the United States, the moths can migrate as far north as southern Canada in warm months. Their migration rate

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7254-442: The anterior region of the foregut has been modified to form a pharyngeal sucking pump as they need it for the food they eat, which are for the most part liquids. An esophagus follows and leads to the posterior of the pharynx and in some species forms a form of crop. The midgut is short and straight, with the hindgut being longer and coiled. Ancestors of lepidopteran species, stemming from Hymenoptera , had midgut ceca, although this

7371-459: The bodies of organisms rather than the environment. Coprophagous pyralid moth species, called sloth moths , such as Bradipodicola hahneli and Cryptoses choloepi , are unusual in that they are exclusively found inhabiting the fur of sloths , mammals found in Central and South America . Two species of Tinea moths have been recorded as feeding on horny tissue and have been bred from

7488-512: The body, while prolegs may be completely absent in other groups, which are more adapted to boring and living in sand (e. g., Prodoxidae and Nepticulidae , respectively). The wings, head, and parts of the thorax and abdomen of Lepidoptera are covered with minute scales, a feature from which the order derives its name. Most scales are lamellar , or blade-like, and attached with a pedicel, while other forms may be hair-like or specialized as secondary sexual characteristics. The lumen or surface of

7605-454: The butterfly families of Nymphalidae and Pieridae . An Old World pierid butterfly, the common grass yellow ( Eurema hecabe ) has a darker summer adult morph, triggered by a long day exceeding 13 hours in duration, while the shorter diurnal period of 12 hours or less induces a paler morph in the postmonsoon period. Polyphenism also occurs in caterpillars, an example being the peppered moth, Biston betularia . Geographical isolation causes

7722-648: The butterfly in "tasting" or "smelling" out its food. In the larval form there are 3 pairs of true legs, with up to 11 pairs of abdominal legs (usually eight) and hooklets, called apical crochets. The two pairs of wings are found on the middle and third segments, or mesothorax and metathorax , respectively. In the more recent genera, the wings of the second segment are much more pronounced, although some more primitive forms have similarly sized wings of both segments. The wings are covered in scales arranged like shingles, which form an extraordinary variety of colors and patterns. The mesothorax has more powerful muscles to propel

7839-644: The caterpillar when other food is scarce. Despite this, the caterpillars will cannibalize others whenever they can, even though it was found to decrease their own fitness in many cases. One known reason why cannibalism is detrimental to the fall armyworm is because of disease transmission to the cannibal. In nature, the negative effects of cannibalism may be balanced by the fact that cannibalism removes competitors , thereby making more resources accessible and indirectly increasing fall armyworms' fitness. Adult moths sip nectar from flowers such as that of witch hazel ( Hamamelis virginiana ) . The fall armyworm's life cycle

7956-568: The caterpillars in Anuradhapura, Ampara, and Monaragala districts. In December 2018, heavy infestations in corn cultivation were identified. The spread of the moth leads to attack corn all around the country within weeks. On 6 January 2019, caterpillars spread to the Monaragala district and devastated corn crops. At the end of January 2019, the armyworm was present in all districts of Sri Lanka except Nuwara Eliya and Jaffna. On 29 December 2018, armyworms were recorded from paddy cultivations in

8073-504: The corn ear to eat the kernels. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that S. frugiperda will reduce maize/corn yields by 17.7 million metric tons (19.5 × 10 ^ short tons)/annum if not successfully controlled. The fall armyworm have proved to be a pest in many regions, and methods of control continue to be developed. The fall armyworm was identified in Africa in 2016. In early 2017, armyworms infested large swathes of corn crops across southern Africa , devastating

8190-422: The edges for beneficial insects such as ground beetles and parasitoids . Inter-cropping with the " push-pull " technique with crops such as Desmodium and Napier grass can be used to control fall armyworm. For some crops, including wheat , sorghum , millet and rice , it is recommend by Plantwise partners to plant short maturing and varieties that are less preferred by S. frugiperda . Another strategy

8307-755: The establishment of the species. S. frugiperda was first found on the African continent in 2013 in Sao Tome , then spread through Nigeria , Benin , Togo , and was found in Ghana in February 2017. In December 2020 S. frugiperda was first found in Syria in Daraa on the Jordanian border and is believed to have arrived from there without human assistance, having just been found in that country also. The fall armyworm

8424-477: The external parts of the species' sex organs. The genitalia of Lepidoptera are highly varied and are often the only means of differentiating between species. Male genitals include a valva , which is usually large, as it is used to grasp the female during mating. Female genitalia include three distinct sections. The females of basal moths have only one sex organ, which is used for copulation and as an ovipositor , or egg-laying organ. About 98% of moth species have

8541-469: The family Micropterigidae . The larvae, called caterpillars , have a toughened head capsule. Caterpillars lack the proboscis and have separate chewing mouthparts . These mouthparts, called mandibles , are used to chew up the plant matter that the larvae eat. The lower jaw, or labium, is weak, but may carry a spinneret , an organ used to create silk. The head is made of large lateral lobes, each having an ellipse of up to six simple eyes. The thorax

8658-415: The female may produce from 200 to 600 eggs, while in others, the number may approach 30,000 eggs in one day. The caterpillars hatching from these eggs can cause significant damage to crops within a very short period of time. Many moth and butterfly species are of economic interest by virtue of their role as pollinators, the silk in their cocoon, or for extermination as pest species. The term Lepidoptera

8775-475: The fused segments of the sterna 9 and 10, which act as insemination and oviposition. In the exoporian type (in Hepialoidea and Mnesarchaeoidea ) are two separate places for insemination and oviposition, both occurring on the same sterna as the monotrysian type, i.e. 9 and 10. The ditrysian groups have an internal duct that carries sperm, with separate openings for copulation and egg-laying. In most species,

8892-402: The genitalia are flanked by two soft lobes, although they may be specialized and sclerotized in some species for ovipositing in area such as crevices and inside plant tissue. Hormones and the glands that produce them run the development of butterflies and moths as they go through their life cycles, called the endocrine system . The first insect hormone prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) operates

9009-422: The horns of cattle. The larva of Zenodochium coccivorella is an internal parasite of the coccid Kermes species. Many species have been recorded as breeding in natural materials or refuse such as owl pellets, bat caves, honeycombs or diseased fruit. As of 2007, there were roughly 174,250 lepidopteran species described, with butterflies and skippers estimated to comprise around 17,950, and moths making up

9126-507: The insect pathologist at the Queensland Department of Agriculture for further analysis. Australian entomologists have said the finding is reassuring and that laboratory tests have been promising. This is substantiated by various studies including a 2018 journal article which looked into the effectiveness of N. rileyi had on infestations of armyworms in Indian maize crops. The study concluded N. rileyi could potentially be

9243-418: The killing process, and the possible use of chitin synthesis inhibitors are the prime research areas. Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterium capable of causing disease of Lepidoptera , Coleoptera and Diptera . The toxin from B. thuringiensis ( Bt toxin ) has been incorporated directly into plants via genetic engineering . Bt toxin manufacturers claim it has little effect on other organisms , and

9360-432: The lamella has a complex structure. It gives color either by colored pigments it contains, or through structural coloration with mechanisms that include photonic crystals and diffraction gratings . Scales function in insulation, thermoregulation, producing pheromones ( in males only ), and aiding gliding flight, but the most important is the large diversity of vivid or indistinct patterns they provide, which help

9477-698: The larva, usually in reference to devouring clothes. The etymological origins of the word "caterpillar", the larval form of butterflies and moths, are from the early 16th century, from Middle English catirpel , catirpeller , probably an alteration of Old North French catepelose (from Latin cattus , "cat" + pilosus , "hairy"). The Lepidoptera are among the most successful groups of insects. They are found on all continents, except Antarctica , and inhabit all terrestrial habitats ranging from desert to rainforest, from lowland grasslands to mountain plateaus, but almost always associated with higher plants, especially angiosperms ( flowering plants ). Among

9594-550: The literature, partly on the card indices in the Natural History Museum (London) and the National Museum of Natural History (Washington), and partly on estimates: Lepidoptera are morphologically distinguished from other orders principally by the presence of scales on the external parts of the body and appendages, especially the wings . Butterflies and moths vary in size from microlepidoptera only

9711-624: The livelihoods of many farmers. It is thought they arrived as an invasive species from the Americas as eggs in imported produce. This is causing immense concern among agricultural experts, due to the potentially huge amount of damage this invasive species will do to African food crops if allowed to spread. Many African countries have agreed to take urgent actions against armyworms. After being first reported in India in May 2018 in Tamil Nadu , then

9828-487: The male that mated most recently with the female is most likely to have fertilized the eggs, but the sperm from a prior mating may still prevail. Lepidoptera usually reproduce sexually and are oviparous (egg-laying), though some species exhibit live birth in a process called ovoviviparity . A variety of differences in egg -laying and the number of eggs laid occur. Some species simply drop their eggs in flight (these species normally have polyphagous larvae, meaning they eat

9945-660: The marked seasonal range dynamics experienced in North America, with much of the potential range in Europe, South Africa, China and Australia consisting of habitat that is only climatically suitable during the warmer months.. A more recent physiologically-based population dynamics model was developed for assessing the potential distribution of S. frugiperda in Europe. The model showed that the Mediterranean coastal areas of Southern Europe might be particularly suitable for

10062-501: The membrane. Moving may help the pupa, for example, escape the sun, which would otherwise kill it. The pupa of the Mexican jumping bean moth ( Cydia saltitans ) does this. The larvae cut a trapdoor in the bean (species of Sebastiania ) and use the bean as a shelter. With a sudden rise in temperature, the pupa inside twitches and jerks, pulling on the threads inside. Wiggling may also help to deter parasitoid wasps from laying eggs on

10179-418: The most effective method for associating S. f. resistance to the responsible genomic region, especially used in maize/corn but also wheat, sorghum, millet, rice, and legumes . The first uses of conventional breeding in the first decade of the 1900s were reported by Gernet 1917 and Hinds 1914, improving resistance in maize/corn, sorghum, millet, Cynodon dactylon , and Arachis hypogaea . In Australia,

10296-688: The most northern dwelling species of butterflies and moths is the Arctic Apollo ( Parnassius arcticus ), which is found in the Arctic Circle in northeastern Yakutia , at an altitude of 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) above sea level. In the Himalayas , various Apollo species such as Parnassius epaphus have been recorded to occur up to an altitude of 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) above sea level. Some lepidopteran species exhibit symbiotic , phoretic , or parasitic lifestyles, inhabiting

10413-941: The most primitive moth families are used to escape from their cocoon (e. g., Micropterigoidea ). Biopesticide They are obtained from organisms including plants , bacteria and other microbes , fungi , nematodes , etc . They are components of integrated pest management (IPM) programmes, and have received much practical attention as substitutes to synthetic chemical plant protection products (PPPs). Regulatory positions can be influenced by public perceptions, thus: Biopesticides usually have no known function in photosynthesis, growth or other basic aspects of plant physiology. Many chemical compounds produced by plants protect them from pests ; they are called antifeedants . These materials are biodegradable and renewable, which can be economical for practical use. Organic farming systems embraces this approach to pest control. Biopesticides can be classified thusly: RNA interference

10530-518: The moth or butterfly through the air, with the wing of this segment (forewing) having a stronger vein structure. The largest superfamily, the Noctuoidea , has their wings modified to act as tympanal or hearing organs . The caterpillar has an elongated, soft body that may have hair-like or other projections, three pairs of true legs, with none to 11 pairs of abdominal legs (usually eight) and hooklets, called apical crochets. The thorax usually has

10647-447: The order of $ 5/acre. RNAi has been used to target weeds that tolerate Roundup . RNAi can be mixed with a silicone surfactant that lets the RNA molecules enter air-exchange holes in the plant's surface. This disrupted the gene for tolerance long enough to let the herbicide work. This strategy would allow the continued use of glyphosate -based herbicides. They can be made with enough precision to target specific insect species. Monsanto

10764-401: The organism protect itself by camouflage or mimicry , and which act as signals to other animals including rivals and potential mates . In the reproductive system of butterflies and moths , the male genitalia are complex and unclear. In females the three types of genitalia are based on the relating taxa: 'monotrysian', 'exoporian', and 'ditrysian'. In the monotrysian type is an opening on

10881-589: The plant and are normally considered pests to their host plants; some species have been found to lay their eggs on the fruit and other species lay their eggs on clothing or fur (e. g., Tineola bisselliella , the common clothes moth). Some species are carnivorous, and others are even parasitic. Some lycaenid species such as Phengaris rebeli are social parasites of Myrmica ant nests. A species of Geometridae from Hawaii has carnivorous larvae that catch and eat flies. Some pyralid caterpillars are aquatic. The larvae develop rapidly with several generations in

10998-409: The pupa (in obtect pupae). Within hours, the wings form a cuticle so hard and well-joined to the body that pupae can be picked up and handled without damage to the wings. After about five to seven instars, or molts, certain hormones, like PTTH, stimulate the production of ecdysone , which initiates insect molting. The larva starts to develop into the pupa : body parts specific to the larva, such as

11115-457: The pupa. All the appendages on the adult head and thorax are found cased inside the cuticle ( antennae , mouthparts , etc.), with the wings wrapped around, adjacent to the antennae. The pupae of some species have functional mandibles, while the pupal mandibles are not functional in others. Although the pupal cuticle is highly sclerotized, some of the lower abdominal segments are not fused, and are able to move using small muscles found in between

11232-414: The pupa. Other species of moths are able to make clicks to deter predators. The length of time before the pupa ecloses (emerges) varies greatly. The monarch butterfly may stay in its chrysalis for two weeks, while other species may need to stay for more than 10 months in diapause. The adult emerges from the pupa either by using abdominal hooks or from projections located on the head. The mandibles found in

11349-443: The rest. The vast majority of Lepidoptera are to be found in the tropics, but substantial diversity exists on most continents. North America has over 700 species of butterflies and over 11,000 species of moths, while about 400 species of butterflies and 14,000 species of moths are reported from Australia. The diversity of Lepidoptera in each faunal region has been estimated by John Heppner in 1991 based partly on actual counts from

11466-631: The same time. Polymorphic and/or mimetic females occur in the case of some taxa in the Papilionidae primarily to obtain a level of protection not available to the male of their species. The most distinct case of sexual dimorphism is that of adult females of many Psychidae species which have only vestigial wings, legs, and mouthparts as compared to the adult males that are strong fliers with well-developed wings and feathery antennae. Species of Lepidoptera undergo holometabolism or "complete metamorphosis". Their life cycle normally consists of an egg ,

11583-484: The sclerites, mandibles (mouthparts) for chewing, and a soft tubular, segmented body, that may have hair-like or other projections, three pairs of true legs, and additional prolegs (up to five pairs). The body consists of thirteen segments, of which three are thoracic and ten are abdominal. Most larvae are herbivores , but a few are carnivores (some eat ants or other caterpillars) and detritivores . Different herbivorous species have adapted to feed on every part of

11700-449: The second and third thoracic segments, in place of the spiracles that are apparent on abdominal segments. Wing disks develop in association with a trachea that runs along the base of the wing, and are surrounded by a thin peripodial membrane, which is linked to the outer epidermis of the larva by a tiny duct. Wing disks are very small until the last larval instar, when they increase dramatically in size, are invaded by branching tracheae from

11817-502: The sexes are sexually mature by the time of eclosion. Butterflies and moths normally do not associate with each other, except for migrating species, staying relatively asocial. Mating begins with an adult (female or male) attracting a mate, normally using visual stimuli, especially in diurnal species like most butterflies. However, the females of most nocturnal species, including almost all moth species, use pheromones to attract males, sometimes from long distances. Some species engage in

11934-461: The shape of the antennae of butterflies. The origins of the common names "butterfly" and "moth" are varied and often obscure. The English word butterfly is from Old English buttorfleoge , with many variations in spelling. Other than that, the origin is unknown, although it could be derived from the pale yellow color of many species' wings suggesting the color of butter. The species of Heterocera are commonly called moths . The origins of

12051-814: The size of spots on the wings of which varies greatly. Sexual dimorphism is the occurrence of differences between males and females in a species. In Lepidoptera, it is widespread and almost completely set by genetic determination. Sexual dimorphism is present in all families of the Papilionoidea and more prominent in the Lycaenidae , Pieridae , and certain taxa of the Nymphalidae . Apart from color variation, which may differ from slight to completely different color-pattern combinations, secondary sexual characteristics may also be present. Different genotypes maintained by natural selection may also be expressed at

12168-542: The skippers are hooked, while those of moths have flagellar segments variously enlarged or branched. Some moths have enlarged antennae or ones that are tapered and hooked at the ends. The maxillary galeae are modified and form an elongated proboscis . The proboscis consists of one to five segments, usually kept coiled up under the head by small muscles when it is not being used to suck up nectar from flowers or other liquids. Some basal moths still have mandibles , or separate moving jaws, like their ancestors, and these form

12285-420: The species life cycle and diapause . This hormone is produced by corpora allata and corpora cardiaca , where it is also stored. Some glands are specialized to perform certain task such as producing silk or producing saliva in the palpi. While the corpora cardiaca produce PTTH, the corpora allata also produces juvenile hormones, and the prothorocic glands produce moulting hormones. In the digestive system ,

12402-439: The species' bodies. The dorsal tracheae supply oxygen to the dorsal musculature and vessels, while the ventral tracheae supply the ventral musculature and nerve cord, and the visceral tracheae supply the guts, fat bodies, and gonads. Polymorphism is the appearance of forms or "morphs", which differ in color and number of attributes within a single species. In Lepidoptera, polymorphism can be seen not only between individuals in

12519-410: The spermatophores received from males during mating. An egg can only be 1/1000 the mass of the female, yet she may lay up to her own mass in eggs. Females lay smaller eggs as they age. Larger females lay larger eggs. The egg is covered by a hard-ridged protective outer layer of shell, called the chorion . It is lined with a thin coating of wax , which prevents the egg from drying out. Each egg contains

12636-430: The spring and have them hatch in the summer. These butterflies are usually temperate species (e. g. Nymphalis antiopa ). The larvae or caterpillars are the first stage in the life cycle after hatching. Caterpillars are "characteristic polypod larvae with cylindrical bodies, short thoracic legs, and abdominal prolegs (pseudopods)". They have a sclerotized head capsule with an adfrontal suture formed by medial fusion of

12753-420: The timing of mating at night, and difference in female sex pheromones . A female attracts males by perching atop the host plant feeding area and releasing a sex pheromone as the signal that she wishes to mate. The pheromone has been studied and found to contain the components Z7-12 and Z9-14. Each female only mates once per night; this creates a physical conflict between the multiple males that will fly towards

12870-446: The useful life of other fungicides, especially those in the reduced-risk category. A major growth area for biopesticides is in the area of seed treatments and soil amendments . Fungicidal and biofungicidal seed treatments are used to control soil-borne fungal pathogens that cause seed rot, damping-off, root rot and seedling blights. They can also be used to control internal seed-borne fungal pathogens as well as fungal pathogens on

12987-445: The usual digestive cycle, but species with different diets require adaptations to meet these new demands. Some, like the luna moth , exhibit no digestive system whatsoever; they survive as adults from stored energy consumed as larvae and live for no longer than 7-10 days. In the circulatory system , hemolymph , or insect blood, is used to circulate heat in a form of thermoregulation , where muscles contraction produces heat, which

13104-399: The wing base that precede the formation of the wing veins and begin to develop patterns associated with several landmarks of the wing. Near pupation, the wings are forced outside the epidermis under pressure from the hemolymph , and although they are initially quite flexible and fragile, by the time the pupa breaks free of the larval cuticle, they have adhered tightly to the outer cuticle of

13221-453: The winter in the most southern regions of the United States, namely Texas and Florida. Because of this, the fall armyworm is a more prominent pest in southeastern states. However, seasonally it will spread across the eastern United States and up to southern Canada , inhabiting areas with suitable food supplies. The potential global distribution of S. frugiperda has been modelled using CLIMEX. The modelled global potential distribution reflects

13338-423: The year. These seasonal adaptations are controlled by hormones, and these delays in reproduction are called diapause . Many lepidopteran species, after mating and laying their eggs, die shortly afterwards, having only lived for a few days after eclosion. Others may still be active for several weeks and then overwinter and become sexually active again when the weather becomes more favorable, or diapause. The sperm of

13455-1043: Was first reported in Southeast Asia in late 2018 in Thailand and Myanmar and its presence is now confirmed in almost all Southeast Asian countries. In January 2020 S. frugiperda was detected on the Torres Strait Islands , in February in North Queensland , and then continued into the rest of Queensland , and the Northern Territory , Western Australia , and then in September was found in New South Wales between Moree and Boggabilla (and later in Narrabri , Wee Waa , Dubbo , Breeza , and Maitland ). S. frugiperda

13572-488: Was used in 1746 by Carl Linnaeus in his Fauna Svecica . The word is derived from Greek λεπίς lepís , gen. λεπίδος lepídos (" scale ") and πτερόν ("wing"). Sometimes, the term Rhopalocera is used for the clade of all butterfly species, derived from the Ancient Greek ῥόπαλον ( rhopalon ) and κέρας ( keras ) meaning "club" and "horn", respectively, coming from

13689-533: Was widespread, particularly in the North Island , and that eradication was unlikely because it had been windblown from Australia , and this is likely to repeatedly occur. The armyworm's diet consists mainly of grasses and grain crops such as corn , but the species has been noted to consume over 80 different plants (50 non-economic and 30 economic plants). Armyworms earned their common name by eating all plant matter they encounter in their wide dispersals, like

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