Inconclusive
86-757: Fifteen Years War may refer to: Long Turkish War , 1591–1606 war between the Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire Pacific War , conflicts involving Japan from the Mukden Incident in Manchuria in 1931 through the end of World War II in 1945 See also [ edit ] Mukden Incident , a false flag event staged by Japanese military personnel in Manchuria in 1931 Second Sino-Japanese War , conflict primarily between
172-649: A Saxon." In 1648, Prince George I. Rákóczi wrote in a letter: "Our Saxon bishop called us together with his seniors under his bishopric, reporting that since the number of Saxons in Réten had greatly decreased and the Vlachs, vice versa, had multiplied greatly". In 1663, the Wallachian voivode Ghica wrote to Michael I Apafi , Prince of Transylvania regarding the runaway Romanian serfs of the Filipescu boyar. In 1668,
258-648: A Transylvanian prince. The treaty also recognized that the Principality of Transylvania belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary in the sense of public law. Upon the death of John II in 1571 the Royal House of Báthory came to power and ruled Transylvania as princes under the Ottomans, and briefly under Habsburg suzerainty, until 1602. Their rise to power marked the beginning of the Principality of Transylvania as
344-529: A number of noble men in order to fill up the court's exhausted treasury, Bocskay, an educated strategist, resisted. He collected desperate Hungarians together with disappointed members of the nobility to start an uprising against the Habsburg ruler. The troops marched westwards, supported by the Hajduk of Hungary, won some victories and regained the territories that had been lost to the Habsburg army until Bocskay
430-565: A policy of duplicity in order to preserve independence. Transylvania was administrated by Isabella, John Sigismund's mother, from 1541 to 1551, when it fell for five years under Habsburg rule (1551–1556). The House of Zapolya regained the control of Transylvania in 1556, when the Diet of Szászsebes elected Sigismund as prince of Transylvania. Transylvania was now beyond the reach of Catholic religious authority, allowing Lutheran and Calvinist preaching to flourish. In 1563, Giorgio Blandrata
516-485: A semi-independent state. Prince Stephen Báthory was the first powerful prince of independent Transylvania, a Hungarian Catholic who later became king under the name Stephen Báthory of Poland. He undertook to maintain the religious liberty granted by the Edict of Torda but interpreted this obligation in an increasingly restricted sense. The latter period of Báthory rule saw Transylvania under Sigismund Báthory – prince of
602-562: A small number living in the Haţeg district, where the capital of Decebalus is believed to have stood, and who, during the time of John Hunyadi , a native of those places, were granted aristocratic status because they had always taken part in the struggle against the Turks. The rest of them are all commoners, serfs of the Hungarians, having no places of their own, spread all over the territory, in
688-525: A travelogue called the Seyahatnâme "Book of Travel". His trip to Hungary took place between 1660 and 1666. The Transylvanian's state of development in the 17th century was so good that it was an attraction to strangers longing for its territory. Evliya Çelebi wrote in his book that the Romanian serfs moved en masse to Transylvania because of the extreme ruthlessness of the rulers of Romanian lands, and
774-780: The Battle of Guruslău , Giorgio Basta and Michael the Brave defeated the Hungarian nobility led by Sigismund Báthory in Transylvania, who accepted Ottoman and Polish protection. After the assassination of Michael the Brave by mercenary soldiers under Basta's orders, the Transylvanian nobility, led by Mózes Székely , was again defeated at the Battle of Braşov in 1603 by the Habsburg Empire and Wallachian troops led by
860-513: The Battle of Vienna in 1683, the Habsburgs gradually began to impose their rule on the formerly autonomous Transylvania. Following the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz , Transylvania was formally attached to Habsburg-controlled Hungary, and subjected to the direct rule of the emperor's governors. From 1711 onward, Habsburg control over Transylvania was consolidated, and the princes of Transylvania were replaced with governors. Until 1691 Transylvania
946-527: The Brothers' Quarrel . Principality of Transylvania (1570%E2%80%931711) The Principality of Transylvania ( Hungarian : Erdélyi Fejedelemség ; Latin : Principatus Transsilvaniae ; German : Fürstentum Siebenbürgen ; Romanian : Principatul Transilvaniei / Principatul Ardealului ; Turkish : Erdel Voyvodalığı / Transilvanya Prensliği ) was a semi-independent state ruled primarily by Hungarian princes. Its territory, in addition to
SECTION 10
#17327718485161032-587: The Edict of Torda . This was the first such legal guarantee of religious freedom in Christian Europe, but only for Lutherans, Calvinists, Unitarians and Catholics; Eastern Orthodox Christians being "tolerated" with no legal guarantees granted. The Principality of Transylvania was established in 1570 when John II renounced his claim as King of Hungary in the Treaty of Speyer (ratified in 1571), and became
1118-577: The Habsburg-ruled Kingdom of Hungary . Traditional Hungarian law had to be followed scrupulously in the principality; furthermore, the state was predominantly Protestant. After the unsettled period of Rákóczi's War of Independence , it was subordinated to the Habsburg monarchy. On 29 August 1526, the army of Sultan Suleiman of the Ottoman Empire inflicted a decisive defeat on the Hungarian forces at Mohács . John Zápolya
1204-586: The Holy Roman Empire – enter the Long War , which started as a Christian alliance against the Turks and became a four-sided conflict involving Transylvania, the Habsburgs, the Ottomans, and the voivode of Wallachia , Michael the Brave . After 1601 the principality was for a short time under the rule of Rudolf II , who initiated the Germanization of the population, and in order to reclaim
1290-707: The Netherlands under Karl von Mansfeld , commander-in-chief of the Spanish Army of Flanders , who took command of the operations in Hungary. The Ottomans' objective in the war was to seize Vienna , while the Habsburg monarchy wanted to recapture the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Control of the Danube line and possession of the fortresses located there
1376-632: The 18th century, but the ethnic composition was the subject of different modern estimations. Nicolaus Olahus , Primate of Hungary stated in the book Hungaria et Athila in 1536 that in Transylvania "Four nations of different origins live in it: Hungarians, Székelys, Saxons, and Vlachs" Based on a work by Antun Vrančić (1504–1573), Expeditionis Solymani in Moldaviam et Transsylvaniam libri duo. De situ Transsylvaniae, Moldaviae et Transalpinae liber tertius , more estimations exist as
1462-458: The 18th century. After the death of Prince Michael I Apafi , between 1690 and 1703, many people emigrated from Transylvania due to the tax burdens of the government that did not take into account the local circumstances. Furthermore, between 1703 and 1711 the armies of the Habsburg emperors and Francis II Rákóczi fought each other during the Rákóczi's War of Independence . Escapes accompanying
1548-489: The Carpathians to the Romanian states of Moldavia and Wallachia, where they were able to assert themselves unfettered on all levels. It is also true that a small part of the Romanian nobility, as much as survived after the attempts of the Hungarian royalty to Catholicize in the previous centuries, in some places embraced one of the new reformed confessions. Food shortages, the famine of 1684–1686, caused by an increase in
1634-781: The Habsburg–Ottoman border intensified from 1591. In 1592, the fort of Bihać fell to the Ottomans following the siege of Bihać . In the spring of 1593, Ottoman forces from the Eyalet of Bosnia laid siege to the city of Sisak in Croatia , starting the Battle of Sisak that eventually ended in a victory for the Christian forces on June 22, 1593. That victory marked the end of the Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War (1493–1593). The Long Turkish War started on July 29, 1593, when
1720-434: The Hungarian, Székely and Saxon population decimated by the vicissitudes of the war, and their remaining real estate and property, without any difficulties. As a result of heavy taxes and hard services demanded, many serfs of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia migrated into Transylvania where the laws were more favorable. According to Hungarian estimations 350,000–500,000 Romanians migrated to Transylvania in
1806-455: The Hungarians were the most numerous ethnic group before the second half of the 17th century, when they were exceeded by Romanians. They assert the following structure of the population: in 1595, out of a total population of 670,000, 52% were Hungarians, 28% Romanians, 19% Germans. Around 1650, in a letter written to the Sultan, Moldavian prince Vasile Lupu affirms that the number of Romanians
SECTION 20
#17327718485161892-534: The Middle Ages during the foundation of Moldova and Wallachia, was amplified after György Dózsa 's rebellion of 1514, the religious persecutions and the worsening standard of living of Romanian Transylvanians. The fiscal policy of the Principality of Moldavia, indulgent towards newcomers, has allowed many of them to move there, creating new settlements, such as those that are named Ungureni . The juridicial discrimination of Romanian Transylvanians increased from
1978-533: The Ottoman Empire, taking the forts of Nicopolis , Ribnice , and Chilia, and even reaching as far as Adrianople . At one point his forces were only 24 kilometres (15 mi) from the Ottoman capital, Constantinople . He was however forced to fall back across the Danube, and the Ottomans in turn led a massive counter-offensive (100,000 strong) which aimed to not only take back their recently captured possessions but also conquer Wallachia once and for all. The push
2064-609: The Ottoman army under Sinan Pasha launched a campaign against the Habsburg monarchy. The first engagement of the war was the Siege of Veszprém ( Turkish : Vesprim ) followed by the Siege of Várpalota ( Turkish : Polata ) in October 1593; Győr ( Turkish : Yanıkkale ) and Komárom ( Turkish : Komaron ) were captured in 1594. In early 1594, the Serbs in Banat rose up against
2150-730: The Ottoman camp. This battle was the first significant military encounter in Central Europe between a large Christian army and the Ottoman Turkish Army after the Battle of Mohács . Nevertheless, Austrians recaptured Győr and Komarom in 1598. In 1599, the Turks and their Tatar allies attacked Prievidza , Topoľčany and other towns in the Nitra river valley in Upper Hungary , in what is now Slovakia, and took thousands of people into slavery . In August 1601, at
2236-399: The Ottoman threat, the Habsburgs determined to gain influence in and perhaps control of this territory. Under Prince Kemeny, the diet of Transylvania proclaimed the secession of a sovereign Transylvania from the Ottomans (April 1661) and appealed for help to Vienna, but a secret Habsburg-Ottoman agreement resulted in the further increase of Habsburg influence. After the defeat of the Ottomans at
2322-518: The Ottomans . The rebels had, in the character of a holy war , carried war flags with the icon of Saint Sava . The war banners were consecrated by Patriarch Jovan Kantul , and the uprising was aided by Serbian Orthodox metropolitans Rufim Njeguš of Cetinje and Visarion of Trebinje . In response, Ottoman Grand Vizier Koca Sinan Pasha demanded that the green flag of the Prophet Muhammed be brought from Damascus to counter
2408-401: The Ottomans by surprise, managing to sweep through the Ottoman defences on three successive battlefields, at Târgoviște (18 October), Bucharest (22 October), and Giurgiu (26 October). The Battle of Giurgiu in particular was devastating for the Ottoman forces, which had to retreat across the Danube in disarray. The war between Wallachia and the Ottomans continued until late 1599, when Michael
2494-496: The Ottomans, by presenting the war as a victory. The treaty stabilized conditions on the Habsburg–Ottoman frontier. Also, Bocskay managed to retain his independence, but he also agreed to give up the title of "King of Hungary". Rudolf portrayed himself as victorious in the Long War, but this did not protect him from the Habsburg family's internal politics. Rudolf, by the end of the war, had massive debts to lenders, border troops and
2580-546: The Principality for Catholicism he initiated the Counter Reformation . From 1604 to 1606, the Hungarian nobleman Stephen Bocskay led a successful rebellion against Austrian rule. Bocskay was elected Prince of Transylvania on 5 April 1603 and prince of Hungary two months later. He achieved the Peace of Vienna in 1606. which afforded religious liberty and political autonomy, the restoration of all confiscated estates,
2666-412: The Principality of Transylvania, while the Romanian historiography asserts that there was more emigration towards Moldavia and Wallachia than vice versa. Transylvania survived as a state, and this peace facilitated its reconstruction and a gradual economic recovery, which themselves attracted new settlers from the surrounding countries into Transylvania. In addition, the population density of Transylvania
Fifteen Years War - Misplaced Pages Continue
2752-715: The Principality. In 1607 the Transylvanian Diet urged the Prince of Transylvania to demand from the Moldovan Voivode the restitution of the runaway serfs to their original lords. In 1609 the Transylvanian Diet requested that "there should be taken measures to stop their (Transylvanian serfs') crossing towards the Principates". In 1635, the delegates of Vasile Lupu solicited the movement of serfs near Cluj to Moldavia. Similarly, in 1662 Michael I Apafi urged
2838-650: The Protestant cause. Three times he waged war on the emperor, twice he was proclaimed King of Hungary , and by the Peace of Nikolsburg (31 December 1621), he obtained for the Protestants a confirmation of the Treaty of Vienna, and for himself seven additional counties in northern Hungary. Bethlen's successor, George I Rákóczi, was equally successful. His principal achievement was the Peace of Linz (16 September 1645),
2924-526: The Republic of China and the Empire of Japan in 1937–1945 First Peloponnesian War , 460–445 BC fighting between Sparta and Athens, along with allies on both sides Thirteen Years' War (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Fifteen Years War . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
3010-564: The Romanians were the majority during the life of Antun Vrančić. Based on their works, in 1690 there was an absolute Romanian majority, and no significant demographic change happened between the Middle Ages and 1750, when the Austrian administration tracked newcomers, which also explained concerns about Transylvanian Romanians leaving for Wallachia and Moldavia, including Emperor Joseph II . Károly Kocsis and Eszter Kocsisné Hodosi argue that
3096-614: The Serb flag and ordered that the sarcophagus containing the relics of Saint Sava be removed from the Mileševa monastery and transferred to Belgrade via military convoy. Along the way, the Ottoman convoy killed all the people in its path as a warning to the rebels. The Ottomans publicly incinerated the relics of Saint Sava on a pyre atop the Vračar plateau on April 27 and had the ashes scattered. In 1595, an alliance of Christian European powers
3182-578: The Transylvanian princes of this era strove to win the Transylvanian Romanian population to the cause of development and progress with the help of religious reform, to make the Romanian ethnic element just as useful for Transylvania as the other three nations were: Hungarian, Székely and Saxon. The efforts of these Hungarian princes were so successful that the Transylvanian Romanians became the creators, founders, and then
3268-552: The XVII century claim that Romanians were the most numerous ethnic group in Transylvania during that time, including those of Johannes Tröster, Grigore Ureche , and Miron Costin . The period 1567–1661 had a deep demographic impact on the country. Transylvania was repeatedly ravaged by war between 1657 and 1661. Evliya Çelebi , accompanying Ali Pasha's army into Transylvania in 1661, reported vast areas, comparable in size to counties, being reduced to ashes, entire villages being put to
3354-431: The beginning of the 18th century. In 1720, according to Károly Kocsis and Eszter Kocsisné Hodosi, out of a total population of 806,221, 50% were Romanians, 37% Hungarians, 12% Germans. The change of ethnic composition of the Principality of Transylvania and the influence of migrations is also subject to debate among historians. The Hungarian historiography claims that a large immigration of ethnic Romanians took place into
3440-475: The commoners were not considered to be members of these feudal "nations". The coalition of the "Three Nations" retained its legal representative monopoly under the prince as before the split of the medieval Hungarian Kingdom occasioned by the Ottoman invasions. According to Dennis P. Hupchick, though there were occasional clashes between the Hungarian plainsmen and the Székely mountaineers, they were united under
3526-608: The dwellers of Bistrița to stop the movement of the impoverished people towards Moldavia. From the 16th century some ethnic Romanians started moving from Transylvania towards Poland, Silesia and Moravia, where they formed the ethnoregion of Moravian Wallachia . According to Árpád Kosztind, the Romanians were not affected by the Counter-Reformation , and no Romanians was forced to flee for religious reasons. On other hand, according to Bolovan Ioan and Ștefan Meteș,
Fifteen Years War - Misplaced Pages Continue
3612-476: The fact that Romanians belonged to the Orthodox Church and not to any Western Christian denomination was the cause of their remaining of political, economic and cultural inferiority to Hungarians, Szekelys and Saxons, making them more willing to emigrate towards Moldova and Wallachia. Not by chance, a good part of the Romanian elite, but sometimes also simple people, emigrated, passing south and east of
3698-494: The field army, made concessions with the Hungarian nobility, and disappointed the princes of the Holy Roman Empire who had subsidized the Habsburg–Ottoman frontier. Once peace was concluded with the Ottomans, the Habsburgs turned on one another. This struggle forced the family to confront the unresolved matter of Rudolf's successor and culminated in the childless Emperor Rudolf being pitted against his brother Matthias in
3784-565: The imperial treasury. A further 7 to 8 million florins were paid when Rudolf appealed to the Circle assemblies as well, giving a total of 23 to 28 million florins yielded by the minor German princes. The Habsburg monarchy itself raised around 20 million florins. Another 7.1 million flowed in from Italy, including both Imperial Italy and Papal and Spanish territories outside of the Emperor's formal rule, as well as from Spain itself. Skirmishes along
3870-462: The justice, legal order, and low taxes in Transylvania. In Wallachia the beys were very tyrannical over them, therefore these rayahs saying: "Let justice be justice", all moved to Transylvania and pay one gold tribute to the king and they have no other duties. With the various Turkish, Tatar, and Cossack raids, and especially those due to the constant harassment and extortion of the Greeks, who were
3956-576: The key fortress of Buda . The Ottomans launched a siege of Eger ( Turkish : Eğri ), conquering it in 1596. In 1595 in the Balkans, a Spanish fleet of galleys from the Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily under Pedro de Toledo, marquis of Villafranca , sacked Patras , on the Rumelia Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire, in retaliation for Turkish raids against the Italian coasts. The raid
4042-526: The last political triumph of Hungarian Protestantism, in which the emperor was forced to confirm again the articles of the Peace of Vienna. Gabriel Bethlen and George I Rákóczi also did much for education and culture, and their era has justly been called the golden era of Transylvania. They lavished money on the embellishment of their capital, Alba Iulia , which became the main bulwark of Protestantism in Eastern Europe . During their reign, Transylvania
4128-704: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fifteen_Years_War&oldid=1031189797 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Long Turkish War [REDACTED] Habsburg monarchy [REDACTED] Grand Duchy of Tuscany [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire Mediterranean The Long Turkish War ( German : Langer Türkenkrieg ), Long War ( Hungarian : Hosszú háború ; Croatian : Dugi turski rat , Serbian : Дуги рат ), or Thirteen Years' War
4214-407: The looting practiced by Castaldo 's army. The Cluj Diet of 1593 constated that "our haughty serfs, gathered in large groups and raised, immediately can go to the Romanian countries, even if they commit any illegality, they go there freely". In 1602 Giorgio Basta ordered the dwellers of Bistrița to guard the roads, the passes and the paths towards Moldavia, to prevent the Transylvanian serfs getting
4300-543: The majority of the 16th and 17th centuries, overseen by Ottoman Turkish sultans but ruled by Hungarian princes. At various points during this period, the Habsburgs also exerted a degree of suzerainty in the region. The principality continued to be a part of the Lands of the Hungarian Crown and was a symbol of the survival of Hungarian statehood. It represented Hungarian interests against Habsburg encroachments in
4386-427: The majority population in the region during the rule of Stephen Báthory (16th century). In 1600, according to George W. White, Romanians, who were primarily peasants, constituted more than 60 percent of the population. This theory is supported by Ion Ardeleanu, who states that the Romanian population represented "the overwhelming majority" in the age of Michael the Brave . According to Louis Roman, various works from
SECTION 50
#17327718485164472-532: The original text is translated/interpreted in a different way, especially by Romanian and Hungarian scholars. According to Hungarian interpretations, Vrančić wrote about the inhabitants of Transylvania and about the Romanians: "The country is inhabited by three nations, Székelys , Hungarians , and Saxons ; I should also add the Romanians who – even though they easily equal any of the others in number – have no freedom, no aristocracy, no right of their own, besides
4558-506: The patronymic "Magyars" and, with Saxon support, formed a common front against the predominantly Romanian peasantry. There is an ongoing scholarly debate between Hungarian and Romanian historians regarding the medieval population of Transylvania . While some Romanian historians claim continuous Romanian majority, Hungarian historians claim the continuous settlement of Romanians into the Kingdom of Hungary . Official censuses with information on Transylvania's population have been conducted since
4644-447: The plague... while most of the poorest folk died from starvation". According to official estimates made by the Austrian administrative authority ( Verwaltungsgericht ) dating from 1712 to 1713, the ethnic distribution of the population in Transylvania is as follows: 47% Hungarians , 34% Romanians , 19%, Saxons . In Benedek Jancsó 's estimation, there were 250,000 Romanians, 150,000 Hungarians and 100,000 Saxons in Transylvania at
4730-420: The population of several Romanian villages migrated to Transylvania and the Romanian voivodes harassed Prince Michael I Apafi with demands that the "runaway villeins" be repatriated, and voivode Ghica was talking about entire Romanian groups. In 1668, the voivode of Wallachia wrote to Michael I Apafi regarding a large number of escaped Romanian villages: "From our realm, a couple of villages have escaped into
4816-490: The pretext of protecting Zápolya's son, John II Sigismund . Hungary was now divided into three sections: Royal Hungary in the west and north, Ottoman Hungary , and the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom under Ottoman suzerainty, which later became the Principality of Transylvania, where Austrian and Turkish influences vied for supremacy for nearly two centuries. The Hungarian magnates of Transylvania resorted to
4902-458: The price of grains, lead some of inhabitants to leave Transylvania, and many of the villages in the Fundus Regius remained abandoned. The Diet of Vásárhely of December 1694 claims that one third of the population of Făgăraș Country emigrated to Wallachia. On 7 May 1699, the Austrian Emperor Leopold I blamed the Transylvanian ruling class for the fleeing of the population towards the Danubian Principalities and other Ottoman-controlled areas. By
4988-409: The realm of your greatness, some to Fogaras (Făgăraș) county, some to Brassó (Brașov), some to Szeben (Sibiu), and they did not flee because of their rascality but only for the heaviness of the tax." And in 1676, the Moldavian voivode Rosetti wrote twice to the Transylvanian prince because of his runaway serfs. The Romanian peasantry, which flooded into Transylvania in this way, could take the place of
5074-446: The repeal of all "unrighteous" judgments, and a complete retroactive amnesty for all Hungarians in Royal Hungary , as well as his own recognition as the independent sovereign prince of an enlarged Principality of Transylvania. The Treaty of Vienna (1606) guaranteed the right of Transylvanians to elect their own independent princes, but Georg Keglević , who was the Commander-in-chief, General, Vice- Ban of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia,
5160-422: The role of harassing Ottoman ships. On the eastern front of the war, Michael the Brave, prince of Wallachia, started a campaign against the Ottomans in the autumn of 1594, conquering several castles near the Lower Danube , including Giurgiu , Brăila , Hârşova , and Silistra , while his Moldavian allies defeated the Ottoman armies in Iaşi and other parts of Moldova. Michael continued his attacks deep within
5246-403: The series of Ottoman wars in Europe , it was the major test of force in the time period between the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) and the Cretan War (1645–1669) . The next of the major Ottoman–Habsburg wars was the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) . Overall, the conflict consisted in a large number of costly battles and sieges, but with little gain on either side. The major participants of
SECTION 60
#17327718485165332-429: The sword, and groups of 3,000–8,000 captives. The Transylvanian populations suffered huge losses, the Partium and the counties of Belső-Szolnok , Doboka , Kolozs , Közép-Szolnok , and Kraszna were laid waste. According to the Nagysink diet in 1664: "Over an area of five or six miles around a village, one would not find a single hut left standing, nor a single man alive, for they had been abducted, slain, or felled by
5418-405: The tenants of the incomes of the two neighboring Romanian voivodeships, the entire population of some villages fled to Transylvania. In a diploma of Prince Gabriel Bethlen : "The Saxon priests belonging to the Kézdi chapter inform us that before that a village called Kövesd was inhabited by all Saxons, but now due to the many wars, it has been so destroyed that there are more Vlachs living in it like
5504-403: The time of the Diet of 1502, and their economic position worsened. From the Diet of 1552, for example, in comparison to Hungarians and Saxons, it was easier for ethnic Romanians to be accused before the law. Such discriminations were also noticed by foreign visitors in Transylvania. In 1552, the Hungarian nobles in the area of Deva complained about a "massive fleeing" towards Wallachia, due to
5590-467: The traditional Transylvanian lands , also included the other major component called Partium , which was in some periods comparable in size with Transylvania proper. The establishment of the principality was connected to the Treaty of Speyer . However, Stephen Báthory 's status as king of Poland also helped to phase in the name Principality of Transylvania . Although the principality was essentially independent, it existed as an Ottoman vassal state for
5676-412: The transmitters of Romanian culture to their brothers living beyond the Carpathians. Enjoying the full help of the princely power, the Transylvanian Romanians were able to grow numerically, according to Árpád Kosztin. Evliya Çelebi (1611–1682) was an Ottoman explorer who traveled through the territory of the Ottoman Empire and neighboring lands over a period of forty years, recording his commentary in
5762-463: The two main empires – the Ottomans won the fortresses of Eger , Esztergom , and Kanisza, but gave the region of Vác (which they had occupied since 1541) to Austria. The treaty confirmed the Ottomans' inability to penetrate further into Habsburg territories. It also demonstrated that Transylvania was beyond Habsburg power. Although Emperor Rudolf had failed in his war objectives, he nonetheless won some prestige thanks to this resistance to
5848-515: The voivode of Wallachia, Radu Şerban . Hence, the Austrian Habsburgs seemed to be able to win a decisive victory. In September 1601, armies of the Holy Roman Empire laid siege to Nagykanizsa . Despite the numerical superiority, coalition armies had to abandon the siege two months later, due to heavy losses. The last phase of the war (from 1604 to 1606) corresponds to the uprising of the Prince of Transylvania Stephen Bocskay . When Rudolf – mostly based on false charges – started prosecutions against
5934-506: The war were the Habsburg monarchy, the Principality of Transylvania , Wallachia , and Moldavia opposing the Ottoman Empire . Ferrara , Tuscany , Mantua , and the Papal State were also involved to a lesser extent. The Türkenkriege rallied larger than usual support behind the Holy Roman Emperor. The Reichstag convened in 1594 and voted a substantial tax grant, renewing this four years later and again in 1603. Some 20 million florins were promised and at least four-fifths actually reached
6020-427: The war, famines and epidemics – mainly the plague – also greatly decimated the population. The ordeals of the Counter-Reformation carried out by military force also contributed to the decline of the population. Many Protestant families and groups – Hungarians , Székelys and Saxons – were forced to flee. Many Romanians also migrated from Transylvania towards Moldavia and Wallachia. This phenomenon, also existing in
6106-453: The whole country, sparsely inhabited in open regions, mountains and forests, they mostly live out their miserable lives hiding together with their flocks." In Romanian interpretations, it is noted that the proper translation of the first part of the sentence would be: "...I would nevertheless add the Romanians , who – even though they easily equal the others in number – ..." Romanian historians Ioan Bolovan and Sorina-Paula Bolovan argue that
6192-613: Was a pact of mutual aid codified in 1438 by three Estates of Transylvania : the (largely Hungarian ) nobility , the Saxon ( German ) patrician class, and the free military Székelys . The union was directed against the whole of the peasantry, regardless of ethnicity, in response to the Transylvanian peasant revolt . In this feudal estate parliament, the peasants (whether Hungarian, Saxon, Székely or Romanian in origin) were not represented, and they did not benefit from its acts, as
6278-455: Was also one of the few European countries where Catholics , Calvinists , Lutherans , and Unitarians lived in mutual tolerance, all of them belonging to the officially accepted religions – religiones receptae , while the Orthodox church, however, were only tolerated. The fall of Nagyvárad to the expansionist Ottomans on 27 August 1660 marked the decline of the Principality. To counter
6364-728: Was an indecisive land war between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire , primarily over the principalities of Wallachia , Transylvania , and Moldavia . It was waged from 1593 to 1606, but in Europe, it is sometimes called the Fifteen Years' War ( Hungarian : Tizenöt éves háború ), reckoning from the 1591–1592 Turkish campaign that captured Bihać . In Turkey, it is called the Ottoman–Austrian War of 1593–1606 ( Turkish : 1593–1606 Osmanlı-Avusturya Savaşı ). In
6450-616: Was appointed as court physician, and his radical religious ideas increasingly influenced both the young king John II and the Calvinist bishop Francis David , eventually converting both to the Anti-Trinitarian (Unitarian) creed. In a formal public disputation, Francis David prevailed over the Calvinist Peter Melius ; resulting in 1568 in the formal adoption of individual freedom of religious expression under
6536-553: Was crucial. The war was mainly fought in Royal Hungary (mostly present-day western Hungary and southern Slovakia ), Transdanubia , Royal Croatia and Slavonia , the Ottoman Empire ( Rumelia – present-day Bulgaria and Serbia ), and Wallachia (in present-day southern Romania ). In 1595, the Christians, led by Mansfeld, captured Esztergom and Visegrád , strategic fortresses on the Danube, but they did not lay siege to
6622-528: Was en route to the battlefield with his sizable army but did not participate in the battle for unknown reasons. The youthful King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia fell in battle, as did many of his soldiers. When Zápolya was proclaimed king of Hungary, Ferdinand from the House of Habsburg also claimed the throne. In the ensuing struggle, John Zápolya received the support of Suleiman, who after Zápolya's death in 1540, occupied Buda and central Hungary in 1541 under
6708-438: Was first declared the Prince of Transylvania ( Marosvásárhely , February 21, 1605) and later also of Hungary (Szerencs, April 17, 1605 ). The Ottoman Empire supported Bocskay with a crown that he refused (being Christian). As Prince of Hungary he accepted negotiations with Rudolf II and concluded the Treaty of Vienna (1606) . The Long War ended with the Peace of Zsitvatorok on November 11, 1606, with meagre territorial gains for
6794-477: Was initially successful, managing to capture not only Giurgiu but also Bucharest and Târgoviște , despite fierce opposition at Călugăreni (23 August 1595). At this point the Ottoman command grew complacent and stopped pursuing the retreating Wallachian army , focusing instead on fortifying Târgoviște and Bucharest and considering their task all but done. Michael had to wait almost two months for aid from his allies to arrive, but when it did his counter-offensive took
6880-576: Was lower than it was in royal Hungary. These circumstances favoured immigration: over these decades, people moved in significant numbers to the principality, mainly from Moldavia, but from Wallachia as well. As a result of two decades of peaceful rule and economic policy of Prince Michael I Apafi , the population in Transylvania increased. The labor shortage that developed as a result of the good economic conditions also favored immigration. The prince's patient and understanding religious policy offered shelter to all groups persecuted because of their religion. All
6966-403: Was one-third of the population. By 1660, according to Miklós Molnár, 955,000 people lived in the principality ( Partium included) and the population consisted of 500,000 Hungarians (including 250,000 Székelys), 280,000 Romanians, 90,000 Germans and 85,000 Serbians, Ukrainians and others and had reached its end-of-century level. On the other hand, according to Dennis P. Hupchick, Romanians were
7052-600: Was organized by Pope Clement VIII to oppose the Ottoman Empire (the Holy League of Pope Clement VIII ); a treaty of alliance was signed in Prague by the Holy Roman Emperor , Rudolf II and Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania. Aron Vodă of Moldavia and Michael the Brave of Wallachia joined the alliance later that year. The Spanish Habsburgs sent an army of 6,000 experienced infantry and 2,000 cavalry from
7138-532: Was ruled by Unio Trium Nationum , the three state-constituting socio-ethnical entities termed "nations", consisting of the Hungarian nobility, the Saxon urban settlers, and the Székely peasant-soldiers, while a significant part of the general population, consisted of Orthodox Romanians, remained deprived of any civil and political rights. The Unio Trium Nationum ( Latin for "Union of the Three Nations")
7224-418: Was since 1602 Baron in Transylvania. It was a very difficult and complicated peace treaty after a long war. Under Bocskay's successors Transylvania had its golden age, especially under the reigns of Gábor Bethlen and George I Rákóczi . Gábor Bethlen, who reigned from 1613 to 1629, perpetually thwarted all efforts of the emperor to oppress or circumvent his subjects, and won reputation abroad by championing
7310-462: Was so spectacular that Sultan Murad III discussed exterminating the Christians of Constantinople in revenge. He finally decided to order the expulsion of all unmarried Greeks from the city. In the following years, Spanish fleets continued to raid the Levant waters, but large-scale naval warfare between Christians and Ottomans did not resume. Instead, privateers such as Alonso de Contreras took on
7396-412: Was unable to continue the war due to poor support from his allies. The turning point of the war was the Battle of Mezőkeresztes , which took place in the territory of Hungary on October 24–26, 1596. The combined Habsburg–Transylvanian force of 45–50,000 troops was defeated by the Ottoman army. The battle turned when Christian soldiers, thinking they had won the battle, stopped fighting in order to plunder
#515484