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110-461: After the 1934 formation of Libya, the Fezzan province was designated as one of the three primary provinces of the country , alongside Tripolitania province to the north and Cyrenaica province to the northeast. In Berber languages , Fezzan (or ifezzan ) means "rough rocks". Fezzan could also be a derivation from the region's Greek name Phasania or Phazania , which may mean "the country of

220-444: A British Airlines jetliner carrying the leading coup plotters, Farouk Osman Hamadallah and Babikir al-Nour. They were extradited back to Khartoum , where they were promptly executed by Sudanese leader Jaafar Nimeiry . In February 1972, Gaddafi and Sadat signed an unofficial charter of merger, but it was never implemented because relations broke down the following year. Sadat became increasingly wary of Libya's radical direction, and

330-481: A national holiday known as "Vengeance Day". Italy complained that this was in contravention of the 1956 Italo-Libyan Treaty, although no UN sanctions were forthcoming. Aiming to reduce NATO power in the Mediterranean, in 1971 Libya requested that Malta cease allowing NATO to use its land for a military base, in turn offering Malta foreign aid. Compromising, Malta's government continued allowing NATO to use

440-501: A "state of the masses" conceptualized by Gaddafi. A new, all-green banner was adopted as the country's flag. Officially, the Jamahiriya was a direct democracy in which the people ruled themselves through the 187 Basic People's Congresses (BPCs), where all adult Libyans participated and voted on national decisions. These then sent members to the annual General People's Congress, which was broadcast live on television. In principle,

550-558: A Sabha military court tried many of them for counter-revolutionary activity. Long-standing administrative boundaries were re-drawn, crossing tribal boundaries, while pro-revolutionary modernizers replaced traditional leaders, yet the communities they served often rejected them. Realizing the failures of the modernizers, Gaddafi created the Arab Socialist Union (ASU) in June 1971, a mass mobilization vanguard party of which he

660-425: A basis. The consumption of alcohol was prohibited, night clubs and Christian churches were shut down, traditional Libyan dress was encouraged, and Arabic was decreed as the only language permitted in official communications and on road signs. The RCC doubled the minimum wage , introduced statutory price controls, and implemented compulsory rent reductions of between 30 and 40 per cent. Gaddafi also wanted to combat

770-487: A collegial body operating through consensus building, Gaddafi dominated the RCC. Some of the others attempted to constrain what they saw as his excesses. Gaddafi remained the government's public face, with the identities of the other RCC members only being publicly revealed on 10 January 1970. All young men from (typically rural) working and middle-class backgrounds, none had university degrees; in this way they were distinct from

880-531: A coup against Gaddafi. In 1975, their plot was exposed and Muhayshi fled to Tunisia, eventually receiving asylum from Sadat's Egypt. Hawaadi, Hamza, and Omar El-Hariri were arrested. Most of the other conspirators were executed in March 1976. Another RCC member, foreign minister Abdul-Munim al-Huni , also fled to Egypt. In the aftermath, only five RCC members remained: Gaddafi, Jalloud, Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr , Mustafa Kharubi , and Kweldi al-Hamidi . Thus, power

990-501: A federal state under the leadership of a pro-Western monarch, Idris , who banned political parties and centralized power in his own hands. Gaddafi's earliest education was of a religious nature, imparted by a local Islamic teacher. Subsequently, moving to nearby Sirte to attend elementary school, he progressed through six grades in four years. Education in Libya was not free, but his father thought it would greatly benefit his son despite

1100-443: A five-point plan, the first point of which dissolved all existing laws, to be replaced by revolutionary enactments. The second point proclaimed that all opponents of the revolution had to be removed, while the third initiated an administrative revolution that Gaddafi proclaimed would remove all traces of bureaucracy and the bourgeoisie . The fourth point announced that the population must form People's Committees and be armed to defend

1210-490: A form of direct political participation that was more democratic than a traditional party-based representative system . He hoped that the councils would mobilize the people behind the RCC, erode the power of the traditional leaders and the bureaucracy, and allow for a new legal system chosen by the people. Many such committees were established in schools and colleges, where they were responsible for vetting staff, courses, and textbooks to determine if they were compatible with

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1320-488: A leader in the Third World 's struggle against colonialism and neocolonialism . Though many of these groups were labelled " terrorists " by critics of their activities, Gaddafi rejected this characterization, instead considering them to be revolutionaries who were engaged in liberation struggles. On 16 April 1973, Gaddafi proclaimed the start of a "Popular Revolution" in a speech at Zuwarah . He initiated this with

1430-421: A major social priority, designed to eliminate homelessness and to replace the shanty towns created by Libya's growing urbanization. The health sector was also expanded; by 1978, Libya had 50 per cent more hospitals than it had in 1968, while the number of doctors had increased from 700 to over 3000 in that decade. Malaria was eradicated, and trachoma and tuberculosis greatly curtailed. Compulsory education

1540-562: A new socialist state called a Jamahiriya ("state of the masses"). He officially adopted a symbolic role in governance but remained head of both the military and the Revolutionary Committees responsible for policing and suppressing dissent. During the 1970s and 1980s, Libya's unsuccessful border conflicts with Egypt and Chad , support for foreign militants, and alleged responsibility for bombings of Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772 left it increasingly isolated on

1650-1031: A poor Bedouin Arab family, Gaddafi became an Arab nationalist while at school in Sabha , later enrolling in the Royal Military Academy, Benghazi . Within the military, he founded a revolutionary group known as the Free Officers movement which deposed the Western -backed Senussi monarchy of Idris in a 1969 coup . After taking power, Gaddafi converted Libya into a republic governed by his Revolutionary Command Council . Ruling by decree , he deported Libya's Italian population and ejected its Western military bases. He strengthened ties to Arab nationalist governments—particularly Gamal Abdel Nasser 's Egypt—and unsuccessfully advocated pan-Arab political union . An Islamic modernist , he introduced sharia as

1760-605: A prominent role at his funeral. Nasser was succeeded by Anwar Sadat , who suggested that rather than creating a unified state, the Arab states should create a political federation , implemented in April 1971; in doing so, Egypt, Syria, and Sudan received large grants of Libyan oil money. In July 1971, Gaddafi sided with Sadat against the Soviet Union in the 1971 Sudanese coup d'état and dispatched Libyan fighter jets to force down

1870-462: A pyramid structure, the base form of these Committees were local working groups, who sent elected representatives to the district level, and from there to the national level, divided between the General People's Congress and the General People's Committee . Above these remained Gaddafi and the RCC, who remained responsible for all major decisions. In crossing regional and tribal identities,

1980-413: A result of the disorder. Gaddafi and his companions also broke windows in a local hotel that was accused of serving alcohol . To punish Gaddafi, the authorities expelled him and his family from Sabha. Gaddafi moved to Misrata , there attending Misrata Secondary School. Maintaining his interest in Arab nationalist activism, he refused to join any of the banned political parties active in the city—including

2090-838: A valuable source of income during the 1980s oil slump . On 2 March 1977, the General People's Congress adopted the " Declaration on the Establishment of the Authority of the People " at Gaddafi's behest. Dissolving the Libyan Arab Republic, it was replaced by the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ( Arabic : الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية , al-Jamāhīrīyah al-‘Arabīyah al-Lībīyah ash-Sha‘bīyah al-Ishtirākīyah ) ,

2200-552: Is dominated by Haruj , a large and unpopulated volcanic field . Fezzan's population has grown rapidly since the mid-20th century along with the overall growth in Libya's population, and the province's share of the national population has increased by half. Source: Gathered from bulletins of censuses 1964, 1973, 1995, 2006. This Libya location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Muammar Gaddafi Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi ( c.  1942  – 20 October 2011)

2310-742: The Arab Nationalist Movement , the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party , and the Muslim Brotherhood —claiming that he rejected factionalism. He read voraciously on the subjects of Nasser and the French Revolution of 1789, as well as the works of the Syrian political theorist Michel Aflaq and biographies of Abraham Lincoln , Sun Yat-sen , and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . Gaddafi briefly studied history at

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2420-566: The Arab world . He believed that Palestinian violence against Israeli and Western targets was the justified response of an oppressed people who were fighting against the colonization of their homeland. Calling on the Arab states to wage "continuous war" against Israel, in 1970 he initiated a Jihad Fund to finance anti-Israeli militants. In June 1972 Gaddafi created the First Nasserite Volunteers Centre to train anti-Israeli guerrillas. Like Nasser, Gaddafi favoured

2530-847: The Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine , As-Sa'iqa , the Palestinian Popular Struggle Front , and the Abu Nidal Organization. He funded the Black September Organization whose members perpetrated the 1972 Munich massacre of Israeli athletes in West Germany and had the killed militants' bodies flown to Libya for a hero's funeral. Gaddafi financially supported other militant groups across

2640-745: The Idehan Murzuq cover much of the remaining land of Fezzan. From the 5th century BCE to the 5th century CE, Fezzan was home to the Garamantes , who operated the Trans-Saharan trade routes successively between Carthage and the Roman Empire in North Africa and Sahelian states of west and central Africa. The Roman generals Septimus Flaccus in 19 BCE and Suetonius Paulinus in 50 CE led small-scale military expeditions into

2750-583: The Military Territory of Fezzan-Ghadames . French administration was largely exercised through Fezzan notables of the family of Sayf Al Nasr. Disquieting to the tribes in western Fezzan was the administrative attachment of Ghat , and its surrounding area, to French-ruled Algeria . However, when the French military control ceased in 1951, all of Fezzan became part of the Kingdom of Libya . Fezzan

2860-721: The Pakistani nuclear program in favor of Saudi financing. Gaddafi sought to develop closer links in the Maghreb ; in January 1974 Libya and Tunisia announced a political union, the Arab Islamic Republic . Although advocated by Gaddafi and Tunisian President Habib Bourguiba , the move was deeply unpopular in Tunisia, and it was soon abandoned. Retaliating, Gaddafi sponsored anti-government militants in Tunisia into

2970-558: The Qur'an , rejecting scholarly interpretations and the Hadith ; in doing so, he angered many Libyan clerics. During 1973 and 1974, his government deepened the legal reliance on sharia , for instance by introducing flogging as punishment for those convicted of adultery or homosexual activity. Gaddafi summarized Third International Theory in three short volumes published between 1975 and 1979, collectively known as The Green Book . Volume one

3080-980: The Red Army Faction in Europe, and the Armenian Secret Army , the Japanese Red Army , the Free Aceh Movement , and the Moro National Liberation Front in the Philippines . Gaddafi was indiscriminate in the causes which he funded, sometimes switching from supporting one side in a conflict to the other, as in the Eritrean War of Independence . Throughout the 1970s these groups received financial support from Libya, which came to be seen as

3190-921: The Six-Day War with Israel; Idris' administration was seen as pro-Israeli due to its alliance with the Western powers. Anti-Western riots broke out in Tripoli and Benghazi, while Libyan workers shut down oil terminals in solidarity with Egypt. By 1969, the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was expecting segments of Libya's armed forces to launch a coup. Although claims have been made that they knew of Gaddafi's Free Officers Movement , they have since claimed ignorance, stating that they were instead monitoring Abdul Aziz Shalhi 's Black Boots revolutionary group. Shalhi, who effectively served as Idris' chief of staff, and his brother Omar were

3300-611: The Sudan People's Liberation Army 's attempt to overthrow Nimeiry. In 1974, Gaddafi released Abdul-Aziz Shennib , a commander under King Idris , from prison and appointed him Libyan ambassador to Jordan . Shennib had attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst with King Hussein of Jordan and was tasked by Gaddafi with Hussein's assassination. Shennib instead informed Hussein of the plot and defected to Jordan. Relations with Syria also soured over

3410-569: The University of Libya in Benghazi before dropping out to join the military. Despite his police record, in 1963 he began training at the Royal Military Academy , Benghazi, alongside several like-minded friends from Misrata. The armed forces offered the only opportunity for upward social mobility for underprivileged Libyans, and Gaddafi recognized it as a potential instrument of political change. Under Idris, Libya's armed forces were trained by

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3520-556: The districts ( sha'biyat ) of Wadi al Shatii , Wadi al Hayaa , Jufra , Ghadames , Murzuq , Sabha and Ghat (some maps allocate Ghadames to the neighbouring region of Tripolitania ). The historic capital, largest city, political and administrative centre is Sabha . The region's inhabitants include the Berber, the Dawada , the nomadic Tuareg in the southwest, and the Toubou in

3630-701: The pheasants ". Fezzan is crossed in the north by the ash-Shati Valley ( Wadi Al Shatii ) and in the west by the Wadi Irawan. These two areas, along with portions of the Tibesti Mountains crossing the Chadian border and a sprinkling of remote oases and border posts, are the only parts of the Fezzan able to support settled populations. The large dune seas known as ergs of the Idehan Ubari and

3740-577: The "Islamic bomb," Lahore Stadium was renamed Gaddafi Stadium . Gaddafi also provided support for Pakistan in the Bangladesh Liberation War ; he reportedly deployed F-5s to Sargodha AFB and penned a strongly worded letter to Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi accusing her of aggression against Pakistan. Gaddafi's strong relationship with Pakistan ended after Bhutto was deposed by Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in 1977 as Zia distrusted Gaddafi and rejected further Libyan financing for

3850-643: The 1980s. Turning his attention to Algeria , in 1975 Libya signed, in Hassi Messaoud , a defensive alliance allegedly to counter alleged "Moroccan expansionism", also funding the Polisario Front of Western Sahara in its independence struggle against Morocco . Seeking to diversify Libya's economy, Gaddafi's government began purchasing shares in major European corporations like Fiat as well as buying real estate in Malta and Italy, which would become

3960-593: The Berka barracks in Benghazi, while Umar Muhayshi occupied Tripoli barracks and Jalloud seized the city's anti-aircraft batteries. Khweldi Hameidi took over the Tripoli radio station and was sent to arrest crown prince Sayyid Hasan ar-Rida al-Mahdi as-Sanussi and force him to relinquish his claim to the throne. They met no serious resistance and wielded little violence against the monarchists. Once Gaddafi removed

4070-502: The British military; this angered Gaddafi, who viewed the British as imperialists, and accordingly, he refused to learn English and was rude to the British officers, ultimately failing his exams. British trainers reported him for insubordination and abusive behaviour, stating their suspicion that he was involved in the assassination of the military academy's commander in 1963. Such reports were ignored, and Gaddafi quickly progressed through

4180-595: The Fezzan became a part of the Kanem Empire , which extended as far as Zella, Libya . Wars against the Kanem–Bornu Empire in the early sixteenth century led to the founding of the Awlad Muhammad dynasty, with Murzuk becoming the capital of Fezzan. Around 1565 it was ruled by Muhammad ibn al-Muntasir. The Ottoman rulers of North Africa asserted their control over the region in the 17th century. In

4290-546: The Free Officers' coup represented a revolution, marking the start of widespread change in the socio-economic and political nature of Libya. He proclaimed that the revolution meant "freedom, socialism, and unity", and over the coming years implemented measures to achieve this. The 12-member central committee of the Free Officers proclaimed themselves the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC),

4400-562: The Libyans' standard of life greatly improved over the first decade of Gaddafi's administration, and by 1979 the average per-capita income was at $ 8,170, up from $ 40 in 1951; this was above the average of many industrialized countries like Italy and the UK. In 1969, the government also declared that all foreign owned banks must either close down or convert to joint-stock operations. The RCC implemented measures for social reform, adopting sharia as

4510-587: The Muslim Brotherhood, who accused Gaddafi of moving towards Marxism and criticized his abolition of private property as being against the Islamic sunnah ; these forces were then persecuted as anti-revolutionary, while all privately owned Islamic colleges and universities were shut down. Following Anwar Sadat's ascension to the Egyptian presidency, Libya's relations with Egypt deteriorated. Over

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4620-559: The Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and his group, Fatah , over more militant and Marxist Palestinian groups. As the years progressed however, Gaddafi's relationship with Arafat became strained, with Gaddafi considering him too moderate and calling for more violent action. Instead, he supported militias like the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine , Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command ,

4730-628: The Revolutionary Intellectuals Seminar was held to bring intellectuals in line with the revolution, while that year's Legislative Review and Amendment united secular and religious law codes, introducing sharia into the legal system. Ruling by decree , the RCC maintained the monarchy's ban on political parties, in May 1970 banned trade unions, and in 1972 outlawed workers' strikes and suspended newspapers. In September 1971, Gaddafi resigned, claiming to be dissatisfied with

4840-883: The September 1973 deadline for implementing the Federation passed by with no action taken. After the 1969 coup, representatives of the Four Powers —France, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union —were called to meet RCC representatives. The UK and the US quickly extended diplomatic recognition, hoping to secure the position of their military bases in Libya and fearing further instability. Hoping to ingratiate themselves with Gaddafi, in 1970

4950-502: The Shelhis in overthrowing the monarchy, initiated "Operation Jerusalem". If Gaddafi's Free Officers had not preempted the Shelhis, they would have almost certainly been defeated by the combined forces of Abdul Aziz Shelhi, the deputy commander of Libya's army, and the prominent families in Cyrenaica that supported the Shelhi family. On 1 September, Gaddafi's Free Officers occupied airports, police depots, radio stations, and government offices in Tripoli and Benghazi. Gaddafi took control of

5060-420: The Soviet Union. The commercial relationship with the latter led to an increasingly strained relationship with the US, which was then engaged in the Cold War with the Soviets. Gaddafi was especially critical of the US due to its support of Israel and sided with the Palestinians in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , viewing the 1948 creation of the State of Israel as a Western colonial occupation forced upon

5170-479: The Tripoli Agreement of 20 March 1971, in which they secured income tax, back-payments and better pricing from the oil corporations; these measures brought Libya an estimated $ 1 billion in additional revenues in its first year. Increasing state control over the oil sector, the RCC began a program of nationalization , starting with the expropriation of British Petroleum 's share of the British Petroleum-N.B. Hunt Sahir Field in December 1971. In September 1973, it

5280-419: The US informed him of at least one planned counter-coup. Such attempts to form a working relationship with the RCC failed; Gaddafi was determined to reassert national sovereignty and expunge what he described as foreign colonial and imperialist influences. His administration insisted that the US and the UK remove their military bases from Libya, with Gaddafi proclaiming that "the armed forces which rose to express

5390-441: The age of sixteen and ensuring that a woman's consent was a necessary prerequisite for a marriage. Gaddafi's regime opened up a wide range of educational and employment opportunities for women, although these primarily benefited a minority in the urban middle-classes. From 1969 to 1973, it used oil money to fund social welfare programs, which led to housebuilding projects and improved healthcare and education. House building became

5500-597: The basis for the legal system and promoted Islamic socialism . He nationalized the oil industry and used the increasing state revenues to bolster the military, fund foreign revolutionaries , and implement social programs emphasizing housebuilding, healthcare and education projects. In 1973, he initiated a " Popular Revolution " with the formation of Basic People's Congresses , presented as a system of direct democracy , but retained personal control over major decisions. He outlined his Third International Theory that year in The Green Book . In 1977 Gaddafi transformed Libya into

5610-418: The coming years, the two slipped into a state of cold war . Sadat was perturbed by Gaddafi's unpredictability and insistence that Egypt required a cultural revolution akin to that being carried out in Libya. In February 1973, Israeli forces shot down Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 , which had strayed from Egyptian airspace into Israeli-held territory during a sandstorm. Gaddafi's foreign minister Salah Busir

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5720-434: The committee system aided national integration and centralization and tightened Gaddafi's control over the state and administrative apparatus. In June 1973, Gaddafi created a political ideology as a basis for the Popular Revolution: Third International Theory . This approach regarded both the US and the Soviet Union as imperialist and thus rejected Western capitalism as well as Marxist–Leninist atheism. In this respect, it

5830-522: The contrary, he did not attend the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst . The Bovington signal course's director reported that Gaddafi successfully overcame problems learning English, displaying a firm command of voice procedure. Noting that Gaddafi's favourite hobbies were reading and playing football , he thought of him as an "amusing officer, always cheerful, hard-working, and conscientious". Gaddafi disliked England, claiming British Army officers had racially insulted him and finding it difficult adjusting to

5940-561: The countries to aid trade and development. Gaddafi was also keen on reducing Israeli influence within Africa, using financial incentives to successfully convince eight African states to break off diplomatic relations with Israel in 1973. A strong relationship was also established between Gaddafi's Libya and Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto 's Pakistani government, with the two countries exchanging nuclear research and military assistance. In recognition of Gaddafi's support of Pakistan's right to pursue nuclear weapons and financial support for

6050-398: The country following the discovery of oil reserves. Conversely, many Libyans strongly opposed Gaddafi's social and economic reforms; he was accused of various human rights violations. He was condemned by many as a dictator whose authoritarian administration systematically violated human rights and financed global terrorism in the region and abroad. Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi

6160-581: The country's culture; asserting his Arab identity in London, he walked around Piccadilly wearing traditional Libyan robes. He later related that while he travelled to England believing it more advanced than Libya, he returned home "more confident and proud of our values, ideals and social character". People of Libya! In response to your own will, fulfilling your most heartfelt wishes, answering your most incessant demands for change and regeneration, and your longing to strive towards these ends: listening to your incitement to rebel, your armed forces have undertaken

6270-430: The country's primary export, Gaddafi sought to improve Libya's oil sector. In October 1969, he proclaimed the current trade terms unfair, benefiting foreign corporations more than the Libyan state, and threatened to decrease production. In December Jalloud successfully increased the price of Libyan oil. In 1970, other OPEC states followed suit, leading to a global increase in the price of crude oil. The RCC followed with

6380-430: The country's revolutionary ideology. The People's Committees led to a high percentage of public involvement in decision making, within the limits permitted by the RCC, but exacerbated tribal divisions and tensions. They also served as a surveillance system, aiding the security services in locating individuals with views critical of the RCC, leading to the arrest of Ba'athists , Marxists , and Islamists . Operating in

6490-433: The course. With a group of loyal cadres, in 1964, Gaddafi established the Central Committee of the Free Officers Movement, a revolutionary group named after Nasser's Egyptian predecessor . Led by Gaddafi, they met secretively and were organized into a clandestine cell system , pooling their salaries into a single fund. Gaddafi travelled around Libya collecting intelligence and developing connections with sympathizers, but

6600-502: The dramatic events occurring in their homeland. From Sirte, he and his family moved to the market town of Sabha in Fezzan , south-central Libya, where his father worked as a caretaker for a tribal leader while Muammar attended secondary school, something neither parent had done. Gaddafi was popular at this school; some friends made there received significant jobs in his later administration, most notably his best friend, Abdul Salam Jalloud . Many teachers at Sabha were Egyptian, and for

6710-405: The events in the Lebanese Civil War . Initially, both Libya and Syria had contributed troops to the Arab League's peacekeeping force, although after the Syrian army attacked the Lebanese National Movement , Gaddafi openly accused Syrian President Hafez al-Assad of "national treason"; he was the only Arab leader to criticize Syria's actions. In late 1972 and early 1973, Libya invaded Chad to annex

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6820-408: The financial strain. During the week Gaddafi slept in a mosque, and only at weekends and holidays walked 20 miles (32 km) to visit his parents. Even though Gaddafi's father was not educated, he made great sacrifices to send his son to school. As an impoverished Bedouin, he faced bullying and discrimination from his city-dwelling classmates. However, he had many Egyptian teachers who informed him of

6930-412: The first time, Gaddafi had access to pan-Arab newspapers and radio broadcasts, especially the Cairo -based Voice of the Arabs . Growing up, Gaddafi witnessed significant events rock the Arab world , including the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 , the Suez Crisis of 1956, and the short-lived existence of the United Arab Republic (UAR) between 1958 and 1961. Gaddafi admired

7040-425: The following month. The RCC's early economic policy has been characterized as being state capitalist in orientation. Many initiatives were established to aid entrepreneurs and develop a Libyan bourgeoisie. Seeking to expand the cultivatable acreage in Libya, in September 1969 the government launched a "Green Revolution" to increase agricultural productivity so that Libya could rely less on imported food. The hope

7150-454: The government of the new republic. Lieutenant Gaddafi became RCC chairman, and therefore the de facto head of state, also appointing himself to the rank of colonel and becoming commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Jalloud became Prime Minister, while a civilian Council of Ministers headed by Sulaiman Maghribi was founded to implement RCC policy. Libya's administrative capital was moved from al-Beida to Tripoli. Although theoretically

7260-511: The government's intelligence services ignored him, considering him little threat. Graduating in August 1965, Gaddafi became a communications officer in the army's signal corps. In April 1966, he was assigned to the United Kingdom for further training; over nine months he underwent an English-language course at Beaconsfield , Buckinghamshire, an Army Air Corps signal instructors course in Bovington Camp , Dorset, and an infantry signal instructors course at Hythe , Kent. Despite later rumours to

7370-509: The inexperienced RCC. Gaddafi propounded pan-Arab ideas, proclaiming the need for a single Arab state stretching across North Africa and the Middle East. In December 1969, Libya signed the Tripoli Charter alongside Egypt and Sudan. This established the Arab Revolutionary Front, a pan-national union designed as a first step towards the eventual political unification of the three nations. In 1970 Syria declared its intention to join. Nasser died unexpectedly in September 1970, with Gaddafi playing

7480-433: The introduction of the new administrative division of Libya in 1963, Fezzan was abolished as an independent administrative unit and was divided into the muhafazat of Awbari and Sabha . In 1983, these administrative divisions were abolished in favour of smaller districts or baladiyah . The Baladiyat-system was reorganized in 1987 and was replaced in 1995 by the sha'biyat -system. The former Fezzan province contains

7590-415: The island, but only on the condition that NATO would not use it for launching attacks on Arab territory. Over the coming decade, Gaddafi's government developed stronger political and economic links with Dom Mintoff 's Maltese administration, and under Libya's urging Malta did not renew the UK's airbases on the island in 1980. Orchestrating a military build-up, the RCC began purchasing weapons from France and

7700-411: The large amount of oil revenue being spent on foreign causes, generated discontent in Libya, particularly among the country's merchant class. In 1974, Libya saw its first civilian attack on Gaddafi's government when a Benghazi army building was bombed. Much of the opposition centred around RCC member Umar Muhayshi . With fellow RCC members Bashir Saghir al-Hawaadi and Awad Ali Hamza, he began plotting

7810-409: The militant Sanusiya Sufi religious order. The Tuareg clans of the region were only pacified by European expansion shortly before the Second World War , and some of them collaborated with the Italian Army in the North African Campaign . Free French troops occupied Murzuk , a chief town of Fezzan, on 16 January 1943, and proceeded to administer Fezzan with a staff stationed in Sabha , forming

7920-516: The monarchical government, he announced the foundation of the Libyan Arab Republic . Addressing the populace by radio, he proclaimed an end to the "reactionary and corrupt" regime, "the stench of which has sickened and horrified us all". Due to the coup's bloodless nature, it was initially labelled the "White Revolution", although was later renamed the "One September Revolution" after the date on which it occurred. Gaddafi insisted that

8030-644: The northern reaches of the Sahara , and the Roman explorer Julius Maternus traveled there in early 1st century CE. Paulinus reached Fezzan and went further south. With the end of the Roman Empire and the following commercial crisis, Fezzan began to lose importance. The population was greatly reduced due to the desertification process of the Sahara during the early Middle Ages . During the 13th and 14th centuries,

8140-455: The oil trade, and so have turned to smuggling migrants from other parts of Africa, which is feeding the European migrant crisis and is a $ 1 billion per year industry. [REDACTED] Media related to Fezzan at Wikimedia Commons 26°19′58″N 13°25′31″E  /  26.3328°N 13.4253°E  / 26.3328; 13.4253 Fezzan province Fezzan province is one of

8250-497: The order, fearing a military escalation. Gaddafi was later infuriated when Egypt and Syria planned the Yom Kippur War against Israel without consulting him and was angered when Egypt conceded to peace talks rather than continuing the war. Gaddafi became openly hostile to Egypt's leader, calling for Sadat's overthrow. When Sudanese President Gaafar Nimeiry took Sadat's side, Gaddafi also spoke out against him, encouraging

8360-560: The overthrow of the corrupt regime, the stench of which has sickened and horrified us all. At a single blow our gallant army has toppled these idols and has destroyed their images. By a single stroke it has lightened the long dark night in which the Turkish domination was followed first by Italian rule, then by this reactionary and decadent regime which was no more than a hotbed of extortion, faction, treachery and treason. —Gaddafi's radio speech after seizing power, 1969 Idris' government

8470-413: The pace of reform, but returned to his position within a month. In July 1972, amid widespread speculation that Gaddafi had been ousted or jailed by his political opponents, a new 18-man cabinet was formed with only two of them, Jalloud and Abdel Moneim al-Houni , being military men; the rest were civilian technocrats per Gaddafi's insistence. In February 1973, Gaddafi resigned again, once more returning

8580-578: The people's revolution [will not] tolerate living in their shacks while the bases of imperialism exist in Libyan territory." The British left in March and the Americans in June 1970. Moving to reduce Italian influence, in October 1970 all Italian-owned assets were expropriated, and the 12,000-strong Italian community was expelled from Libya alongside the smaller community of Libyan Jews . The day became

8690-561: The political changes implemented in the Arab Republic of Egypt under his hero, President Gamal Abdel Nasser . Nasser argued for Arab nationalism ; the rejection of Western colonialism , neo-colonialism , and Zionism ; and a transition from capitalism to socialism . Gaddafi was influenced by Nasser's book, Philosophy of the Revolution , which outlined how to initiate a coup. One of Gaddafi's Egyptian teachers, Mahmoud Efay,

8800-417: The reign of Abdulhamid II (1876–1909) Fezzan was used as a place of political exile for Young Turks because it was the most remote province from Istanbul . Beginning in 1911, Fezzan was occupied by Italy . However, Italy's control of the region was precarious until at least 1923, with the rise of Benito Mussolini . The Italians were resisted in their early attempts at conquest by tribal Arab adherents to

8910-572: The rest of his life; he preferred the desert over the city and would retreat there to meditate. From childhood, Gaddafi was aware of the involvement of European colonial powers in Libya; his nation was occupied by Italy , and during the North African Campaign of the Second World War it witnessed conflict between Italian and British forces. According to later claims, Gaddafi's paternal grandfather, Abdessalam Bouminyar,

9020-718: The revolution, while the fifth proclaimed the beginning of the Cultural Revolution in Libya , to expunge the country of "poisonous" foreign influences. He began to lecture on this new phase of the revolution in Libya, Egypt, and France. As a process, it had many similarities with the Cultural Revolution implemented in China. As part of this Popular Revolution, Gaddafi invited Libya's people to found General People's Committees as conduits for raising political consciousness. Although offering little guidance for how to set up these councils, Gaddafi claimed that they would offer

9130-492: The side of the anti-Gaddafist National Transitional Council (NTC). Gaddafi's government was overthrown; he retreated to Sirte only to be captured, tortured and killed by NTC militants. A highly divisive figure, Gaddafi dominated Libya's politics for four decades and was the subject of a pervasive cult of personality . He was decorated with various awards and praised for his anti-imperialist stance, support for Arab—and then African—unity, as well as for significant development to

9240-563: The sons of Idris' former chief advisor Ibrahim Shalhi, who had been murdered by Queen Fatima 's nephew in the fall of 1954. After their father's assassination, they became the favorites of Idris. In mid-1969, Idris travelled abroad to spend the summer in Turkey and Greece amid widespread rumors of an abdication or a British-backed coup by the Shalhi brothers on 5 September. Gaddafi's Free Officers, recognizing this as their last chance to preempt

9350-404: The southeast. These pastoralist populations often cross the borders of Algeria , Chad and Niger freely. In the north, Arab , Berber and settled Tuareg and Toubou mix. While making up some 30% of the land area of Libya, the Fezzan supports only a small percentage of its population. Large towns like Sabha survive on near-surface water in the wadis of the north and west. The northeast area

9460-476: The strict social restrictions that had been imposed on women by the previous regime, establishing the Revolutionary Women's Formation to encourage reform. In 1970, a law was introduced affirming equality of the sexes and insisting on wage parity. In 1971, Gaddafi sponsored the creation of a Libyan General Women's Federation. In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of any females under

9570-554: The three traditional Provinces of Libya . It was a formal province from 1934 until 1963, when it was subdivided into the Governorates of Libya . Its capital was the city of Sabha . In 1963, the province was split into: Fezzan was a province under the Ottoman Turks and Italy , and a province ( wilayah ) or governorate ( muhafazah ) of independent Libya (alongside Tripolitania and Cyrenaica ) until 1963. With

9680-548: The universities of Tripoli and Benghazi, resulting in clashes with both Gaddafist students and police. The RCC responded with mass arrests and introduced compulsory national service for young people. In January 1977, two dissenting students and a number of army officers were publicly hanged; Amnesty International condemned it as the first time in Gaddafist Libya that dissenters had been executed for purely political crimes. Dissent also arose from conservative clerics and

9790-656: The uranium-rich Aouzou Strip . Intent on propagating Islam, in 1973 Gaddafi founded the Islamic Call Society, which had opened 132 centres across Africa within a decade. In 1973 he converted Gabonese President Omar Bongo , an action which he repeated three years later with Jean-Bédel Bokassa , president of the Central African Republic . Between 1973 and 1979, Libya provided $ 500 million in aid to African countries, namely to Zaire and Uganda, and founded joint-venture companies throughout

9900-571: The wealthy, highly educated conservatives who previously governed the country. The coup completed, the RCC proceeded with their intentions of consolidating the revolutionary government and modernizing the country. They purged monarchists and members of Idris' Senussi clan from Libya's political world and armed forces; Gaddafi believed this elite were opposed to the will of the Libyan people and had to be expunged. People's Courts were founded to try various monarchist politicians and journalists, many of whom were imprisoned, although none executed. Idris

10010-646: The world stage. A particularly hostile relationship developed with Israel, the United States and the United Kingdom, resulting in the 1986 U.S. bombing of Libya and United Nations–imposed economic sanctions. From 1999, Gaddafi shunned pan-Arabism, and encouraged pan-Africanism and rapprochement with Western nations ; he was Chairperson of the African Union from 2009 to 2010. Amid the 2011 Arab Spring , protests against widespread corruption and unemployment broke out in eastern Libya. The situation descended into civil war , in which NATO intervened militarily on

10120-1047: The world, including the Black Panther Party , the Nation of Islam , the Almighty Black P. Stone Nation , the Tupamaros , the 19th of April Movement and the Sandinista National Liberation Front in Nicaragua, the ANC among other liberation movements in the fight against Apartheid in South Africa, the Provisional Irish Republican Army , ETA , Action directe , the Red Brigades , and

10230-540: The years that followed, Gaddafists adopted quotes from The Green Book , such as "Representation is Fraud", as slogans. Meanwhile, in September 1975, Gaddafi implemented further measures to increase popular mobilization, introducing objectives to improve the relationship between the Councils and the ASU. In 1975, Gaddafi's government declared a state monopoly on foreign trade. Its increasingly radical reforms, coupled with

10340-645: Was a Libyan revolutionary , politician and political theorist who ruled Libya from 1969 until his assassination by rebel forces in 2011. He came to power through a military coup , first becoming Revolutionary Chairman of the Libyan Arab Republic from 1969 to 1977 and then the ' Brotherly Leader' of the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya from 1977 to 2011. Initially ideologically committed to Arab nationalism and Nasserism , Gaddafi later ruled according to his own Third International Theory . Born near Sirte , Italian Libya , to

10450-727: Was a stronghold for Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi through much of the 2011 Libyan Civil War , though starting in July, anti-Gaddafi forces began to gain ground , taking control of the region's largest city of Sabha in mid-to-late September. The LF country code (.lf) was reserved "on behalf" of Libya Fezzan (for an "indeterminate period of time") by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). There are oil wells in Fezzan capable of producing 400,000 barrels per day, but oil companies fly in staff from northern Libya. The local tribes are not getting any money from

10560-586: Was announced that all foreign oil producers active in Libya were to see 51 per cent of their operation nationalized, including the stake of Nelson Bunker Hunt , son of H.L. Hunt , who had played a key role in the discovery of oil in Libya. Among the companies that were partially nationalized was Armand Hammer 's Occidental Petroleum . For Gaddafi, this was an essential step towards socialism. It proved an economic success; while gross domestic product had been $ 3.8 billion in 1969, it had risen to $ 13.7 billion in 1974, and $ 24.5 billion in 1979. In turn,

10670-646: Was born near Qasr Abu Hadi , a rural area outside the town of Sirte in the deserts of Tripolitania , Italian western Libya. Gaddafi was the only son of his parents and the youngest of four siblings. His family came from a small, relatively uninfluential tribe called the Qadhadhfa , who were Arab in heritage. His mother was named Aisha bin Niran (died 1978), and his father, Mohammad Abdul Salam bin Hamed bin Mohammad,

10780-485: Was devoted to the issue of democracy, outlining the flaws of representative systems in favour of direct, participatory GPCs. The second dealt with Gaddafi's beliefs regarding socialism, while the third explored social issues regarding the family and the tribe. While the first two volumes advocated radical reform, the third adopted a socially conservative stance, proclaiming that while men and women were equal, they were biologically designed for different roles in life. During

10890-503: Was expanded from 6 to 9 years, while adult literacy programs and free university education were introduced. Beida University was founded, while Tripoli University and Benghazi University were expanded. In doing so, the government helped to integrate the poorer strata of Libyan society into the education system. Through these measures, the RCC greatly expanded the public sector , providing employment for thousands. These early social programs proved popular within Libya. This popularity

11000-609: Was further concentrated in Gaddafi's hands. This ultimately led to the RCC's official abolition in March 1977. In September 1975, Gaddafi purged the army, arresting around 200 senior officers, and in October he founded the clandestine Office for the Security of the Revolution. In April 1976, he called upon his supporters in universities to establish "revolutionary student councils" and drive out "reactionary elements". During that year, anti-Gaddafist student demonstrations broke out at

11110-405: Was increasingly unpopular by the latter 1960s; it had exacerbated Libya's traditional regional and tribal divisions by centralizing the country's federal system to take advantage of the country's oil wealth. Corruption and entrenched systems of patronage were widespread throughout the oil industry. Arab nationalism was increasingly popular, and protests flared up following Egypt's 1967 defeat in

11220-784: Was killed by the Italian Army during the Italian invasion of 1911 . At the end of the Second World War in 1945, Libya was occupied by British and French forces. Britain and France considered dividing the nation between their empires, but the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN) decided that the country was to be granted political independence, and in 1951 created the United Kingdom of Libya ,

11330-610: Was known as Abu Meniar (died 1985); the latter earned a meager subsistence as a goat and camel herder. Like other contemporary nomadic Bedouin tribes, the family were illiterate and did not keep any birth records. His birthday is not known with certainty and sources have set it in 1942 or the spring of 1943, although his biographers David Blundy and Andrew Lycett noted that it could have been pre-1940. His parents' only surviving son, he had three older sisters. Gaddafi's upbringing in Bedouin culture influenced his personal tastes for

11440-515: Was on board and allegedly targeted by Israel in retaliation for the Munich massacre . Gaddafi was infuriated that Egypt had not done more to prevent the incident, and in retaliation planned to destroy the Queen Elizabeth 2 , a British ship chartered by American Jews to sail to Haifa for Israel's 25th anniversary. Gaddafi ordered an Egyptian submarine to target the ship, but Sadat cancelled

11550-471: Was partly due to Gaddafi's personal charisma, youth and underdog status as a Bedouin, as well as his rhetoric emphasizing his role as the successor to the anti-Italian fighter Omar Mukhtar . To combat the country's strong regional and tribal divisions, the RCC promoted the idea of a unified pan-Libyan identity. In doing so, they tried discrediting tribal leaders as agents of the old regime, and in August 1971

11660-558: Was president. The ASU recognized the RCC as its "Supreme Leading Authority", and was designed to further revolutionary enthusiasm throughout the country. It remained heavily bureaucratic and failed to mobilize mass support in the way Gaddafi had envisioned. The influence of Nasser's Arab nationalism over the RCC was immediately apparent. The administration was instantly recognized by the neighbouring Arab nationalist regimes in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Sudan, with Egypt sending experts to aid

11770-457: Was reportedly sympathetic towards the youth's political ideas, and advised him that a successful revolution would need the support of the army. Gaddafi organized demonstrations and distributed posters criticizing the monarchy. In October 1961, he led a demonstration protesting against Syria's secession from the UAR and raised funds to send cables of support to Nasser. Twenty students were arrested as

11880-464: Was sentenced to execution in absentia . Three months after Gaddafi came to power, the army minister and interior minister, both of whom were from the eastern Barqa region, tried to overthrow him in a failed coup . In 1970, Idris' great nephew Ahmed al-Senussi tried to instigate another coup against Gaddafi; the monarchist plot was foiled in August and Ahmed was sentenced to death (commuted in 1988 and pardoned by Gaddafi in 2001). In May 1970,

11990-477: Was similar to the Three Worlds Theory developed by China's political leader Mao Zedong . As part of this theory, Gaddafi praised nationalism as a progressive force and advocated the creation of a pan-Arab state which would lead the Islamic and Third Worlds against imperialism. Gaddafi saw Islam as having a key role in this ideology, calling for an Islamic revival that returned to the origins of

12100-456: Was to make Libya self-sufficient in food production. All land that had either been expropriated from Italian settlers or which was not in use was repossessed and redistributed. Irrigation systems were established along the northern coastline and around various inland oases. Production costs often surpassed the value of the produce and thus Libyan agricultural production remained in deficit, relying heavily on state subsidies. With crude oil as

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