Misplaced Pages

#209790

50-527: Individual iqtaʿ holders in Middle Eastern societies had little incentive to provide public goods to the localities assigned to them. The overarching theme was state power where the iqtaʿ was revocable and uninheritable. Though not an investment in a particular holding of land, the iqtaʿ, as a fiscal device, gave soldiers a vested interest in the regime. Iqtadar (person holding iqta) and the Sultan had

100-459: A "man of knowledge" and had an interest in subjects like philosophy, medicine, mathematics, religion, Persian and Urdu/Hindustani poetry. In his " Medieval India ", "He was perfect in the humanities of his day, a keen student of Persian poetry   ... a master of style, supremely eloquent in an age of rhetoric, a philosopher trained in Logic and Greek metaphysics, with whom scholars feared to argue,

150-494: A dog or cat was left), it is generally believed that this is an exaggeration. Such exaggerated accounts simply imply that Delhi suffered a downfall in its stature and trade. Besides, it is believed that only the powerful and nobility suffered hardships if any. Two Sanskrit inscriptions dated 1327 and 1328 C.E. confirm this view and establish the prosperity of the Hindus of Delhi and its vicinity at that time. Although this decision

200-824: A mathematician and lover of science." Barani has written that Tughluq wanted the traditions of the nubuwwah to be followed in his kingdom. Even though he did not believe in mysticism, Chandra states that he respected the Sufi saints, which is evident from the fact of his building of the mausoleum of the saint Nizamuddin Auliya at Nizamuddin Dargah . Critics have called him hasty in nature, owing to most of his experiments failing due to lack of preparation. Ibn Battuta has also written that he depended on his own judgment and rarely took advice from others and has also criticized him for his giving of excessive gifts and "harsh punishments". He

250-611: A mutually dependent relationship. There could be three types of Iqtadars. First, those who were appointed by the Sultan in fully conquered territories. Second, who were appointed in partially conquered territories. These Iqtadars had to win the territories again, and hence the Sultan's control over them was relatively weaker. Third kind of Iqtadars were virtually independent, as they were appointed in unconquered territories. According to Shafiite scholars such as Al-Mawardi postulated in his book Al-Ahkam al-Sultania w'al-Wilayat al-Diniyya ,

300-552: A significant threat to the Tughluq empire. Tughluq raised an army of possibly up to 370,000 soldiers in 1329. Barani has written that Tughluq took no step to check the ability of the soldiers or the brand of horses. They were paid in one year advance, and after being kept idle for one year, Tughluq found it difficult to pay them. Therefore, he decided to disperse and dissolve the soldiers in 1329. In 1333, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq led

350-720: A statute belonging to the Revealed Law or the Shari'a ". This statute is either presented as such in the Qurʾān or the Sunnah or it is possible, by means of analogical reasoning ( Qiyas ), to infer it from the Qurʾān or the Sunnah. As-Shafiʽi was the first jurist to insist that Ḥadīth were the decisive source of law (over traditional doctrines of earlier thoughts). In order of priority,

400-700: A temple. Firuz Shah Tughlaq had claimed that before his rule, idol-temples had been permitted to be rebuilt contrary to the Sharia. The contemporaneous Jain authorities attests Muhammad cordial relations with the Jains and further showing favour to the Jain scholars. Tughluq was a strict Muslim, maintaining his five prayers during a day, used to fast in Ramadan. According to 19th century CE British historian Stanley Lane-Poole, apparently courtesans had hailed Tughluq as

450-609: Is currently lost. Al-Shāfiʿī fundamentally criticised the concept of judicial conformism (the Istiḥsan ). Al-Shāfiʿī ( c.  767 –820 AD) visited most of the great centres of Islamic jurisprudence in the Middle East during the course of his travels and amassed a comprehensive knowledge of the different ways of legal theory. He was a student of Mālik ibn Anas , the founder of the Mālikī school of law, and of Muḥammad Shaybānī ,

500-522: Is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam . It was founded by the Muslim scholar , jurist , and traditionist al-Shafi'i ( c.  767–820 CE ), "the father of Muslim jurisprudence", in the early 9th century. The other three schools of Sunnī jurisprudence are Ḥanafī , Mālikī and Ḥanbalī . Like the other schools of fiqh, Shafiʽi recognize

550-600: The Chagatai Khanate , ruled over Turkistan and Transoxiana and another branch of Hulagu Khan conquered present day Iran and Iraq . However, at the time of Tughlaq, both of the dynasties were on the downfall, with conditions in Transoxiana unstable after the death of Tarmashirin . He was ambitious of annexing these kingdoms. He invited nobles and leaders from these regions and gave them grants. At that time many Afghan rulers gained independence and posed

SECTION 10

#1732765901210

600-645: The First Four Caliphs as the Islamic prophet Muhammad 's rightful successors and relies on the Qurʾān and the "sound" books of Ḥadīths as primary sources of law. The Shafi'i school affirms the authority of both divine law-giving (the Qurʾān and the Sunnah ) and human speculation regarding the Law. Where passages of Qurʾān and/or the Ḥadīths are ambiguous, the school seeks guidance of Qiyās (analogical reasoning). The Ijmā' (consensus of scholars or of

650-827: The Indian Ocean , as far as India and Southeast Asia . The Shafiʽi school is now predominantly found in parts of the Hejaz and the Levant , Lower Egypt , Somalia , Yemen and Indonesia , and among the Kurdish people , in the North Caucasus and generally all across the Indian Ocean ( Horn of Africa and the Swahili Coast in Africa and coastal South Asia and Southeast Asia ). One who ascribes to

700-548: The Kakatiya dynasty . Muhammad ascended to the Delhi throne upon his father's death in 1325. Muhammad bin Tughluq had an interest in medicine . He was also skilled in several languages: Persian , Hindavi , Arabic , Sanskrit and Turkic . Ibn Battuta , the famous traveler and jurist from Morocco, wrote in his book about his time at the Sultan's court. Muhammad bin Tughluq was born to Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq , who founded

750-711: The Tughlaq dynasty after taking control of the Delhi Sultanate . He is also known as Prince Fakhr Malik Jauna Khan, Juna Khan or Ulugh Khan. Jauna Khan remarked that he was "bound to all Indians by ties of blood and relation." After the death of his father Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq , Muhammad bin Tughlaq ascended the throne of Tughlaq dynasty of Delhi in February, 1325 CE . In his reign, he conquered Warangal (in present-day Telangana , India), Ma'abar ( Kayalpatnam ) and Madurai ( Tamil Nadu , India), and areas up to

800-1093: The Baghdad Ḥanafī intellectual. The Shafiʽi school is presently predominant in the following parts of the world: The Shafiʽi school is one of the largest school of Sunni madhhabs by number of adherents. The demographic data by each fiqh, for each nation, is unavailable and the relative demographic size are estimates. In Hadith : In Tafsir : In Fiqh : In Usul al-Fiqh : In Arabic language studies : In Theology : In Philosophy : In Sufism In history Statesmen From Middle East and North Africa : From Southeast Asia : From South Asia : Primary sources Scholarly sources Muhammad bin Tughluq Muhammad bin Tughluq ( Persian : محمد بن تغلق ; Persian pronunciation: [mu.ham.ˈmad bin tuɣ.ˈlaq] ; 1290 – 20 March 1351), also named Jauna Khan as Crown Prince, also known by his epithets , The Eccentric Prince , or The Mad Sultan ,

850-745: The Qarachil expedition to the Kullu - Kangra region of modern-day Himachal Pradesh in India. Historians like Badauni and Ferishta wrote that Tughluq originally wanted to cross the Himalayas and invade China. However, he faced local resistance in Himachal . Dharm Chand of the Hindu Rajput kingdom of Katoch clan of Kangra defeated the army of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq which was not able to fight in

900-516: The Shafi'i school is called a Shafi'i , Shafi'ite or Shafi'ist ( Arabic : ٱلشَّافِعِيّ , romanized :  al-shāfiʿī , pl. ٱلشَّافِعِيَّة , al-shāfiʿiyya or ٱلشَّوَافِع , al-shawāfiʿ ). Including: The fundamental principle of the Shafiʽ;i thought depends on the idea that "to every act performed by a believer who is subject to the Law there corresponds

950-573: The army. Barani had also written that the sultan's treasury had been exhausted by his action of giving rewards and gifts in gold. In the rural areas, officials like the muqaddams paid the revenue in brass and copper coins and also used the same coins to purchase arms and horses. As a result, the value of coins decreased, and, in the words of Satish Chandra , the coins became " as worthless as stones ". This also disrupted trade and commerce. The token currency had inscriptions in Persian and Arabic marking

1000-456: The artistic perfection of design and finish. In 1330, after his failed expedition to Deogiri , he issued token currency; that is coins of brass and copper were minted whose value was equal to that of gold and silver coins. Historian Ziauddin Barani felt that this step was taken by Tughluq as he wanted to annex all the inhabited areas of the world for which a treasury was required to pay

1050-686: The community) was "accepted but not stressed". The school rejected the dependence on local traditions as the source of legal precedent and rebuffed the Ahl al-Ra'y (personal opinion) and the Istiḥsān (juristic discretion). The Shafiʽi school was widely followed in the Middle East until the rise of the Ottomans and the Safavids . Traders and merchants helped to spread Shafiʽi Islam across

SECTION 20

#1732765901210

1100-519: The contrary, Peter Jackson mentions that Muhammed was the only Sultan who participated in Hindu festivities. Ibn Battuta mentions that the king of China (the Yuan Emperor ) had sent an embassy to Muhammad for reconstruction of a sacked temple at Sambhal . The envoys were however denied with the statement that only those living in a Muslim territory who paid the jizya could be permitted to restore

1150-652: The downfall of the Islamic Sultanate of Delhi. To add to Tughluq's woes, his own generals rebelled against him. One of his generals, an Afghan or Turk Muslim named Hasan Gangu , would go on to form the Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan during the Rebellion of Ismail Mukh . Historian Ishwari Prasad writes that different coins of different shapes and sizes were produced by his mints which lacked

1200-630: The earliest practice of Iqta rooted in the tradition of the Companions of the Prophet , such as when Muhammad given Iqta' (taxable land) plot for Zubayr who later design the land for his own horse training. 20th century Shafiite scholar, Wahbah al-Zuhayli , also highlighted that az-Zubayr ownership were legal per ruling of Shafii. Thus, from the view of Shafiite scholars, an unclaimed land property could be freely given by Islamic government to particular individual whom they saw can cultivate and process

1250-628: The four primary Sunni schools of Jurisprudence as the only one to fully require FGM. The groundwork legal text for the Shafiʽi law is al-Shafiʽi's al-Risala ("the Message"), composed in Egypt . It outlines the principles of Shafiʽi legal thought as well as the derived jurisprudence. A first version of the Risālah , al-Risalah al-Qadima , produced by al-Shafiʽi during his stay in Baghdad ,

1300-424: The highest nobles and the king. His rule was supported by the strengthened espionage and counter-espionage system and his personal secret police, called barids . Muhammad Bin Tughlaq separated the roles of revenue collection and administration. He appointed another officer called amir to look after the administration. He started paying the soldiers from the central treasury to check corruption. The Iqta' system

1350-567: The hills. Nearly all his 100,000 soldiers perished and were forced to retreat. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq died in 1351 on his way to Thatta , Sindh , while he was campaigning in Sindh against Taghi, a Turkic slave tribe. It was during his reign that the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed by twofold resistance. One was from Rajputs led by Hammir Singh of Mewar. and the other from Harihara and Bukka of South India. While Rana Hammir Singh liberated

1400-519: The immigrants. Even though the citizens migrated, they showed dissent. According to Ibn Batuta's accounts, the reason for the transfer of capital was that Tughluq shifted the capital for protection from Mongol and Afghan Invasion which was later confirmed by Historian Garner Brown. In the process, many died on the road due to hunger and exhaustion as there were not enough resources. Moreover, coins minted in Daulatabad around 1333, showed that Daulatabad

1450-407: The iqta' system was facilitated by the Persian bureaucrat Nizam al-Mulk "who developed and systemized the trend towards feudalism that was already inherent in the tax-farming practices of the immediately preceding period," It is made clear that muqtis hold no claim on the peasants/subjects other than that of collecting from them in a proper manner the due land tax that has been assigned to them. When

1500-611: The iqtaʿ as follows: a form of administrative grant, often (wrongly) translated by the European word " fief ". The nature of the iḳṭā' varied according to time and place, and a translation borrowed from other systems of institutions and conceptions has served only too often to mislead Western historians, and following them, even those of the East. and Irfan Habib explained the Iqta concept as follows: A mechanism had to be devised to collect

1550-438: The land in truth belongs to the Sultan. Nizam al-Mulk emphasizes an important element in the iqta- muqti's right to collect and appropriate taxes. Of course, the muqtis also had certain obligations to the Sultan. They had to maintain the troops and furnish them at call. The revenues they got from the iqtas were meant to be resources for him to do the same. The revenue was meant for the muqti's own expenses, payment and maintenance of

Iqta' - Misplaced Pages Continue

1600-524: The land plot so it can became productive land. The Buyids codified the already existent system of tax farming. They united the Amirs of Persia and reorganized their land into Iqtas, whose borders remained largely similar to the predecessor states. Contrary to most other forms of Iqta, it was hereditary, but the land was divided when there were more sons of age. In the Seljuk Empire , the move toward

1650-471: The modern day southern tip of the Indian state of Karnataka . In the conquered territories, Tughluq created a new set of revenue officials to assess the financial aspects of the area. Their accounts helped the audit in the office of the wazir . Muhammad bin Tughluq was also known for his tolerance for other religions. Several historians mention that the Sultan honored the Jain monk Jinaprabha Suri during

1700-464: The original, usually hereditary. The Iqta' system was later reorganized by Balban , who divided his empire into small pieces of land and opposed making Iqta hereditary. His absolutist rule concentrated on limiting the power of the estates (mainly the nobility and merchants) and securing his supreme authority as the king. He also dissolved the Council of Forty - Chahalgani, a form of sharing power between

1750-450: The revenue has been realized from them, those subjects should remain secure from any demands of the muqtis in respect of their persons, wealth, families, lands and goods. The muqtis can't hold any further claims on them. The subjects can go to the King and address their grievances in case they are being subjugated by the muqtis. It is thus clear that the muqtis only hold the land under the king,

1800-401: The road; he set up halting stations at an interval of two miles. Provisions for food and water were also made available at the stations but most of the people died during the shifting as the ruler was not able to provide them with enough food and water for their survival. Tughluq established a khanqah at each of the stations where at least one sufi saint was stationed. A regular postal service

1850-601: The sources of jurisprudence according to the Shafiʽi thought, are: The school rejected dependence on local community practice as the source of legal precedent. The concept of Istishab was first introduced by the later Shafiʽi scholars. Al-Shafiʽi also postulated that "penal sanctions lapse in cases where repentance precedes punishment". Views on FGM The school does not differentiate male and female circumcision and considers female circumcision ( Female Genital Mutilation ) alongside male circumcision to be wajib (obligatory). This makes it unique among

1900-454: The strategic Rajputana following the victory in Battle of Singoli in 1336, Harihara and Bukka established a new empire called Vijayanagara Empire , by initially defeating and later ending Madurai Sultanate that was ruling the city of Madurai and its environs of South India on behalf of Delhi Sultanate. Several other south Indian rulers like Musunuri Kaapaaneedu , etc. also contributed to

1950-454: The subjects apart from the taxes as long as taxes were paid. The money was used to pay for the landowner's army, which could be called by the Sultan at any time, making up for a relatively quick mobilisation and highly professional soldiers. A small part of the money was to be given to the Sultan, but the percentage was usually insignificant compared to the other expenses. Iqtas were given for exceptional military service or loyalty and were, unlike

2000-552: The surplus from the peasantry and redistribute it among the members of the ruling class. The crucial element in this mechanism was the iqtaʿ that combined the two functions of collection and distribution without immediately endangering the unity of the political structure. The iqtaʿ was the territorial assignment and its holder was designated muqtiʿ . Shafi%CA%BDi school Others In terms of Ihsan : The Shafi'i school or Shafi'ism ( Arabic : ٱلْمَذْهَب ٱلشَّافِعِيّ , romanized :  al-madhhab al-shāfiʿī )

2050-472: The troops and the rest had to be sent back to the king. The muqti was thus a tax collector and army paymaster rolled into one. During the rule of Mamluk dynasty in India , Shamsa ud-din Iltutmish established the "Iqta' system" based on Mohammad Gori's ideas. It was very close to the original form of Iqta' as its main function was only to collect taxes by Muqtis/Iqtedars in India. They had no other right to

Iqta' - Misplaced Pages Continue

2100-505: The use of new coins instead of the royal seal and so the citizens could not distinguish between the official and the forged coins. Records show that the use of token currency had stopped by 1333 as Ibn Battuta who came to Delhi in 1334, wrote a journal which made no mention of this currency. There are conflicting views expressed by historians on his religious tolerance. While visitors Ibn Battuta, Nunez and Firistha mention that Muhammed Bin Tughlaq showed intolerance to other religions, on

2150-424: The year 1328. Peter Jackson mentions that Muhammad was the only Sultan who participated in Hindu festivities. In 1327, Tughluq ordered to move his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (also known as Devagiri) (in present-day Maharashtra ) in the Deccan region of India. Muhammad bin Tughlaq himself had spent a number of years as a prince on campaign in the southern states during the reign of his father. Daulatabad

2200-812: Was "the second capital". In 1334, there was a rebellion in Mabar , led by the North Indian Muslim soldier, Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan Kaithali , a native of Kaithal in North India , who founded the Madurai Sultanate . While on his way to suppress the rebellion, there was an outbreak of bubonic plague at Bidar due to which Tughluq himself became ill, and many of his soldiers died. While he retreated back to Daulatabad, Mabar and Dwarsamudra broke away from Tughluq's control. This

2250-580: Was also situated at a central place so the administration of both the north and the south could be possible. These elite colonists from Delhi were Urdu-speakers , who carried the Urdu language to the Deccan. These immigrants included Hasan Gangu , a celebrated general who would later found the Bahmanid Empire . A broad road was constructed for convenience. Shady trees were planted on both sides of

2300-407: Was established between Delhi and Daulatabad. In 1329, his mother also went to Daulatabad, accompanied by the nobles. By around the same year, Tughluq summoned all the slaves, nobles, servants, ulema , sufis to the new capital. The new capital was divided into wards called mohalla with separate quarters for different people like soldiers, poets, judges, and nobles Grants were also given by Tughluq to

2350-533: Was followed by a revolt in Bengal . Fearing that the sultanate's northern borders were exposed to attacks, in 1335, he decided to shift the capital back to Delhi , forcing the citizens to return to their previous city. This caused many more deaths. While most of the Medieval historians, including Barani and Ibn Battuta, tend to have implied that Delhi was entirely emptied (as is famously mentioned by Barani that not

2400-457: Was revived by Firuz Shah Tughlaq of the Tughlaq dynasty , having also made the assignments hereditary to please the nobles. Alauddin Khalji stressed on the transfer of Iqtadars in order to check their personal interests. He increased the role of bureaucracy in iqtas. Moreover, he appointed Diwan-i-bajarat to estimate the definite incomes of each iqta. Orientalist Claude Cahen described

2450-636: Was the eighteenth Sultan of Delhi . He reigned from February 1325 until his death in 1351. The sultan was the eldest son of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq , founder of the Tughlaq dynasty . In 1321, the young Muhammad was sent by his father to the Deccan Plateau to fight a military campaign against the Kakatiya dynasty . In 1323, the future sultan successfully laid siege upon the Kakatiya capital in Warangal . This victory over King Prataparudra ended

2500-573: Was unpopular among the Muslim elite, one impact of this decision was that Islamic rule in Deccan lasted centuries longer than Delhi's own unstable authority over the south. If not for Tughlaq's creation of a Muslim elite at Daulatabad, there would have been no stable Muslim power like the Bahmani Sultanate to check the rising power of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire . After the death of Genghis Khan , one line of his descendants,

#209790