List of forms of government
124-407: List of forms of government A federacy is a form of government where one or several substate units enjoy considerably more independence than the majority of the substate units. To some extent, such an arrangement can be considered to be similar to asymmetric federalism . A federacy is a form of government with features of both a federation and unitary state . In a federacy, at least one of
248-575: A dictatorship or it may be a group, as in a one-party state . The word despotism means to "rule in the fashion of despots" and is often used to describe autocracy. Historical examples of autocracy include the Roman Empire , North Korea , the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan , Eritrea and Nazi Germany . Regardless of the form of government, the actual governance may be influenced by sectors with political power which are not part of
372-574: A decentralised government system. This new legislation has allowed the implementation of a regional assembly in Rodrigues constituting 18 members and an executive council headed by a Chief Commissioner . The council meets every week to make decisions, draw up laws and manage the budget. The Chief Commissioner has the main task of informing the Mauritian Prime Minister of the management of the island's concerns. In 1994 Gagauzia ,
496-437: A form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. A common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Montesquieu included both democracies , where all the people have a share in rule, and aristocracies or oligarchies , where only some of
620-541: A historical state of human society, especially before the concentration of power afforded by agriculture. It has been presented as a viable long-term choice by individuals known as anarchists who oppose the state and other forms of coercive hierarchies. These systems are often highly organized, and include institutional or cultural systems to prevent the concentration of power. Anarchism typically advocates for social organization in non-hierarchical, voluntary associations where people voluntarily help each other . There are
744-586: A minimum of land, wealth and status. Some critics of capitalism and/or representative democracy think of the United States and the United Kingdom as oligarchies . These categories are not exclusive. Autocracies are ruled by a single entity with absolute power, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regular mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for implicit threat). That entity may be an individual, as in
868-431: A minimum of wealth and status. Social democracy rejects the "either/or" phobiocratic/polarization interpretation of capitalism versus socialism. Social democracy argues that all citizens should be legally entitled to certain social rights. These are made up of universal access to public services such as: education, health care, workers' compensation, public transportation, and other services including child care and care for
992-468: A minimum role in the government of the larger one, and where the relationship can be dissolved only by mutual agreement". However contrary to this definition he notes that far from having a minimum role in the government of the United States, Puerto Rico has no effective representation in Congress, except for a token representative that has no right to vote there. Nor do the residents of Puerto Rico vote for
1116-516: A new and distinct area of law in France (akin to the "federal laws" that apply across States of the US, on top of their own State law), and not simply a group of rules which influence the content of France's civil, criminal, administrative and constitutional law. Legislation is seen as the primary source of French law. Unlike in common law jurisdictions, where a collection of cases and practices (known as
1240-577: A number of small, wealthy, trade-based city-states embraced republican ideals, notably across Italy and the Baltic. In general, these mercantile republics arose in regions of Europe where feudal control by an absolutist monarchy was minimal or absent completely. In these mercantile republics, the leaders were elected by the citizenry with the primary duty of increasing the city-state's collective wealth. Many political systems can be described as socioeconomic ideologies. Experience with those movements in power and
1364-403: A parliamentary statute. Case law ( la jurisprudence ) is not binding and is not an official source of law, although it has been de facto highly influential. French courts have recognized their role in gradually shaping the law through judicial decisions, and the fact that they develop judicial doctrine, especially through jurisprudence constante (a consistent set of case law). There
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#17327824407881488-407: A purpose to further public interest. The court also reviews facts (including subjective judgments based on facts, like the architectural value of a building), and interpret the law. There are also three levels of scrutiny, namely: Recourses provided by the court include damages, setting aside contracts, amending contracts, quashing an administrative decision, or interpret the law (only available to
1612-429: A single, vastly powerful corporation deposes a weak government, over time or in a coup d'état . Some political scientists have also considered state socialist nations to be forms of corporate republics, with the state assuming full control of all economic and political life and establishing a monopoly on everything within national boundaries – effectively making the state itself amount to a giant corporation. Probably
1736-683: A standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three. Scholars generally refer to a dictatorship as either a form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato discusses in the Republic five types of regimes: aristocracy , timocracy , oligarchy , democracy, and tyranny . The question raised by Plato in the Republic : What kind of state is best? Generational changes informed by new political and cultural beliefs, technological progress, values and morality over millenniums have resulted in considerable shifts in
1860-564: A taxpayer is insufficient, those affected in a "special, certain and direct" manner (including moral interests) will have standing. In addition, users of public service can generally challenge decisions on those services. Associations can also have standing in some circumstances. The French Constitution specifically authorizes France's participation in the European Union (EU), an economic and political union with many legal powers. The Constitution has also been amended, as required by
1984-527: A territory in the southern part of the Republic of Moldova inhabited by the Gagauz people , an ethnic group distinct from the majority Moldovans , was given autonomy including "the right of external self-determination". This is in contrast to the other subdivisions of Moldova ( raioane ) which are county-level administrative areas with little autonomy. However, the eastern part of Moldova is an internationally unrecognized breakaway republic ( Transnistria ) which
2108-584: A unified code of private law would not be passed until 1804, under Napoleon and after the French Revolution . Under King Louis XV , there would be a constant struggle between royal legislation, traditional conceptions of the law of the Realm (customs and Roman law), and parliamentary arrêts de règlements (regulatory decisions). Judges sided with the local parliaments (judicial bodies in France) and
2232-570: A variety of forms of anarchy that attempt to discourage the use of coercion, violence, force and authority, while still producing a productive and desirable society. More generally, random selection of decision makers from a larger group is known as sortition (from the Latin base for lottery). The Athenian democracy made much use of sortition, with nearly all government offices filled by lottery (of full citizens) rather than by election. Candidates were almost always male, Greek, educated citizens holding
2356-720: Is de facto self-governing. The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of four autonomous countries, linked by the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands as constituent parts: the Netherlands , an autonomous, independent country, and Aruba , Curaçao and Sint Maarten , three separate, non-independent, autonomous countries. (Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten formerly made up the Netherlands Antilles , which
2480-520: Is a wide variety. This variety includes autonomies which are classified along a continuum that would take several "federacies" and reclassify them thus: In examining the Puerto Rico case, Lluch notes that although Elazar has mischaracterized the nature of the Puerto Rico–U.S. relationship, it is still cited as the prototype of a "federacy". Lluch defines Puerto Rico as a non-federal autonomy, which
2604-806: Is an autonomous republic that occupies the whole western portion of Uzbekistan . A federacy differs from an associated state , such as the Federated States of Micronesia , the Marshall Islands , and Palau (in free association with the United States) and the Cook Islands and Niue (which are parts of the Realm of New Zealand ). There are two kinds of associated state: in the case of the Federated States of Micronesia,
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#17327824407882728-401: Is appointed by the president or elected by the parliament and handles daily administration. The term semi-presidential distinguishes this system from presidential and parliamentary systems. A directorial republic is a government system with power divided among a college of several people who jointly exercise the powers of a head of state and/or a head of government. In the early Renaissance,
2852-597: Is autonomous within Saint Kitts and Nevis , with its own deputy governor and government. Príncipe has had self-government from São Tomé since 1995. Serbia has two ' autonomous provinces ' defined in its constitution: Vojvodina , and Kosovo & Metohija . The partially recognized Republic of Kosovo administers the latter, resulting in a territorial dispute . Badakhshan is an autonomous region in Tajikistan consisting of 7 local districts. Its government
2976-575: Is better conceptualized as an exemplar of autonomism with the category of "federacy" being less helpful to explain it. List of forms of government This article lists forms of government and political systems , which are not mutually exclusive , and often have much overlap. According to Yale professor Juan José Linz there are three main types of political systems today: democracies , totalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes with hybrid regimes . Another modern classification system includes monarchies as
3100-764: Is called droit administratif . Administrative procedure were originally developed by case law but have been statutorily affirmed in the Code de justice administrative in 2000. French administrative law focuses on proper functioning of government and the public good, rather than constraining the government. French public bodies include governments and public organizations or enterprises, subject to different sets of rules, with both privileges and additional limitations compared to private actors. Public bodies have tremendous powers, including police powers ( pouvoirs de police ) to regulate public health or public order, and to expropriate property . Public bodies must exercise their powers in
3224-491: Is considered somewhat sovereign to the Tajik government, but the region has from time to time been in militant conflict just as in 2014. Tanzania is divided in 30 regions . Five of those regions together form Zanzibar . This island is a self-governing region. It elects its own president who has control over the internal matters of the island. Zanzibar was an independent sultanate and a British protectorate, while Tanganyika
3348-492: Is defined more broadly. For example, a 2010 International Alert publication defined anocracies as "countries that are neither autocratic nor democratic, most of which are making the risky transition between autocracy and democracy". Alert noted that the number of anocracies had increased substantially since the end of the Cold War. Anocracy is not surprisingly the least resilient political system to short-term shocks: it creates
3472-495: Is granted by Congress . Federal taxes do not automatically apply to Puerto Rico unless the Government of Puerto Rico wants them to. Although the U.S. government has full say over its foreign policy, Puerto Rico does maintain direct contacts with its Caribbean neighbors. Puerto Rico does not have full voting representation in the U.S. Congress, nor do its people vote for electors in U.S. presidential elections. Karakalpakstan
3596-431: Is in the end not a helpful category to understanding the types of institutional arrangements referred and recommends that scholars of comparative federalism find a more nuanced category to describe contemporary actually-existing autonomies such as Puerto Rico. Lluch shows that federacies have little to do with federalism, and are in fact distinct status arrangements that are more properly seen as "autonomies," of which there
3720-443: Is indistinct; a federacy is essentially an extreme case of an asymmetric federation, either due to large differences in the level of autonomy, or the rigidity of the constitutional arrangements. The British Overseas Territories are vested with varying degrees of power; some enjoy considerable independence from the United Kingdom, which only takes care of their foreign relations and defence. However, they are considered neither part of
3844-566: Is no law prohibiting the citation of precedents and lower courts often do. Although the highest courts, the Court of Cassation and the Council of State do not cite precedents in their decisions, previous cases are prominent in arguments of the ministère public and the commissaire du gouvernement, in draft opinions, and in internal files. Some areas of French law even primarily consist of case law. For example, tort liability in private law
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3968-614: Is no strict standard of proof in civil cases, like the preponderance of the evidence under American law; instead, primacy is given to the judge's intime conviction, based on the principle of "free evaluation of the evidence." The court gathers a dossier of pleadings, statements of fact and evidence from the parties and makes it available to them. Proceedings focus on written evidence and written argument, with brief hearings. Witness testimonies are uncommon. The ministère public , an independent judicial official, sometimes plays an advisory role in civil proceedings. In principle,
4092-531: Is not cited in the highest courts; (2) lower courts are theoretically free to depart from higher courts, although they risk their decisions being overturned; and (3) courts must not solely cite case law as a basis of decision in the absence of a recognized source of law. French judicial decisions, especially in its highest courts, are written in a highly laconic and formalist style, incomprehensible to non-lawyers. While judges do consider practical implications and policy debates, they are not at all reflected in
4216-488: Is now seen much like a judicial one. The President, Prime Minister, the presidents of both houses of Parliament, and a group of 60 members from either of the two houses may refer bills or treaties to the Constitutional Council. In addition, when individuals allege that their constitutional rights are infringed by legislation in a court proceeding, the Court of Cassation or the Council of State may refer
4340-538: Is officially an unincorporated territory belonging to the federal political system that is the U.S. and subject to the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress under the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution, and states that it is not a "free-associated" state. Similar conclusions were made by three Presidential Task Forces on Puerto Rico's Status in 2005, 2007 and 2011 . In particular, Lluch notes that contrary to Elazar's assertions in his 1987 and 1991 works,
4464-561: Is portrayed primarily in science fiction settings. Examples from popular culture include Gaia in Appleseed Law of France French law has a dual jurisdictional system comprising private law ( droit privé ), also known as judicial law, and public law ( droit public ). Judicial law includes, in particular: Public law includes, in particular: Together, in practical terms, these four areas of law (civil, criminal, administrative and constitutional) constitute
4588-487: Is possible for lapses. To begin a case, an individual only need to write a letter to describe his identity, the grounds of challenging the decision, and the relief sought, and provide a copy of the administrative action; legal arguments are unnecessary in the initial stage. A court rapporteur will gather information (he has the power to request documents from the public body), compile written arguments from both sides, and request expert assessments if necessary. The files and
4712-696: Is primarily elaborated by judges, from only five articles (articles 1382–1386) in the Civil Code . Scholars have suggested that, in these fields of law, French judges are creating law much like common law judges. Case law is also the primary source for principles in French administrative law . Many of the Constitutional Council 's decisions are critical for understanding French constitutional law . The differences between French case law and case law in common law systems appear to be: (1) it
4836-545: Is state private property under direct authority of the Minister of Overseas France ). All are integral parts of France and subject to French law , but New Caledonia (the collectivité sui generis ) and French Polynesia (one of the five collectivités d'outre-mer , but designated a pays d'outre-mer ) have considerably more autonomy. All except the uninhabited French Southern and Antarctic Lands (the territoire d'outre-mer ) and Clipperton Island are represented in
4960-452: The École Nationale de la Magistrature . There are also non-professional judges, typically in less serious civil or administrative cases. In public law cases, a public body, such as the national government, local authorities, public agencies, and public services like universities to railways, are always a party in dispute. Public bodies are subject to different rules on their power, contract, employment and liabilities. Instead of rules in
5084-588: The Constitution of Ukraine states that Ukraine is a unitary state , until the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea. Following World War II , the peninsula was in a state of turmoil, intensified by the deportation of the Crimean Tatars , indigenous to the area, in the spring of 1944. In 1944, Kherson Oblast was created out of Mykolaiv and Zaporizhia oblasts in Soviet Ukraine. In summer of 1945
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5208-521: The Criminal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure. The Criminal Code, for example, prohibits violent offenses such as homicide, assault and many pecuniary offenses such as theft or money laundering, and provides general sentencing guidelines. However, a number of criminal offenses, e.g., slander and libel, have not been codified but are instead addressed by separate statutes. After a crime occurs,
5332-471: The EC Treaty . Hence EC law does not apply there. The Netherlands Antilles was scheduled to be dissolved as a unified political entity on 15 December 2008, so that the five constituent islands would attain new constitutional statuses within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, but this dissolution was postponed until 10 October 2010. Curaçao and Sint Maarten gained autonomy as non-independent countries within
5456-633: The French Revolution beginning in 1789, which swept away the old regime . By 1790, the National Constituent Assembly overhauled the country’s judicial system. A criminal code would be adopted by 1791. The Civil Code (1804), the Code of Civil Procedure (1806), and the Commercial Code (1807) were adopted under Napoleon Bonaparte , reflecting Roman law, pre-revolutionary ordinances and custom, scholarly legal writings, enlightenment ideas, and Napoleon's personal vision of
5580-649: The French parliament . Defence and diplomatic affairs are responsibilities of France, but some overseas parts do participate in some international organisations directly. ( Réunion , for example, is a member of the Indian Ocean Commission .) The French overseas territories were in the past colonial possessions . Arab Iraq and the Kurdistan Region have de jure full sovereignty over internal matters for their respective regions. The agreement
5704-582: The Germanic conquest . Historians now tend to think that Roman law was more influential on the customs of southern France due to its medieval revival. By the 13th century, there would be explicit recognition of using Roman law in the south of France, justified by the understanding of a longstanding tradition of using Roman law in the custom of southern France. In the North, private and unofficial compilations of local customs in different regions began to emerge in
5828-588: The Justinian Code in southern France and in Paris. Despite this, Roman law was largely academic and disconnected from application, especially in the north. Historians traditionally mark a distinction between Pays de droit écrit in southern France and the Pays de droit coutumier in the north. In the south, it was thought that Roman law had survived, whereas in the north it had been displaced by customs after
5952-688: The Saltoro Ridge passes, whilst Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls 101,338 km (39,127 sq mi) of the disputed territory; Pakistan 85,846 km (33,145 sq mi); and the PRC, the remaining 37,555 km (14,500 sq mi). On 20 November 2001, the Mauritius National Assembly unanimously adopted two laws giving Rodrigues autonomy, creating
6076-462: The Tuzla Island conflict occurred. In 2014, Crimea was annexed by Russia and Ukraine lost de facto control of Crimea. The relationship between the United States and Puerto Rico is a federacy. Puerto Rico residents are United States citizens and may freely travel between the U.S. mainland and Puerto Rico. Residents of Puerto Rico are exempt from some federal taxes. Puerto Rico's autonomy
6200-438: The military , and the police force , would be privatised . The social welfare function carried out by the state is instead carried out by corporations in the form of benefits to employees. Although corporate republics do not exist officially in the modern world, they are often used in works of fiction or political commentary as a warning of the perceived dangers of unbridled capitalism . In such works, they usually arise when
6324-509: The "common law") historically form the basis of law, the French legal system emphasizes statutes as the primary source of law. Despite this emphasis, some bodies of law, like French administrative law, were primarily created by the courts (the highest administrative court, the Conseil d'État ). Lawyers often look to case law ( la jurisprudence ) and legal scholarship ( la doctrine ) for reliable, but non-binding, interpretation and statements of
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#17327824407886448-518: The 13th and 14th centuries. These compilations were often drafted by judges who needed to decide cases based on unwritten customs, and the authors often incorporated Roman law, procedures from canon law, royal legislation and parliamentary decisions. In the early modern period , laws in France gradually went through unification, rationalization, and centralization. After the Hundred Years War , French kings began to assert authority over
6572-412: The 1539 Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts being the oldest still in use in the French legislation. The term civil law in France refers to private law (laws between private citizens, and should be distinguished from the group of legal systems descended from Roman Law known as civil law , as opposed to common law . The major private law codes include: France follows an inquisitorial model , where
6696-545: The 9th EDF (PRIP) Regional Trade and Economic Integration Programme which provides approximately €9 million to assist the Region in implementing PICTA, negotiate trade agreements with developed partners (e.g. EPA), intensify links with the WTO and address supply-side constraints. Nicaragua is divided into 15 departments and two autonomous regions: North Caribbean Coast and South Caribbean Coast . The two autonomous regions formed
6820-477: The Circulaire of 14 May 1993 contains detailed instructions for prosecutors and judges on how to apply new rules in the 1992 revised criminal code. Circularies are not considered sources of law in private courts, but are sometimes considered binding in administrative courts. As such, the binding circulaires règlementaires are reviewed like other administrative acts, and can be found illegal if they contravene
6944-542: The Constitution itself, but also its preamble which incorporates a list of norms known as bloc de constitutionnalité , including the " Freedom of Association " provision of the Conseil Constitutionnel. The Constitutional Council ( Conseil Constitutionnel ) has the exclusive authority to judge the constitutionality of parliamentary statutes. Although originally conceived as a political body, it
7068-440: The Constitutional Council, to allow EU citizens to participate in municipal elections and the monetary union. EU treaties and EU law enacted under the treaties are considered international treaties, and the Constitution gives them superior status compared to domestic legislation. Ordinary civil and administrative courts, not the Constitutional Council, determine the compatibility of French law with EU law. French courts consider
7192-749: The Council of State, although lower courts may refer questions to it). Different procedures exist depending on the recourse sought. Injunctions are rare but can be issued in certain procedures ( référés ). Certain acts by the French government, called acte de gouvernement , avoids judicial review as they are too politically sensitive and beyond judicial expertise. Such acts include the President to launch nuclear tests, sever financial aid to Iraq, dissolve Parliament, award honors, or to grant amnesty. Other nonjusticiable acts include certain internal affairs of government ministries ( Mesures d’ordre interne ), e.g.
7316-681: The Dutch Hoge Raad ("High Council") acts as their supreme court . Dutch nationals related to these territories are fully European citizens ; however, Dutch-Caribbean citizens residing in Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten are normally not entitled to vote in Dutch elections, but can vote in elections for the European Parliament . Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten are overseas countries and territories (OCTs), listed under Annex II of
7440-791: The European Union ( CJEU ) is the main judicial body of EU laws. The EU's view is that if EU law conflicts with a provision of national law, then EU law has primacy ; the view has been gradually accepted by French courts. French courts go by a number of names, including juridiction, tribunal , and cour . The Constitutional Council and Council of State are nominally councils but de facto courts. French courts are often specialized, with separate public law and private law courts, and subject matter specific courts like general civil and criminal courts, employment, commercial and agricultural lease courts. Judges are typically professional civil servants, mostly recruited through exams and trained at
7564-479: The French Constitution itself to be superior to international treaties, including EU treaties and EU law. This is in contrast to EU institutions, which sees EU law as superior to the laws of member states . However, the Constitutional Council would only examine statutes implementing EU directives where it was manifestly contrary to French constitutional principles. The European Union adopts laws on
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#17327824407887688-583: The French government set up the Commission Supérieure de Codification , tasked with codifying laws. The Commission has worked with ministries to introduce new codes and codify existing legislation. Unlike the transformative Civil Code under Napoleon, the goal of the modern codification project is to clarify and make more accessible statutes in by compiling one code in a particular area of law and remove contradictions. Despite this, areas very often overlap and codes necessarily cannot contain all of
7812-453: The Kingdom consists of the parliament of the Netherlands. De facto the cabinet and the parliament of the Netherlands are responsible for the administration of the dependencies Aruba, Curaçao and St. Maarten alongside being responsible for the Dutch government . There is limited participation of politicians of the other countries. Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten share a Common Court of Appeals;
7936-473: The Kingdom, as Aruba had in 1986, and the three remaining islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba became special municipalities of the Netherlands itself. Cook Islands is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum and as such is part of the "Umbrella Agreement" including Australia and New Zealand, called the " Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations " (PACER). This agreement includes
8060-602: The Marshall Islands, and Palau, association is concluded by treaty between two sovereign states; in the case of the Cook Islands and Niue, association is concluded by domestic legal arrangements. In an asymmetric federation one of the federated states has more independence than the others. An example of this is Canada , where Quebec has been given political deference to craft independent language and education policies. Some unitary states , such as Spain and
8184-405: The Netherlands. Each of the four countries have separate constitutions, governments and parliaments, but Aruba alone has its own national currency and Central Bank . The Council of Ministers of the Kingdom as a whole consists de facto of the Council of Ministers of the Netherlands together with three ministers plenipotentiary , one nominated by each of the other countries. The legislature of
8308-675: The Soviet Union were lifted and they started to return to their homeland. In 1991, as part of the so-called " Novo-Ogarevo process " (reorganization of the Soviet Union), a referendum was held on the restoration of autonomy to Crimea, but the referendum did not have an option for the Crimean Tatars to be restored as the titular nation. After the August Putsch, a referendum was held in Crimea on Ukrainian independence. In 1992, there
8432-400: The U.S. president. However, Puerto Ricans are eligible to join U.S. political parties, and both major parties conduct primary elections for national positions in Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico thus has no direct representation in the institutions of the central state. He notes that essentially the Puerto Rico–U.S. relationship exhibits some elements of empire, and nearly none of federalism. Puerto Rico
8556-636: The United Kingdom nor sovereign or associated states. The relations between the United Kingdom and the Crown Dependencies , i.e. the Isle of Man and the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey in the Channel Islands , are very similar to a federate relation: they enjoy independence from the United Kingdom, which, via The Crown, takes care of their foreign relations and defence—although the U.K. Parliament does have overall power to legislate for
8680-630: The United Kingdom, may also be regarded as asymmetric federations. For example, in Spain, the Basque Country , Catalonia and Galicia (later also Andalusia , Aragon , Balearic Islands , Canary Islands , Navarre , Valencia , etc.) have been granted greater autonomy and political deference than the rest of the Spanish autonomous communities (see: nationalities and regions of Spain ). The difference between an asymmetric federation and federacy
8804-647: The United Nations to include the island on its list of "non-self-governing territories". Nakhchivan is an autonomous part of Azerbaijan . Rotuma has the status of dependency in Fiji. The archipelago of Åland is a region of Finland , but compared to the other regions, it enjoys a high degree of home rule. Extensive autonomy was granted to it in the Act on the Autonomy of Åland of 1920 (last revised 1991), and
8928-731: The autonomy was affirmed by a League of Nations decision in 1921. The Parliament of Åland ( Lagtinget ) handles duties that in other provinces are exercised by state provincial offices of the central government . Åland sends one representative to the Finnish parliament , and is a member of the Nordic Council (independently of Finland). It is demilitarised, and the population is exempt from conscription . Åland has issued its own postage stamps since 1984, and runs its own police force. Most of Åland's inhabitants speak Swedish as their first language (91.2% in 2007). Åland's autonomous status
9052-534: The basis of EU treaties . The Treaties establish the EU's institutions, list their powers and responsibilities, and explain the areas in which the EU can legislate with Directives or Regulations . European Union laws are a body of rules which are transposed either automatically (in the case of a regulation) or by national legislation (in the case of a directive) into French domestic law, whether in civil, criminal, administrative or constitutional law. The Court of Justice of
9176-447: The behest of the sultan and generally only required a tax from the lower classes, instead of military service and/or manual labour like in the feudal system. Governments can also be categorized based on their size and scope of influence: Certain major characteristics are defining of certain types; others are historically associated with certain types of government. This list focuses on differing approaches that political systems take to
9300-453: The belief about the origination of political authority, who may participate in matters of state, how people might participate, the determination of what is just, and so forth. Index of Forms of Government. Systems resembling anarchism can be a natural, temporary result of civil war in a country, when an established state has been destroyed and the region is in a transitional period without definitive leadership. It has also been proposed as
9424-759: The centralized Soviet Union. During the 1960s, the North Crimean Canal was dug through the steppe territory of Crimea all the way to the city of Kerch . By the time of dissolution of the Soviet Union , the Crimean Oblast was a favorite vacation spot for top Communist officials from the whole Soviet Union. The then-leader of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev stayed in Foros during the 1991 August Putch at his "gosdacha". In 1989 political sanctions against Crimean Tatars in
9548-626: The chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or monarchic. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler but several rulers. ( Ancient Greek ὀλιγαρχία (oligarkhía) literally meant rule by few") Some historical examples of oligarchy include the Roman Republic , in which only males of the nobility could run for office and only wealthy males could vote, and the Athenian democracy , which used sortition to elect candidates, almost always male, Greek, educated citizens holding
9672-468: The colonies . The 1667 Ordinance is the main inspiration of the Code de procedure civile passed in 1806 under Napoleon . Other codes include the 1670 Criminal Ordinance, the 1673 Ordinance for Overland Trade ( Code Marchand ), and the 1681 Ordinance for Maritime Trade ( Code de la Marine ). Ordinances would later be drawn up on Donations (1731), Wills (1735), Falsifications (1737), and Trustees (1747), but
9796-412: The compilation of discrete statues, and instead state the law in a coherent and comprehensive piece of legislation, sometimes introducing major reforms or starting anew. There are about 78 legal codes in France currently in force, which deal with both the French public and private law categorically. These codes are published for free by the French government on a website called Légifrance . In 1989,
9920-419: The constituent parts of the state is autonomous , while the other constituent parts are either not autonomous or comparatively less autonomous. An example of such an arrangement is Finland , where Åland , which has the status of autonomous province, has considerably more autonomy than the other provinces. The autonomous constituent part enjoys a degree of independence as though it was part of federation, while
10044-566: The decision to alter the frequency of services, unless doing so is against the law. Before judicial recourse, one may request administrative appeals ( recours préalable ) by the official or his superior, although they are of limited use. Legal aid is available like in civil and criminal cases, although lawyers are unnecessary in many cases because under the French inquisitorial legal system, judges have primary control of cases after their introduction. All administrative decisions must be challenged within two months of their being taken and no waiver
10168-402: The dependencies. However, the islands are neither incorporated into the United Kingdom nor independent or associated states. The Isle of Man does not have a monarch but Charles III holds the position of Lord of Mann . A federacy differs from a devolved state , such as Denmark , Spain and the United Kingdom, because, in a devolved state, the central government can revoke the independence of
10292-407: The distribution of sovereignty , and the autonomy of regions within the state. These have no conclusive historical or current examples outside of speculation and scholarly debate. While retaining some semblance of republican government, a corporate republic would be run primarily like a business , involving a board of directors and executives . Utilities , including hospitals , schools ,
10416-428: The elderly. Social democracy is connected with the trade union labour movement and supports collective bargaining rights for workers. Contemporary social democracy advocates freedom from discrimination based on differences of: ability/disability, age, ethnicity, sex, language, religion, and social class. Oligarchies are societies controlled and organised by a small class of privileged people, with no intervention from
10540-403: The first level of appellate court reviews questions of both fact and law, and it is able to do so because of the dossier . It can also order additional investigations and production of evidence. The Court of Cassation (highest civil appellate court) generally only decides questions of law and remands the case for further proceedings. French criminal law is governed first and foremost by
10664-407: The formal government. These are terms that highlight certain actions of the governors, such as corruption , demagoguery , or fear mongering that may disrupt the intended way of working of the government if they are widespread enough. The Polity IV dataset recognizes anocracy as a category. In that dataset, anocracies are exactly in the middle between autocracies and democracies. Often the word
10788-541: The future creation of a free trade area amongst the 14 ACP Forum Islands Countries (FICs) called the "Pacific Island Countries Trade Agreement" (PICTA), without Australia and New Zealand. Under the Cotonou Agreement, Cook Islands is committed to negotiating the new reciprocal Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) between the ACP states and the EU, which was due to come into force in 2008. Cook Islands also benefits from
10912-616: The historical department of Zelaya and part of the Mosquito Coast . Papua New Guinea is divided into 20 provinces. Among them Bougainville has an autonomous government. The Philippines is divided into 17 regions , with Bangsamoro only the one to have an autonomous region . An earlier proposed autonomous region, the Bangsamoro Juridical Entity was "federacy" within the Philippines. Nevis
11036-433: The judge leads the proceedings and the gathering of evidence, acting in the public interest to bring out the truth of a case. This is contrasted with the adversarial model often seen in common law countries, where parties in the case play a primary role in the judicial process. In French civil cases, one party has the burden of proof, according to law, but both sides and the judge together gather and provide evidence. There
11160-422: The kingdom in a quest of institutional centralization. Through the creation of a centralized absolute monarchy, an administrative and judicial system under the king also emerged by the second half of the fifteenth century. Royal legislation also greatly increased beginning in the 15th century. The Ordinance of Montils-les-Tours (1454) [ fr ] was an important juncture in this period, as it ordered
11284-472: The landed aristocracy, undermining royal authority and legislation. Even before the French Revolution, French enlightenment thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau , with a theory of natural rights, and especially Montesquieu , who advocated for a separation of powers, were major influences on the law throughout Europe and the United States. The French legal system underwent great changes after
11408-488: The law in a given field. In the High Middle Ages , most legal situations in France were highly local, regulated by customs and practices in local communities. Historians tend to be attracted by the large regional or urban customs, rather than local judicial norms and practices. Beginning in the 12th century, Roman law emerged as a scholarly discipline, initially with professors from Bologna starting to teach
11532-444: The law. French legislative sources can be classified into four categories: French legislation follows a hierarchy of norms ( hiérarchie des normes ). Constitutional laws are superior to all other sources, then treaties, then parliamentary statutes ( loi ), then government regulations. Legislation enacted by orders ( ordonnances ) and regulations issued by the executive under Art. 38 of the constitution ( Règlements autonomes ) have
11656-422: The law. These codes consisted of numbered articles, were written in elegant French, and were meant to be understood by the layman. In addition, they introduced many classically liberal reforms, such as abolishing remaining feudal institutions and establishing rights of personality, property and contract for all male French citizens. However, not all the old regime's law were repleted, the articles 110 and 111 of
11780-539: The major part of French law. The announcement in November 2005 by the European Commission that, on the basis of powers recognised in a recent European Court of Justice ("ECJ") ruling, it intends to create a dozen or so European Union ("EU") criminal offences suggests that one should also now consider EU law (" droit communautaire ", sometimes referred to, less accurately, as " droit européen ") as
11904-491: The matter to the Constitutional Council for a ruling on its constitutionality. In France, most claims against local or national governments are handled by the administrative courts, for which the Conseil d'État (Council of State) is a court of last resort. The main administrative courts are the tribunaux administratifs [ fr ] and their appeal courts [ fr ] . The French body of administrative law
12028-604: The mid 17th century. Jean-Baptiste Colbert , the Minister of Finance and later also Secretary of the Navy in charge of the colonial empire and trade, was main architect of the codes. The first of such codes is the 1667 Ordinance of Civil Procedure (officially known as the Ordonnance pour la reformation de la justice ), which established clear and uniform procedural rules, replacing previous rules in all royal jurisdictions and in
12152-403: The monarch, who mostly rule kingdoms. The actual role of the monarch and other members of royalty varies from purely symbolical ( crowned republic ) to partial and restricted ( constitutional monarchy ) to completely despotic ( absolute monarchy ). Traditionally and in most cases, the post of the monarch is inherited , but there are also elective monarchies where the monarch is elected. Rule by
12276-694: The most infamous secret society is the Illuminati , who had in their general statutes, "The order of the day is to put an end to the machinations of the purveyors of injustice, to control them without dominating them." Secret societies are illegal in several countries, including Italy and Poland , who ban secret political parties and political organizations in their constitutions. Secret societies are often portrayed in fiction settings. Some examples from popular culture include: Magocracies are portrayed primarily in fiction and fantasy settings. Some examples from popular culture include: Synthetic technocracy
12400-437: The most part of society; this small elite is defined as sharing some common trait. De jure democratic governments with a de facto oligarchy are ruled by a small group of segregated, powerful or influential people who usually share similar interests or family relations. These people may spread power and elect candidates equally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given
12524-415: The official recording and homologation of customary law. Customs would be compiled by local practitioners and approved by local assemblies of the three estates , with disagreements resolved by the central court. At the time, the wholesale adoption of Roman law and the ius commune would be unrealistic, as the king’s authority was insufficient to impose a unified legal system in all French provinces. In
12648-414: The other constituent parts are as independent as subunits in a unitary state. This autonomy is guaranteed in the country's constitution . The autonomous subunits are often former colonial possessions or are home to a different ethnic group from the rest of the country. These autonomous subunits often have a special status in international relations . Several states are federacies. The exact autonomy of
12772-675: The peninsula was stripped of its autonomous status as its titular nationality, the Crimean Tatars, were removed and it was made a regular oblast of Russia. To resolve the issue of drought in Crimea, in 1950 construction started on the Kakhovka Hydroelectric Power Plant and a new city of Nova Kakhovka to serve it, both in Ukraine. At the same time there was a decision to build the North Crimean Canal . The new power station improved supply of power to
12896-655: The peninsula, while its dam created the Kakhovka Reservoir , which alleviates drought in the steppe areas of Kherson oblast and Crimea. In 1954, the Crimean Oblast was transferred to Soviet Ukraine from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , primarily to improve bureaucratic efficiency since power and water in Crimea primarily came from Soviet Ukraine. The transfer represented a territorial readjustment for economic reasons between two administrative divisions of
13020-414: The people rule, as republican forms of government. These categories are not exclusive. A semi-presidential republic is a government system with power divided between a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government, used in countries like France , Portugal , and Ukraine . The president, elected by the people, symbolizes national unity and foreign policy while the prime minister
13144-675: The police because of limited judicial resources. There are also simplified procedures for crimes in flagrante delicto and crimes relating to terrorism and drugs. Other judges then preside at the criminal trial, typically without a jury. However, the most serious cases tried by the cour d’assises (a branch of the Court of Appeal) involve three judges and nine jurors who jointly determine the verdict and sentencing. Like civil proceedings, criminal proceedings focus on written evidence and written argument, although witnesses are usually also heard orally. Judges or prosecutors order independent experts for
13268-493: The police make initial investigations. The prosecutor ( procureur ) or, in some serious cases, the juge d’instruction then control or supervise the police investigation and decide whether to prosecute. Unlike common law countries and many civil law countries, French prosecutors are members of the judicial branch. Issuing arrest warrants or formally questioning the accused or witnesses must receive judicial approval, but decisions on searches and phone-tapping are often delegated to
13392-452: The power to terminate or modify the Puerto Rico–U.S. relationship rests squarely on the U.S. Congress and that the U.S. government contends that sovereignty over Puerto Rico resides solely in the United States and not in the people of Puerto Rico. Lluch notes that both Watts and Elazar define a "federacy" as "political arrangements where a large unit is linked to a smaller unit or units, but the smaller unit retains considerable autonomy and has
13516-445: The proceeding, if necessary. One appeal can be made on questions of fact and law, save for decisions of the cour d’assises . Appeals may also be made to the Court of Cassation on questions of law. Other judges (the juge de l’application des peines ) supervise the sentence and deal with parole. Public law is concerned with the powers and organization of the state and governmental bodies. French constitutional law includes not only
13640-480: The process of recording, local customs were sometimes simplified or reformed. By the 16th century, around sixty general customs were recorded and given official status, disqualifying any unrecorded customs from having official status. Roman law remained as a reserve, to be used for argumentation and to supplement customary law. Accompanying the process of centralization and mercantilism, the king effectively initiated processes of codification [ fr ] in
13764-438: The promise but not yet the actuality of an inclusive and effective political economy, and threatens members of the established elite; and is therefore very vulnerable to disruption and armed violence. Countries with monarchy attributes are those where a family or group of families (rarely another type of group), called the royalty , represents national identity, with power traditionally assigned to one of its individuals, called
13888-415: The public interest, according to principles such as continuity of services (which has been used to limit the power to strike), adaptability (changing in accordance with external circumstances), equality and neutrality (in relation to, e.g. one's religion or political beliefs). All acts must have a legal basis (base légale ), follow the right procedure (sometimes including right to a hearing), and done with
14012-430: The rapporteur's recommendations are transferred to a Commissaire du gouvernement , who also makes his own recommendations to the judges. Written evidence is relied upon and oral hearings are extremely short. After the hearing, judges deliberate and issue their judgement, in which they will briefly respond to parties' arguments. Standing requirements in French administrative law are relatively lax. Although merely being
14136-624: The region is divided amongst three countries in a territorial dispute : Pakistan controls the northwest portion ( Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Jammu and Kashmir ), India controls the central and southern portion ( Jammu and Kashmir ) and Ladakh , and the People's Republic of China controls the northeastern portion ( Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract ). India controls the majority of the Siachen Glacier area including
14260-631: The same status as parliamentary statutes. European Union treaties and EU law enacted under the authority of EU treaties are superior to domestic law. French courts consider the French Constitution to be superior to international treaties, including EU treaties and EU law. This is in contrast to EU institutions, which sees EU law as superior to the laws of member states . There are several categories of legislation: By contrast, administrative circulaires are not law, merely instructions by government ministries. Circulaires are nonetheless important in guiding public officials and judges. For example,
14384-464: The strong ties they may have to particular forms of government can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves. These categories are not exclusive. A similar system is the Iqta‘ , used by medieval Islamic societies of the middle east and north Africa. This functioned much like the feudal system but generally had titles that weren't granted to a family dynasty but to individuals at
14508-466: The subunits (e.g. Scottish Parliament , National Assembly for Wales , Northern Ireland Assembly in the case of the U.K.) without changing the constitution. Jaime Lluch has critiqued the classification and description of "federacy" as used by Elazar and Watts. Lluch argues that the category of "federacy" is misapplied to the case of Puerto Rico (and to other comparable cases), and that it is an example of "conceptual stretching". He finds that "federacies"
14632-730: The subunits differs from country to country. Barbuda is autonomous within Antigua and Barbuda . Norfolk Island self-government was revoked by the Australian Federal Government in 2015. Its laws were subsumed into the laws of the Australian federal government and be subordinate to them. On 1 July 2016, the federal government increased federal regulations so that federal laws would also apply to Norfolk Island and to make it semi-autonomous. Since then, opposition by several organizations have protested these actions to
14756-495: The written decision. This has led scholars to criticize the courts for being overly formalistic and even disingenuous, for maintaining the facade of judges only interpreting legal rules and arriving at deductive results. Following the example of the Napoleonic Civil Code , French legal codes aim to set out authoritatively and logically the principles and rules in an area of law. In theory, codes should go beyond
14880-523: Was a German Schutzgebiet until 1919, when it became a British mandate territory . The two were united in 1964, after a popular revolt against the Sultan of Zanzibar . Tobago has its own House of Assembly , with its Chief Secretary. It handles some of the responsibilities of the Trinidad and Tobago central government. The Autonomous Republic of Crimea within Ukraine existed in unregulated form as
15004-644: Was a colony of the Netherlands until 1954. Aruba reached an agreement on decolonization with the Kingdom of the Netherlands following a referendum held in 1977, and became autonomous and separate from the Antilles, with a status aparte : meaning the status of an autonomous country with its full autonomous country status officially recognized in the Charter since 1986.) The Charter links the four autonomous countries. Aruba, Curaçao, and St. Maarten do not each have statehood but have Dutch nationality in common with
15128-599: Was a result of disputes between Sweden and Imperial Russia in 1809, and between Finland and Sweden 1917–1921. Most of the French Republic is divided into 18 régions : 13 are in metropolitan France ( Corsica , one of these, is strictly speaking not a région , but is often counted as such) and 5 are régions d'outre-mer (overseas regions). Not included in any région are five collectivités d'outre-mer , one territoire d'outre-mer , one collectivité sui generis and remote Clipperton Island (which
15252-616: Was conflict surrounding competing Russian and Ukrainian claims on the former Soviet Black Sea Fleet that was based out of Sevastopol , and there was the possibility of escalation to armed conflict. In 1993 the Russian parliament adopted an official statement "About status of the Sevastopol City" where it made territorial claims against Ukrainian territory in Ukraine. The issue was brought to the Security Council. In 2003,
15376-561: Was upheld in the country's 2005 constitution . After independence from British rule, princely states of the Indian Empire during the British Colonial Era were given the choice to opt for either to the new Dominions of India or Pakistan . The Kashmir state was ruled by a Hindu king Maharaja Hari Singh but the majority of its population was Muslim. According to Burton Stein 's History of India , Currently,
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