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123-501: Robert Emmet Finnigan (May 27, 1927 – August 14, 2022) was an American pioneer in the development of gas chromatography–mass spectrometry equipment (GC/MS). Finnigan founded the Scientific Instruments Division of Electronic Associates, Inc. , producing the first commercial quadrupole mass spectrometer in 1964. He then formed Finnigan Instruments Corporation to combine a computer system with

246-536: A township and a borough . The central borough was completely surrounded by the township. The borough seceded from the township in 1894 in a dispute over school taxes; the two municipalities later formed the Princeton Public Schools , and some other public services were conducted together before they were reunited into a single Princeton in January 2013. Princeton Borough contained Nassau Street ,

369-497: A broad range of 10 nanograms to one microgram. A computer-controlled system was desirable. An international array of instruments were reviewed, of which only two used quadrupole technology. An expert panel recommended Finnigan's quadrupole GC/MS to the EPA for further evaluation, and twenty Finnigan Model 1015/System 150 instruments were ordered soon after by the EPA. Finnigan published a 1979 study, based on users, indicating that in spite of

492-626: A broad-based line of process-control instruments, beginning with the quadrupole mass spectrometer. Based on previous research at SRI, Finnigan was convinced that a market existed, but EAI and other companies such as IBM and Beckman Instruments were not interested in developing the quadrupole as a product at that time. Finnigan's group proposed to contract parts of the quadrupole production to SRI, but management at SRI were not interested in its commercial development either. Eventually Finnigan collaborated with staff from SRI, who supplied knowledge and expertise to help Finnigan's group bootstrap development of

615-414: A certain compound. This is a fast and efficient analysis, especially if the analyst has previous information about a sample or is only looking for a few specific substances. When the amount of information collected about the ions in a given gas chromatographic peak decreases, the sensitivity of the analysis increases. So, SIM analysis allows for a smaller quantity of a compound to be detected and measured, but

738-467: A chemical formula containing the various elements which are believed to be in the compound. The isotope pattern in the spectrum, which is unique for elements that have many natural isotopes, can also be used to identify the various elements present. Once a chemical formula has been matched to the spectrum, the molecular structure and bonding can be identified, and must be consistent with the characteristics recorded by GC–MS. Typically, this identification

861-462: A computerized GC/MS. On December 31, 1966, after EAI unsuccessfully attempted to sell the division to Syntex Corporation, Finnigan submitted his resignation to EAI. In 1967, Finnigan formed Finnigan Instrument Corporation with venture capital from Roger Sant and T. Z. Chu. He was joined by Michael Story from EAI, and William Fies from SRI. In early 1968, Finnigan Instrument Corporation delivered its first prototype quadrupole GC/MS instruments. One

984-554: A computerized GC/MS. The next one to be introduced came from the Hewlett-Packard Company in 1971. Quadrupole mass spectrometry offered advantages in terms of size, cost, speed and sensitivity compared to the magnetic-sector mass spectrometry equipment most commonly used at that time. Quadrupoles offered high sensitivity and high pressure tolerance. They could operate with a low voltage ion source. Rapid scanning became feasible because computers could be used to step

1107-520: A detector for instrumentation and process-control, and began trying to find support for its development and commercialization. In 1963, Finnigan and Uthe joined Electronic Associates, Inc. (EAI). The main research department of the company was based in Princeton, New Jersey , but Finnigan founded a new Scientific Instruments Division in Palo Alto, California . Finnigan's vision involved creation of

1230-643: A different tour of duty in the Air Force, or resigning from the Air Force and staying at Livermore. He remained at Livermore for two more years. Finnigan's group developed the Tory II-A prototype and Tory II-C reactor and controls, which were tested at the Nevada Test Site in the 1960s. In 1962, Finnigan and one of his coworkers, physicist and nuclear engineer P. Michael Uthe Jr., left Livermore to work for

1353-413: A four-year term of office, serves as Princeton's chief executive officer and nominates appointees to various boards and commissions subject to approval of the council. The mayor presides at council meetings and votes in the case of a tie or a few other specific cases. The council consists of six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in

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1476-655: A gas chromatograph and quadrupole mass spectrometer that can be used in tandem as a GC–MS. The material in the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko was analysed by the Rosetta mission with a chiral GC–MS in 2014. Dozens of congenital metabolic diseases also known as inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) are now detectable by newborn screening tests, especially the testing using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. GC–MS can determine compounds in urine even in minor concentration. These compounds are normally not present but appear in individuals suffering with metabolic disorders. This

1599-434: A much finer degree of substance identification than either unit used separately. It is not possible to make an accurate identification of a particular molecule by gas chromatography or mass spectrometry alone. The mass spectrometry process normally requires a very pure sample while gas chromatography using a traditional detector (e.g. Flame ionization detector ) cannot differentiate between multiple molecules that happen to take

1722-608: A part of all US airports . These systems run on a host of technologies, many of them based on GC–MS. There are only three manufacturers certified by the FAA to provide these systems, one of which is Thermo Detection (formerly Thermedics), which produces the EGIS , a GC–MS-based line of explosives detectors. The other two manufacturers are Barringer Technologies, now owned by Smith's Detection Systems, and Ion Track Instruments, part of General Electric Infrastructure Security Systems. As part of

1845-486: A partisan basis as part of the November general election. The mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office. The borough council includes six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. The borough form of government used by Princeton is a " weak mayor / strong council" government in which council members act as

1968-438: A prominent product ion which can be the product ion for the chosen precursor ion. The pair is called a "transition" and forms the basis for SRM. SRM is highly specific and virtually eliminates matrix background. After the molecules travel the length of the column, pass through the transfer line and enter into the mass spectrometer they are ionized by various methods with typically only one method being used at any given time. Once

2091-487: A prototype quadrupole analyzer at EAI. Because of the strong market demand the EAI division was able to sell more than 500 of these quadrupole residual gas analyzers between 1964 and 1966. Finnigan wanted to pursue development of computer-controlled instrumentation for a combined gas chromatograph (GC) and quadrupole mass spectrometer (MS). However, EAI's main focus was analog computers, and they were not interested in developing

2214-528: A quadrupole mass spectrometer and gas chromatograph. Finnigan's GC/MS/computer systems are used to detect and identify trace organic compounds, making them important instruments for the monitoring and protection of the environment. They were adopted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as a standard instrument for monitoring water quality and were fundamental to the work of the EPA. Robert Finnigan

2337-508: A relatively high number of speakers of Scandinavian languages (425 speakers), Italian (465 speakers), and German (1,000 speakers). Princeton is governed under the borough form of New Jersey municipal government, which is used in 218 municipalities (of the 564) statewide, making it the most common form of government in New Jersey. The governing body is comprised of the mayor and the borough council, with all positions elected at-large on

2460-436: A second phase of mass fragmentation is added, for example using a second quadrupole in a quadrupole instrument, it is called tandem MS (MS/MS). MS/MS can sometimes be used to quantitate low levels of target compounds in the presence of a high sample matrix background. The first quadrupole (Q1) is connected with a collision cell (Q2) and another quadrupole (Q3). Both quadrupoles can be used in scanning or static mode, depending on

2583-414: A smaller government structure. The merger was the first in the state since 1997, when Pahaquarry Township voted to consolidate with Hardwick Township The consolidation took effect on January 1, 2013. Princeton is located in the 12th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 16th state legislative district. For the 118th United States Congress , New Jersey's 12th congressional district

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2706-411: A struggle that lasted nearly fifty years. The first failed attempt to consolidate borough and township was made in 1953, with 63% of township voters in favor of a merger and 57% of borough voters opposed. Subsequent attempts were voted down by borough residents, in large part due to different zoning needs of the densely populated borough versus the more widely-spaced properties of the township (surrounding

2829-418: A three-year cycle. The council has administrative powers and is the policy-making body for Princeton. The council approves appointments made by the mayor. Council members serve on various boards and committees and act as liaisons to certain departments, committees or boards. As of 2024 , the mayor of Princeton is Democrat Mark Freda, who is serving a four-year term expiring on December 31, 2023. Members of

2952-536: A total of 18,049 registered voters in Princeton (a sum of the former borough and township's voters), of which 9,184 (50.9%) were registered as Democrats , 2,140 (11.9%) were registered as Republicans and 6,703 (37.1%) were registered as unaffiliated . There were 22 voters registered as Libertarians or Greens . In both the 2016 and 2020 presidential elections, the Democratic nominee received over 80% of

3075-488: A wide range of mass fragments. Full scan is useful in determining unknown compounds in a sample. It provides more information than SIM when it comes to confirming or resolving compounds in a sample. During instrument method development it may be common to first analyze test solutions in full scan mode to determine the retention time and the mass fragment fingerprint before moving to a SIM instrument method. In selective ion monitoring (SIM) certain ion fragments are entered into

3198-404: Is 24 to 30 inches (610 to 760 mm) and the average snowiest month is February which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity. According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Princeton, New Jersey, would have an Appalachian Oak ( 104 ) vegetation type with an Eastern Hardwood Forest ( 25 ) vegetation form. As of the 2010 United States census ,

3321-452: Is a quadrupole or the ion trap itself in an ion trap MS) where they are bombarded with free electrons emitted from a filament, not unlike the filament one would find in a standard light bulb. The electrons bombard the molecules, causing the molecule to fragment in a characteristic and reproducible way. This "hard ionization" technique results in the creation of more fragments of low mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) and few, if any, molecules approaching

3444-566: Is a two-year public college serving Princeton residents and all those from Mercer County. Westminster Choir College , a school of music owned by Rider University since 1992, was established on a large campus in Princeton in 1932. Before relocating to Princeton, the school resided in Dayton, Ohio , and then briefly in Ithaca, New York . In 2012, Rider proposed a parking lot expansion on the Princeton campus that required cutting old-growth trees and

3567-558: Is also commonly used in forensic toxicology to find drugs and/or poisons in biological specimens of suspects, victims, or the deceased. In drug screening, GC–MS methods frequently utilize liquid-liquid extraction as a part of sample preparation, in which target compounds are extracted from blood plasma. GC–MS is the main tool used in sports anti-doping laboratories to test athletes' urine samples for prohibited performance-enhancing drugs, for example anabolic steroids . A post–September 11 development, explosive detection systems have become

3690-665: Is also used to detect and measure contaminants from spoilage or adulteration which may be harmful and which is often controlled by governmental agencies, for example pesticides . Several GC–MS systems have left earth. Two were brought to Mars by the Viking program . Venera 11 and 12 and Pioneer Venus analysed the atmosphere of Venus with GC–MS. The Huygens probe of the Cassini–Huygens mission landed one GC–MS on Saturn 's largest moon, Titan . The MSL Curiosity rover's Sample analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument contains both

3813-413: Is also utilized in the identification of continuous phase component in a smart material, magnetorheological (MR) fluid . Foods and beverages contain numerous aromatic compounds , some naturally present in the raw materials and some forming during processing. GC–MS is extensively used for the analysis of these compounds which include esters , fatty acids , alcohols , aldehydes , terpenes etc. It

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3936-420: Is capable of performing both functions either individually or concomitantly, depending on the setup of the particular instrument. The primary goal of instrument analysis is to quantify an amount of substance. This is done by comparing the relative concentrations among the atomic masses in the generated spectrum. Two kinds of analysis are possible, comparative and original. Comparative analysis essentially compares

4059-440: Is composed of two major building blocks: the gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer . The gas chromatograph utilizes a capillary column whose properties regarding molecule separation depend on the column's dimensions (length, diameter, film thickness) as well as the phase properties (e.g. 5% phenyl polysiloxane). The difference in the chemical properties between different molecules in a mixture and their relative affinity for

4182-415: Is done automatically by programs which come with the instrument, given a list of the elements which could be present in the sample. A "full spectrum" analysis considers all the "peaks" within a spectrum. Conversely, selective ion monitoring (SIM) only monitors selected ions associated with a specific substance. This is done on the assumption that at a given retention time, a set of ions is characteristic of

4305-465: Is increasingly becoming a common way to diagnose IEM for earlier diagnosis and institution of treatment eventually leading to a better outcome. It is now possible to test a newborn for over 100 genetic metabolic disorders by a urine test at birth based on GC–MS. In combination with isotopic labeling of metabolic compounds, the GC–MS is used for determining metabolic activity . Most applications are based on

4428-552: Is increasingly used for detection of illegal narcotics, and may eventually supplant drug-sniffing dogs. A simple and selective GC–MS method for detecting marijuana usage was recently developed by the Robert Koch Institute in Germany. It involves identifying an acid metabolite of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the active ingredient in marijuana, in urine samples by employing derivatization in the sample preparation. GC–MS

4551-511: Is owned by Princeton University and is leased to the Princeton Historical Society for one dollar per year. The house has kept its original staircase, flooring and paneled walls. Around 70% of the house has been unaltered. Aside from safety features such as wheelchair access and electrical work, the house has been restored to its original appearance and character. During the most stirring events in its history, Princeton

4674-691: Is represented by Bonnie Watson Coleman ( D , Ewing Township ). New Jersey is represented in the United States Senate by Democrats Cory Booker ( Newark , term ends 2027) and George Helmy ( Mountain Lakes , term ends 2024). For the 2024-2025 session , the 16th legislative district of the New Jersey Legislature is represented in the New Jersey Senate by Andrew Zwicker ( D , South Brunswick ) and in

4797-420: Is roughly equidistant from New York City and Philadelphia . It is close to many major highways that serve both cities (e.g., Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1 ), and receives major television and radio broadcasts from each. It is also close to Trenton , New Jersey's capital city, New Brunswick and Edison . The New Jersey governor's official residence has been in Princeton since 1945, when Morven (in what

4920-425: Is the ion trap mass spectrometer. Additionally one may find a magnetic sector mass spectrometer, however these particular instruments are expensive and bulky and not typically found in high-throughput service laboratories. Other detectors may be encountered such as time of flight (TOF), tandem quadrupoles (MS-MS) (see below), or in the case of an ion trap MS where n indicates the number mass spectrometry stages. When

5043-871: Is the oldest and only coeducational Catholic school, joining Princeton Academy of the Sacred Heart (K–8, all male) and Stuart Country Day School of the Sacred Heart (coed for Pre-K, and all-female K–12), which operate under the supervision of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Trenton . Schools that are outside of Princeton but have Princeton addresses include the Wilberforce School , Chapin School in Lawrence Township , Princeton Junior School in Lawrence Township,

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5166-493: The 2020 United States census , the borough's population was 30,681, an increase of 2,109 (+7.4%) from the 2010 census combined count of 28,572. In the 2000 census , the two communities had a total population of 30,230, with 14,203 residents in the borough and 16,027 in the township. Princeton was founded before the American Revolutionary War . The borough is the home of Princeton University , one of

5289-465: The General Assembly by Mitchelle Drulis (D, East Amwell Township ) and Roy Freiman (D, Hillsborough Township ). Mercer County is governed by a County Executive who oversees the day-to-day operations of the county and by a seven-member Board of County Commissioners that acts in a legislative capacity, setting policy. All officials are chosen at-large in partisan elections, with

5412-611: The ILLIAC to solve complex mathematical functions in antenna theory . For his Ph.D. he researched servomechanism theory with Gilbert Fett, completing the thesis Transient Analysis of Non-Linear Servomechanisms Using Describing Functions with Root-Locus Techniques . In 1957, as a captain in the United States Air Force , Robert Finnigan joined the University of California Radiation Laboratory at Livermore (later

5535-585: The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ). Finnigan worked on Project Pluto , a United States government program to develop nuclear powered ramjet engines for the Supersonic Low Altitude Missile (SLAM), a type of cruise missile . Finnigan led the group that developed computer control systems for the nuclear reactor that powered the missile. In 1959, Finnigan had the choice of rotating to

5658-536: The Stanford Research Institute (SRI) in Palo Alto, California . Finnigan was hired to establish a process controls group in SRI's control systems lab. SRI did contract research projects for both business and the military. One of the projects underway at SRI, led by Kenneth R. Shoulders , was developing a quadrupole mass spectrometer . Finnigan saw the potential for using the quadrupole broadly as

5781-409: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established in 1970, it became a major customer for Finnigan's GC/MS. The EPA surveyed possible monitoring instruments for use in monitoring organic pollutants. Speed, cost, and performance were all important concerns. The target machine was projected as having the ability to scan for pesticides with a resolving power of 1,000 to 10,000, across

5904-644: The section on "government and politics" for more details about the 2011 merger of borough and township. Princeton is located just south of a long, curving ridge known as Princeton Ridge. As Princeton is in a low-lying area, there have been issues with cell phone signals. According to the U.S. Census Bureau , Princeton had a total area of 18.41 square miles (47.69 km ), including 17.95 square miles (46.48 km ) of land and 0.47 square miles (1.21 km ) of water (2.53%). Cedar Grove , Port Mercer , Princeton Basin, and Jugtown are unincorporated communities that have been absorbed into Greater Princeton over

6027-631: The 1970s. About 100 organic compounds could be identified in water prior to 1970. By 1975, nearly 1500 organic pollutants had been identified. Without the ability to detect such compounds, their monitoring and regulation would not have been possible. In 1981, Finnigan purchased the MAT division from Varian Associates which produced mass spectrometers in Bremen , Germany forming the Finnigan MAT brand of MS instruments. When Finnigan Instrument Corporation

6150-468: The 20th best high school in New Jersey in its 2018 rankings of the "Top Public High Schools" in New Jersey. The school was also ranked as the 10th best school in New Jersey by U.S. News & World Report . Niche ranked Princeton High School as the 47th best public high school in America in its "2021 Best Public High Schools in America" rankings. In the early 1990s, redistricting occurred between

6273-718: The AEA's Environmental and Occupational Health activities. Finnigan also co-founded the Organization Internationale Metrology Legale (OIML) for legal metrology . With the support of the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) they developed protocols for international regulations in fifty-one nations. In many cases, these closely matched the standards of the EPA. Finnigan died on August 14, 2022, at his house in Los Altos, California , at

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6396-698: The Borough Act of 1894, which required each township to form a single school district; rather than do so, Princeton Borough petitioned to be separated. (The two Princetons combined their public school systems in the decades before municipal consolidation.) Two minor boundary changes united the then site of the Princeton Hospital and of the Princeton Regional High School inside the Borough, in 1928 and 1951 respectively. See

6519-650: The British to evacuate southern New Jersey. After the victory, Princeton hosted the first Legislature under the State Constitution to decide the State's seal, governor and organization of its government. In addition, two of the original signers of the Declaration of Independence— Richard Stockton and John Witherspoon —lived in Princeton. Princetonians honored their citizens' legacy by naming two streets in

6642-570: The College of New Jersey and relocated to Princeton ten years later, Princeton University's main campus has its historic center on Nassau Street and stretches south from there. Its James Forrestal satellite campus is located in Plainsboro Township , and some playing fields lie within adjacent West Windsor Township . Princeton University was featured at the top of U.S. News & World Report ' s national university rankings for

6765-520: The Community Park and Johnson Park School districts, as the population within both districts had increased due to residential development. Concerns were also raised about the largely white, wealthy student population attending Johnson Park (JP) and the more racially and economically diverse population at Community Park (CP). As a result of the redistricting, portions of the affluent Western Section neighborhood were redistricted to CP, and portions of

6888-566: The Finnigan GC/MS, publishing the results in the Federal Register in 1979. By 1984, all public water was to be tested by using a GC/MS apparatus. In the 1980s, an estimated 60-70% of Finnigan's GC/MS sales went to the environmental market. GC/MS technology, of which Finnigan Instrument Corporation's instrument was the first, was the technical underpinning that made it possible for the EPA to carry out its regulatory efforts in

7011-534: The Finnigan Instrument Corporation along with Roger Sant, T. Z. Chou, Michael Story, Lloyd Friedman, and William Fies. In early 1968, they delivered the first prototype quadrupole GC/MS instruments to Stanford and Purdue University. When Finnigan Instrument Corporation was acquired by Thermo Instrument Systems (later Thermo Fisher Scientific ) in 1990, it was considered "the world's leading manufacturer of mass spectrometers". The GC–MS

7134-532: The National Institute of Standards (NIST-USA). Spectral library searches employ matching algorithms such as Probability Based Matching and dot-product matching that are used with methods of analysis written by many method standardization agencies. Sources of libraries include NIST, Wiley, the AAFS, and instrument manufacturers. The "hard ionization" process of electron ionization can be softened by

7257-503: The Princeton Council are Council President Mia Sacks (D, 2025), David F. Cohen (D, 2023), Leticia Fraga (D, 2023), Michelle Pirone Lambros (D, 2025), Leighton Newlin (D, 2024) and Eve Niedergang (D, 2024). In 2018, Princeton had an average property tax bill of $ 19,388, the highest in the county, compared to an average bill of $ 8,767 statewide. People in the township tried unsuccessfully to merge borough and township in

7380-674: The Township of Princeton voted on November 8, 2011, to merge the two municipalities into one. This was the first referendum when university student voters were encouraged and allowed to register to vote locally, and that likely contributed strongly to the measure passing, as the students were not home owners concerned with zoning matters, and they all counted as part of the borough and not the township. In Princeton Borough, 1,385 voted for and 902 voted against, while in Princeton Township 3,542 voted for and 604 voted against. Proponents of

7503-432: The age of 95. Gas chromatography%E2%80%93mass spectrometry GC–MS has been regarded as a " gold standard " for forensic substance identification because it is used to perform a 100% specific test, which positively identifies the presence of a particular substance. A nonspecific test merely indicates that any of several in a category of substances is present. Although a nonspecific test could statistically suggest

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7626-406: The area by James Leonard, who first referred to the community as Princetown when describing the location of his large estate in his diary. The community was later known by a variety of names, including: Princetown , Prince's Town and finally Princeton . The name Princeton was first used in 1724 and became common within the subsequent decade. Although there is no official documentary backing,

7749-442: The area in the late part of the 17th century, arriving from Delaware to settle West Jersey , and from New York to settle East Jersey , with the site destined to become Princeton being amid the wilderness between these two boroughs. The first European to find his home in the boundaries of the future municipality was Henry Greenland. He built his house in 1683 along with a tavern, where representatives of West and East Jersey met to set

7872-539: The borough and township had a combined population of 28,572. According to the website Data USA, Princeton has a population of 30,168 people, of which 85% are US citizens. The ethnic composition of the population is 20,393 White residents (67.6%), 4,636 Asian residents (15.4%), 2,533 Hispanic residents (8.4%), 1,819 Black residents (6.03%), and 618 Two+ residents (2.05%). The most common foreign languages are Chinese (1,800 speakers), Spanish (1,429 speakers), and French (618 speakers), but compared to other places, Princeton has

7995-413: The borough). An attempt to consolidate in 1979 passed with 70% support in the township but failed in the borough by 33 votes, a result that was upheld after a recount. Although township voters again supported a 1996 merger referendum by an almost 3–1 margin, about 57% of borough voters rejected the consolidation proposal, marking the sixth such failure. The residents of both the Borough of Princeton and

8118-402: The boundaries between the two provinces. Greenland's son-in-law Daniel Brimson inhabited the area by 1690, and left property in a will dated 1696. Then, Princeton was known only as part of nearby Stony Brook . Nathaniel Fitz Randolph, a native of the town, attested in his private journal on December 28, 1758, that Princeton was named in 1724 upon the making/construction of the first house in

8241-413: The compounds by returning them to the liquid phase. The trap is then heated and the sample compounds are introduced to the GC–MS column via a volatiles interface, which is a split inlet system. P&T GC–MS is particularly suited to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and BTEX compounds (aromatic compounds associated with petroleum). A faster alternative is the "purge-closed loop" system. In this system

8364-472: The cooling of the molecules before their ionization, resulting in mass spectra that are richer in information. In this method named cold electron ionization (cold-EI) the molecules exit the GC column, mixed with added helium make up gas and expand into vacuum through a specially designed supersonic nozzle, forming a supersonic molecular beam (SMB). Collisions with the make up gas at the expanding supersonic jet reduce

8487-427: The degree of certainty about the identity of that compound is reduced. When collecting data in the full scan mode, a target range of mass fragments is determined and put into the instrument's method. An example of a typical broad range of mass fragments to monitor would be m/z 50 to m/z 400. The determination of what range to use is largely dictated by what one anticipates being in the sample while being cognizant of

8610-871: The district's high school as part of a sending/receiving relationship . As of the 2020–21 school year, the district, comprised of six schools, had an enrollment of 3,740 students and 341.0 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 11.0:1. Schools in the district (with 2020–21 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics ) are Community Park School with 332 students in grades K-5, Johnson Park School with 329 students in grades PreK-5, Littlebrook School with 342 students in grades K-5, Riverside School with 289 students in grades PreK-5, Princeton Middle School with 803 students in grades 6-8 and Princeton High School with 1,555 students in grades 9-12. New Jersey Monthly magazine ranked Princeton High School as

8733-545: The downtown area after them. On January 10, 1938, Henry Ewing Hale called for a group of citizens to establish a "Historical Society of Princeton." Later the Bainbridge House, constructed in 1766 by Job Stockton, would be dedicated for this purpose. Previously the house was used once for a meeting of Continental Congress in 1783, a general office, and as the Princeton Public Library. The House

8856-414: The electrons and analyte and cause a 'soft' ionization of the molecule of interest. A softer ionization fragments the molecule to a lower degree than the hard ionization of EI. One of the main benefits of using chemical ionization is that a mass fragment closely corresponding to the molecular weight of the analyte of interest is produced. In positive chemical ionization (PCI) the reagent gas interacts with

8979-1085: The executive serving a four-year term of office while the commissioners serve three-year terms of office on a staggered basis, with either two or three seats up for election each year as part of the November general election. As of 2024 , the County Executive is Daniel R. Benson ( D , Hamilton Township ) whose term of office ends December 31, 2027. Mercer County's Commissioners are: Lucylle R. S. Walter (D, Ewing Township , 2026), Chair John A. Cimino (D, Hamilton Township, 2026), Samuel T. Frisby Sr. (D, Trenton , 2024), Cathleen M. Lewis (D, Lawrence Township , 2025), Vice Chair Kristin L. McLaughlin (D, Hopewell Township , 2024), Nina D. Melker (D, Hamilton Township , 2025) and Terrance Stokes (D, Ewing Township, 2024). Mercer County's constitutional officers are: Clerk Paula Sollami-Covello (D, Lawrence Township, 2025), Sheriff John A. Kemler (D, Hamilton Township, 2026) and Surrogate Diane Gerofsky (D, Lawrence Township, 2026). As of March 2011, there were

9102-521: The future of the campus and its academic programs. As of 2023, Princeton is paying Rider $ 1,000 per month to lease overflow parking at the Choir College; the town then sells the parking rights for $ 30 per month to businesses, residents and non-residents. The Choir College parking is a few blocks' walk from downtown. The Princeton Public Schools serve students in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade . Students from Cranbury Township attend

9225-406: The given spectrum to a spectrum library to see if its characteristics are present for some sample in the library. This is best performed by a computer because there are a myriad of visual distortions that can take place due to variations in scale. Computers can also simultaneously correlate more data (such as the retention times identified by GC), to more accurately relate certain data. Deep learning

9348-485: The high initial cost of the equipment, the Finnigan GC/MS was reliable and cost-effective. By 1979, the Finnigan GC/MS was the preferred instrument at the EPA for the analysis of environmental pollutants in water and wastewater. The models most generally used were Finnigan Corporation's 1015 and 3000 series of quadrupole mass spectrometers with a data system based on DEC 's PDP-8 computers. The EPA also based its instruction manuals and standards for environmental testing on

9471-690: The high school programs offered by the Mercer County Technical Schools , a county-wide vocational school district that offers full-time career and technical education at its Health Sciences Academy, STEM Academy and Academy of Culinary Arts, with no tuition charged to students for attendance. Private schools located in Princeton include The Lewis School of Princeton , Princeton Day School , Princeton Friends School , Hun School of Princeton , and Princeton International School of Mathematics and Science (PRISMS). St. Paul's Catholic School (pre-school to 8th grade) founded in 1878,

9594-419: The identification probabilities of both known and unknown compounds, amplify isomer mass spectral effects and enable the use of isotope abundance analysis for the elucidation of elemental formulas. In chemical ionization (CI) a reagent gas, typically methane or ammonia is introduced into the mass spectrometer. Depending on the technique (positive CI or negative CI) chosen, this reagent gas will interact with

9717-403: The identity of the substance, this could lead to false positive identification. However, the high temperatures (300°C) used in the GC–MS injection port (and oven) can result in thermal degradation of injected molecules, thus resulting in the measurement of degradation products instead of the actual molecule(s) of interest. The first on-line coupling of gas chromatography to a mass spectrometer

9840-543: The inert gas is bubbled through the water until the concentrations of organic compounds in the vapor phase are at equilibrium with concentrations in the aqueous phase. The gas phase is then analysed directly. The most common type of mass spectrometer (MS) associated with a gas chromatograph (GC) is the quadrupole mass spectrometer, sometimes referred to by the Hewlett-Packard (now Agilent ) trade name "Mass Selective Detector" (MSD). Another relatively common detector

9963-431: The instrument method and only those mass fragments are detected by the mass spectrometer. The advantages of SIM are that the detection limit is lower since the instrument is only looking at a small number of fragments (e.g. three fragments) during each scan. More scans can take place each second. Since only a few mass fragments of interest are being monitored, matrix interferences are typically lower. To additionally confirm

10086-421: The internal vibrational (and rotational) energy of the analyte molecules, hence reducing the degree of fragmentation caused by the electrons during the ionization process. Cold-EI mass spectra are characterized by an abundant molecular ion while the usual fragmentation pattern is retained, thus making cold-EI mass spectra compatible with library search identification techniques. The enhanced molecular ions increase

10209-410: The legislative body with the mayor presiding at meetings and voting only in the event of a tie. The mayor can veto ordinances subject to an override by a two-thirds majority vote of the council. The mayor makes committee and liaison assignments for council members, and most appointments are made by the mayor with the advice and consent of the council. The mayor is elected directly by the voters to

10332-478: The likelihood of a potentially positive result, it is relatively important to be sure that the ion ratios of the various mass fragments are comparable to a known reference standard. GC–MS is becoming the tool of choice for tracking organic pollutants in the environment. The cost of GC–MS equipment has decreased significantly, and the reliability has increased at the same time, which has contributed to its increased adoption in environmental studies . GC–MS can analyze

10455-408: The main commercial street, most of the university campus, and incorporated most of the urban area until the postwar suburbanization. The borough and township had roughly equal populations. Other major streets include Harrison, Witherspoon, Nassau, Bayard, Washington, and Stockton. The Lenape Native Americans were the earliest identifiable inhabitants of the Princeton area. Europeans settled into

10578-520: The merger asserted that when the merger is completed the new municipality of Princeton would save $ 3.2 million as a result of some scaled down services including layoffs of 15 government workers including 9 police officers (however the measure itself does not mandate such layoffs). Opponents of the measure challenged the findings of a report citing a cost savings as unsubstantiated, expressed concerns about differing zoning needs between borough and township, and noted that voter representation would be reduced in

10701-484: The molecular mass unit. Hard ionization is considered by mass spectrometrists as the employ of molecular electron bombardment, whereas "soft ionization" is charge by molecular collision with an introduced gas. The molecular fragmentation pattern is dependent upon the electron energy applied to the system, typically 70 eV (electronvolts). The use of 70 eV facilitates comparison of generated spectra with library spectra using manufacturer-supplied software or software developed by

10824-498: The municipality is said to be named after Prince William of Orange . Another theory suggests that the name came from a large land-owner named Henry Prince, the son-in-law of a well-known English merchant, but no evidence backs this contention. A royal prince seems a more likely eponym for the settlement, as three nearby towns had names for royalty: Kingston , Queenstown (in the vicinity of the intersection of Nassau and Harrison Streets) and Princessville (Lawrence Township). Princeton

10947-459: The nineteenth century. According to the 2010 census , Princeton Borough had 12,307 inhabitants, while Princeton Township had 16,265. The numbers have become stagnant; since the arrival of the College of New Jersey, now Princeton University, in 1756, the town's population spikes every year during the fall and winter and drops significantly over the course of the summer. In the pivotal Battle of Princeton in January 1777, George Washington forced

11070-735: The ninth consecutive year in 2024, as well as topping comparable lists by Forbes and The Wall Street Journal . Princeton Theological Seminary , the first and oldest seminary in America of the Presbyterian Church (USA), has its main academic campus in Princeton, with residential housing located just outside of Princeton in West Windsor Township. The Institute for Advanced Study maintains extensive land holdings (the "Institute Woods") there covering 800 acres (320 ha). Mercer County Community College , not actually in Princeton but in nearby West Windsor ,

11193-591: The old Borough), 08543 ( PO boxes ), and 08544 (the University ). Under the Köppen climate classification , Princeton falls within either a hot-summer humid continental climate ( Dfa ) if the 0 °C (32 °F) isotherm is used or a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) if the −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm is used. During the summer months, episodes of extreme heat and humidity can occur with heat index values at or above 100.0 °F (37.8 °C). On average,

11316-403: The particles from a human body in order to help link a criminal to a crime . The analysis of fire debris using GC–MS is well established, and there is even an established American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard for fire debris analysis. GCMS/MS is especially useful here as samples often contain very complex matrices, and results used in court need to be highly accurate. GC–MS

11439-611: The post-September 11 drive towards increased capability in homeland security and public health preparedness, traditional GC–MS units with transmission quadrupole mass spectrometers, as well as those with cylindrical ion trap (CIT-MS) and toroidal ion trap (T-ITMS) mass spectrometers have been modified for field portability and near real-time detection of chemical warfare agents (CWA) such as sarin, soman, and VX. These complex and large GC–MS systems have been modified and configured with resistively heated low thermal mass (LTM) gas chromatographs that reduce analysis time to less than ten percent of

11562-635: The racially and economically diverse John Witherspoon neighborhood were redistricted to JP. The Princeton Charter School (grades K–8) operates under a charter granted by the commissioner of the New Jersey Department of Education . The school is a public school that operates independently of the Princeton Regional Schools, and is funded on a per student basis by locally raised tax revenues. Eighth grade students from all of Mercer County are eligible to apply to attend

11685-406: The same amount of time to travel through the column ( i.e. have the same retention time), which results in two or more molecules that co-elute. Sometimes two different molecules can also have a similar pattern of ionized fragments in a mass spectrometer (mass spectrum). Combining the two processes reduces the possibility of error, as it is extremely unlikely that two different molecules will behave in

11808-425: The same way in both a gas chromatograph and a mass spectrometer. Therefore, when an identifying mass spectrum appears at a characteristic retention time in a GC–MS analysis, it typically increases certainty that the analyte of interest is in the sample. For the analysis of volatile compounds, a purge and trap (P&T) concentrator system may be used to introduce samples. The target analytes are extracted by mixing

11931-450: The sample is fragmented it will then be detected, usually by an electron multiplier , which essentially turns the ionized mass fragment into an electrical signal that is then detected. The ionization technique chosen is independent of using full scan or SIM. By far the most common and perhaps standard form of ionization is electron ionization (EI). The molecules enter into the MS (the source

12054-452: The sample with water and purge with inert gas (e.g. Nitrogen gas ) into an airtight chamber, this is known as purging or sparging . The volatile compounds move into the headspace above the water and are drawn along a pressure gradient (caused by the introduction of the purge gas) out of the chamber. The volatile compounds are drawn along a heated line onto a 'trap'. The trap is a column of adsorbent material at ambient temperature that holds

12177-423: The smaller mass detectors. Depending on the system, the analytes can be introduced via liquid injection, desorbed from sorbent tubes through a thermal desorption process, or with solid-phase micro extraction (SPME). GC–MS is used for the analysis of unknown organic compound mixtures. One critical use of this technology is the use of GC–MS to determine the composition of bio-oils processed from raw biomass. GC–MS

12300-401: The solvent and other possible interferences. A MS should not be set to look for mass fragments too low or else one may detect air (found as m/z 28 due to nitrogen), carbon dioxide ( m/z 44) or other possible interference. Additionally if one is to use a large scan range then sensitivity of the instrument is decreased due to performing fewer scans per second since each scan will have to detect

12423-554: The southern boundary of the former Borough and the Delaware and Raritan Canal was added to Princeton Township in 1853. Princeton Borough became a separate municipality in 1894. In the early nineteenth century, New Jersey boroughs had been quasi-independent subdivisions chartered within existing townships that did not have full autonomy. Princeton Borough received such a charter in 1813, as part of Montgomery and West Windsor Townships; it continued to be part of Princeton Township until

12546-424: The spectrometer from one ion peak to the next. This allowed acquisition and display of data in real-time, and gave operators the potential to interact with the system and modify what was being monitored. A major strength of the instrument was precise quantitation. It could be used to detect trace contaminants in environmental samples, to identify drugs in a case of overdose , and to measure drug metabolites . After

12669-581: The stationary phase of the column will promote separation of the molecules as the sample travels the length of the column. The molecules are retained by the column and then elute (come off) from the column at different times (called the retention time), and this allows the mass spectrometer downstream to capture, ionize, accelerate, deflect, and detect the ionized molecules separately. The mass spectrometer does this by breaking each molecule into ionized fragments and detecting these fragments using their mass-to-charge ratio. These two components, used together, allow

12792-439: The target molecule, most often with a proton exchange. This produces the species in relatively high amounts. In negative chemical ionization (NCI) the reagent gas decreases the impact of the free electrons on the target analyte. This decreased energy typically leaves the fragment in great supply. A mass spectrometer is typically utilized in one of two ways: full scan or selective ion monitoring (SIM). The typical GC–MS instrument

12915-495: The time required in traditional laboratory systems. Additionally, the systems are smaller, and more mobile, including units that are mounted in mobile analytical laboratories (MAL), such as those used by the United States Marine Corps Chemical and Biological Incident Response Force MAL and other similar laboratories, and systems that are hand-carried by two-person teams or individuals, much ado to

13038-498: The type of MS/MS analysis being performed. Types of analysis include product ion scan, precursor ion scan, selected reaction monitoring (SRM) (sometimes referred to as multiple reaction monitoring (MRM)) and neutral loss scan. For example: When Q1 is in static mode (looking at one mass only as in SIM), and Q3 is in scanning mode, one obtains a so-called product ion spectrum (also called "daughter spectrum"). From this spectrum, one can select

13161-600: The use of C as the labeling and the measurement of C- C ratios with an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS); an MS with a detector designed to measure a few select ions and return values as ratios. Princeton, New Jersey Princeton is a borough in Mercer County , in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It was established on January 1, 2013, through the consolidation of the Borough of Princeton and Princeton Township , both of which are now defunct. As of

13284-490: The use of this instrument, as well as allowed great improvements in the amount of time it takes to analyze a sample. In 1964, Electronic Associates, Inc. (EAI) , a leading U.S. supplier of analog computers, began development of a computer controlled quadrupole mass spectrometer under the direction of Robert E. Finnigan . By 1966 Finnigan and collaborator Mike Uthe's EAI division had sold over 500 quadrupole residual gas-analyzer instruments. In 1967, Finnigan left EAI to form

13407-407: The vote (4,172 cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 39.2% (2,780 votes), and other candidates with 2.0% (145 votes), among the 7,279 ballots cast by the municipality's 18,374 registered voters (182 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 39.6%. Princeton University , one of the world's most prominent research universities, is a dominant feature of the community. Established in 1746 as

13530-433: The vote. In the 2012 presidential election , Democrat Barack Obama received 75.4% of the vote (9,461 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 23.0% (2,882 votes), and other candidates with 1.6% (205 votes), among the 14,752 ballots cast by the municipality's 20,328 registered voters (2,204 ballots were spoiled ), for a turnout of 72.6%. In the 2013 gubernatorial election , Democrat Barbara Buono received 58.8% of

13653-521: The wettest month of the year is July which corresponds with the annual peak in thunderstorm activity. During the winter months, episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values below 0.0 °F (−17.8 °C). The plant hardiness zone at the Princeton Municipal Court is 6b with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of −0.9 °F (−18.3 °C). The average seasonal (November–April) snowfall total

13776-829: The world’s most acclaimed research universities, which bears its name and moved to the community in 1756 from the educational institution's previous location in Newark . Although its association with the university is primarily what makes Princeton a college town , other important institutions in the area include the Institute for Advanced Study , Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory , Princeton Theological Seminary , Opinion Research Corporation , Bristol-Myers Squibb , Siemens Corporate Research , SRI International , FMC Corporation , Educational Testing Service , The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation , Amrep , Church and Dwight , Berlitz International , and Dow Jones & Company . Princeton

13899-650: The years, but still maintain their own community identity. Princeton borders the municipalities of Hopewell Township , Lawrence Township , and West Windsor Township in Mercer County; Plainsboro Township and South Brunswick Township in Middlesex County ; and Franklin Township and Montgomery Township in Somerset County . United States Postal ZIP codes for Princeton include 08540, 08541 ( Educational Testing Service ), 08542 (largely

14022-403: Was a wide spot in the road; the boundary between Somerset County and Middlesex County ran right through Princeton, along the high road between New York and Philadelphia, now Nassau Street. When Mercer County was formed in 1838, part of West Windsor Township was added to the portion of Montgomery Township which was included in the new county, and made into Princeton Township; the area between

14145-490: Was acquired by Thermo Instrument Systems (since 2006 Thermo Fisher Scientific ) in 1990, the firm was considered "the world's leading manufacturer of mass spectrometers". Robert Finnigan continued to consult for the company for several years after the acquisition. He has also consulted with other entrepreneurial companies. Robert Finnigan served on the board of directors of the trade organization American Electronics Association (AEA). He and Dean O. Morton were founders of

14268-477: Was at Tyndall Air Force Base near Panama City, Florida . Because of his strong interest and aptitude in electrical engineering , he was able to enroll in an Air Force Institute of Technology program that sent qualified officers to graduate school. In 1952, he entered the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign , receiving an M.S. in electrical engineering in 1954 and a Ph.D. in electrical engineering in 1957. His master's thesis work with Edward C. Jordan used

14391-816: Was born on May 27, 1927, in Buffalo, New York , to Charles M. and Marie F. Finnigan. He was one of seven children, who were raised primarily by their father after their mother's early death. Finnigan entered the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland , in June 1945, graduating in 1949 with a Bachelor of Science. On April 1, 1950, he married Bette Earl Van Horn at Perrin Air Force Base in Sherman, Texas . The couple had met while he

14514-472: Was described by William Edward Schenck in 1850 as having attained "no very considerable size" until the establishment of the College of New Jersey in the town. When Richard Stockton, one of the founders of the township, died in 1709 he left his estate to his sons, who helped to expand property and the population. Based on the 1880 United States Census , the population of Princeton comprised 3,209 persons (not including students). Local population has expanded from

14637-420: Was reported in the late 1950s. An interest in coupling the methods had been suggested as early as December 1954, but conventional recording techniques had too poor temporal resolution. Fortunately, time-of-flight mass spectrometry developed around the same time allowed to measure spectra thousands times a second. The development of affordable and miniaturized computers has helped in the simplification of

14760-420: Was sent to Nobel prizewinner Joshua Lederberg at Stanford University . The other was sent to Purdue University . The first commercial model for a computerized GC/MS, Finnigan's Model 1015/System 150, was introduced soon after for a price of $ 100,000. The first delivery went to Evan Charles Horning and Marjorie G. Horning at Baylor Medical College . For three years, Finnigan was the only company producing

14883-456: Was shown to lead to promising results in the identification of VOCs from raw GC–MS data. Another method of analysis measures the peaks in relation to one another. In this method, the tallest peak is assigned 100% of the value, and the other peaks being assigned proportionate values. All values above 3% are assigned. The total mass of the unknown compound is normally indicated by the parent peak. The value of this parent peak can be used to fit with

15006-428: Was strenuously opposed by neighbors. In 2019, Rider (which is located in Lawrence Township ) attempted to sell the choir college campus in Princeton to a Chinese company, resulting in a public outcry and the prevention of that sale. In 2020, Rider moved all activities of Westminster Choir College from Princeton to its Lawrenceville campus; the Princeton campus is now largely unused while legal wrangling continues about

15129-489: Was then Princeton Borough) became the first governor's mansion. In 1982, it was replaced by the larger Drumthwacket , a colonial mansion located in the former township, but not all have actually lived in these houses. Morven became a museum and garden, owned and operated by the New Jersey Historical Society . Throughout much of its history, the community was split into two separate municipalities:

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