187-552: Project Pluto was a United States government program to develop nuclear-powered ramjet engines for use in cruise missiles . Two experimental engines were tested at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) in 1961 and 1964 respectively. On 1 January 1957, the U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission selected the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory to study the feasibility of applying heat from
374-687: A cruise missile , called SLAM, for Supersonic Low Altitude Missile . It would have many advantages over other nuclear weapons delivery systems. It was estimated that the reactor would weigh between 23,000 and 91,000 kilograms (50,000 and 200,000 lb), permitting a payload of over 23,000 kilograms (50,000 lb). Operating at Mach 3, or around 3,700 kilometers per hour (2,300 mph) and flying as low as 150 meters (500 ft), it would be invulnerable to interception by contemporary air defenses. It would carry sixteen nuclear warheads with nuclear weapon yields of up to 10 megatonnes of TNT (42 PJ ) each and would deliver them with greater accuracy than
561-413: A missile silo -based ICBM. Range would not be unlimited, but would be determined by the fuel load. Merkle calculated that a MW-day would burn about one gram of highly enriched uranium . A 490 MW reactor with 50 kilograms of uranium would therefore burn 1 percent of its fuel each day. Assuming that an accumulation of neutron poisons could be avoided, the missile could fly for several days. The success of
748-403: A neutron hits the nucleus of a uranium-235 or plutonium atom, it can split the nucleus into two smaller nuclei, which is a nuclear fission reaction. The reaction releases energy and neutrons. The released neutrons can hit other uranium or plutonium nuclei, causing new fission reactions, which release more energy and more neutrons. This is called a chain reaction . In most commercial reactors,
935-542: A nuclear reactor to power a ramjet engine for a Supersonic Low Altitude Missile . This would have many advantages over other nuclear weapons delivery systems: operating at Mach 3, or around 3,700 kilometers per hour (2,300 mph), and flying as low as 150 meters (500 ft), it would be invulnerable to interception by contemporary air defenses and carry more and larger nuclear warheads (up to sixteen with nuclear weapon yields of up to 10 megatonnes of TNT (42 PJ ) each) and deliver them with greater accuracy than
1122-496: A nuclear renaissance , an increase in the construction of new reactors, due to concerns about carbon dioxide emissions . During this period, newer generation III reactors , such as the EPR began construction. Prospects of a nuclear renaissance were delayed by another nuclear accident. The 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident was caused by the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , one of
1309-562: A $ 179.7 billion budget and is the second largest service branch of the U.S. Armed Forces, with 321,848 active duty airmen , 147,879 civilian personnel, 68,927 reserve airmen, 105,104 Air National Guard airmen, and approximately 65,000 Civil Air Patrol auxiliarists . According to the National Security Act of 1947 (61 Stat . 502), which created the USAF: Section 9062 of Title 10 US Code defines
1496-426: A broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of war deals with how forces are employed, and the specifics of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. The goal of tactical level C2
1683-438: A cleanup plan for drinking water around Tucson, Arizona after the region's groundwater was contaminated by PFAS runoff from nearby Air Force bases. The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. The USAF possesses the lineage and heritage of its predecessor organizations, which played a pivotal role in U.S. military operations since 1907: In addition since
1870-458: A commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives. At the strategic level command and control,
2057-479: A core temperature of 204 °C (400 °F) and no incidents. Tory II-A was operated at its designed value on 14 May 1961, when it reached a power output of 46 MW with a core temperature of 1,420 °C (2,580 °F). Three high power test runs were conducted on 28 September, 5 October and 6 October. These reached power levels of 144, 166 and 162 MW with core temperatures of 1,280, 1,260 and 1,450 °C (2,330, 2,300 and 2,640 °F) respectively. With
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#17327984861312244-409: A core temperature of 571 °C (1,060 °F), the clamp holding the exit nozzle to the air duct on the test vehicle broke, and the nozzle flew 150 meters (480 ft) through the air. Following this mishap, it was decided to conduct a test of radio-controlled disconnection and removal of the reactor from the test vehicle. During this test the electrically controlled coupler between the locomotive and
2431-894: A force multiplier. It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot around the world with less dependence on forward staging bases or overflight/landing clearances. Air refueling significantly expands the options available to a commander by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and flexibility of receiver aircraft. Aeromedical evacuation is "the movement of patients under medical supervision to and between medical treatment facilities by air transportation" (JP 1-02). JP 4-02, Health Service Support, further defines it as "the fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and between medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained explicitly for this mission." Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward as fixed-wing aircraft are able to conduct airland operations. Global precision attack
2618-404: A high power reactor test, five major tests were performed. The first test, conducted on 23 March 1964, was a subcritical test of the twelve hand-inserted and six electrically-activated auxiliary shutdown rods. The purpose of the test was to verify that the operational rods could be removed safely so long as the auxiliary rods were in place. This would mean that staff would not have to be removed from
2805-410: A low-level waste disposal site. In countries with nuclear power, radioactive wastes account for less than 1% of total industrial toxic wastes, much of which remains hazardous for long periods. Overall, nuclear power produces far less waste material by volume than fossil-fuel based power plants. Coal-burning plants, in particular, produce large amounts of toxic and mildly radioactive ash resulting from
2992-523: A nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains and presents credible deterrent capabilities through successful visible demonstrations and exercises that assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries from actions that threaten US national security or the populations, and deploy military forces of the US, its allies, and friends. Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which
3179-405: A precondition" (Annex 3–70, Strategic Attack). Air Interdiction is defined as "air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air Interdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with
3366-434: A radiation safety room for workers. Building 2201 also contained a maintenance shop, darkroom, offices, and equipment storage rooms. Scientists monitored the tests remotely via a television hook up from a tin shed located at a safe distance that had a fallout shelter stocked with two weeks' supply of food and water in the event of a major catastrophe. Some 40 kilometers (25 mi) of 25-centimeter (10 in) oil well casing
3553-414: A railroad car that could be controlled remotely. The need to maintain supersonic speed at low altitude and in all kinds of weather meant that the reactor had to survive high temperatures and intense radiation. Ceramic nuclear fuel elements were used that contained highly enriched uranium oxide fuel and beryllium oxide neutron moderator . After a series of preliminary tests to verify the integrity of
3740-494: A rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either the Continental United States , within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using
3927-533: A reactor. Spent thorium fuel, although more difficult to handle than spent uranium fuel, may present somewhat lower proliferation risks. The nuclear industry also produces a large volume of low-level waste , with low radioactivity, in the form of contaminated items like clothing, hand tools, water purifier resins, and (upon decommissioning) the materials of which the reactor itself is built. Low-level waste can be stored on-site until radiation levels are low enough to be disposed of as ordinary waste, or it can be sent to
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#17327984861314114-767: A sharp reduction in flight hours for crew training since 2005 and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Personnel directing Airmen's Time Assessments. On 5 June 2008, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates accepted the resignations of both the Secretary of the Air Force , Michael Wynne , and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , General T. Michael Moseley . In his decision to fire both men Gates cited "systemic issues associated with... declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance". Left unmentioned by Gates
4301-1087: A shortage near the end of the century. A 2017 study by researchers from MIT and WHOI found that "at the current consumption rate, global conventional reserves of terrestrial uranium (approximately 7.6 million tonnes) could be depleted in a little over a century". Limited uranium-235 supply may inhibit substantial expansion with the current nuclear technology. While various ways to reduce dependence on such resources are being explored, new nuclear technologies are considered to not be available in time for climate change mitigation purposes or competition with alternatives of renewables in addition to being more expensive and require costly research and development. A study found it to be uncertain whether identified resources will be developed quickly enough to provide uninterrupted fuel supply to expanded nuclear facilities and various forms of mining may be challenged by ecological barriers, costs, and land requirements. Researchers also report considerable import dependence of nuclear energy. Unconventional uranium resources also exist. Uranium
4488-405: A significant effect on countries, such as France and Japan , which had relied more heavily on oil for electric generation to invest in nuclear power. France would construct 25 nuclear power plants over the next 15 years, and as of 2019, 71% of French electricity was generated by nuclear power, the highest percentage by any nation in the world. Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in
4675-452: A strong focus on the improvement of Basic Military Training (BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a simulated combat environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with
4862-425: A typical nuclear power station are often stored on site in dry cask storage vessels. Presently, waste is mainly stored at individual reactor sites and there are over 430 locations around the world where radioactive material continues to accumulate. Disposal of nuclear waste is often considered the most politically divisive aspect in the lifecycle of a nuclear power facility. The lack of movement of nuclear waste in
5049-510: A variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and
5236-490: Is high-level radioactive waste . While its radioactivity decreases exponentially, it must be isolated from the biosphere for hundreds of thousands of years, though newer technologies (like fast reactors ) have the potential to significantly reduce this. Because the spent fuel is still mostly fissionable material, some countries (e.g. France and Russia ) reprocess their spent fuel by extracting fissile and fertile elements for fabrication into new fuel, although this process
5423-408: Is spent nuclear fuel , which is considered high-level waste . For Light Water Reactors (LWRs), spent fuel is typically composed of 95% uranium, 4% fission products , and about 1% transuranic actinides (mostly plutonium , neptunium and americium ). The fission products are responsible for the bulk of the short-term radioactivity, whereas the plutonium and other transuranics are responsible for
5610-459: Is "the acquisition of information and the provision of this information to processing elements" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to obtain required information to satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and methods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range of Military Operations (ROMO). Processing and exploitation is "the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to
5797-417: Is "the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy" (JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and airborne threat defense and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high-value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is "measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without
Project Pluto - Misplaced Pages Continue
5984-725: Is 89%. Most new reactors under construction are generation III reactors in Asia. Proponents contend that nuclear power is a safe, sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions . This is because nuclear power generation causes one of the lowest levels of fatalities per unit of energy generated compared to other energy sources. Coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydroelectricity have each caused more fatalities per unit of energy due to air pollution and accidents . Nuclear power plants also emit no greenhouse gases and result in less life-cycle carbon emissions than common "renewables". The radiological hazards associated with nuclear power are
6171-486: Is a fairly common element in the Earth's crust: it is approximately as common as tin or germanium , and is about 40 times more common than silver . Uranium is present in trace concentrations in most rocks, dirt, and ocean water, but is generally economically extracted only where it is present in relatively high concentrations. Uranium mining can be underground, open-pit , or in-situ leach mining. An increasing number of
6358-580: Is a military service branch organized within the Department of the Air Force , one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense . The Air Force through the Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force , who reports to the Secretary of Defense and is appointed by the President with Senate confirmation . The highest-ranking military officer in
6545-461: Is also produced during plant decommissioning. There are two broad categories of nuclear waste: low-level waste and high-level waste. The first has low radioactivity and includes contaminated items such as clothing, which poses limited threat. High-level waste is mainly the spent fuel from nuclear reactors, which is very radioactive and must be cooled and then safely disposed of or reprocessed. The most important waste stream from nuclear power reactors
6732-489: Is also safer in terms of nuclear proliferation potential. Reprocessing has the potential to recover up to 95% of the uranium and plutonium fuel in spent nuclear fuel, as well as reduce long-term radioactivity within the remaining waste. However, reprocessing has been politically controversial because of the potential for nuclear proliferation and varied perceptions of increasing the vulnerability to nuclear terrorism . Reprocessing also leads to higher fuel cost compared to
6919-498: Is considered the worst nuclear disaster in history both in total casualties, with 56 direct deaths, and financially, with the cleanup and the cost estimated at 18 billion Rbls (US$ 68 billion in 2019, adjusted for inflation). The international organization to promote safety awareness and the professional development of operators in nuclear facilities, the World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO),
7106-410: Is contained within sixteen casks. It is estimated that to produce a lifetime supply of energy for a person at a western standard of living (approximately 3 GWh ) would require on the order of the volume of a soda can of low enriched uranium , resulting in a similar volume of spent fuel generated. Following interim storage in a spent fuel pool , the bundles of used fuel rod assemblies of
7293-621: Is currently done in France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan, and India. In the United States, spent nuclear fuel is currently not reprocessed. The La Hague reprocessing facility in France has operated commercially since 1976 and is responsible for half the world's reprocessing as of 2010. It produces MOX fuel from spent fuel derived from several countries. More than 32,000 tonnes of spent fuel had been reprocessed as of 2015, with
7480-425: Is defined as "all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace" (JP 1-02). In concert with OCA operations, a major goal of DCA operations is to provide an area from which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense
7667-534: Is defined as "offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense. Defensive Counter-Air (DCA)
Project Pluto - Misplaced Pages Continue
7854-405: Is in the commissioning phase, with plans to build more. Another alternative to fast-neutron breeders are thermal-neutron breeder reactors that use uranium-233 bred from thorium as fission fuel in the thorium fuel cycle . Thorium is about 3.5 times more common than uranium in the Earth's crust, and has different geographic characteristics. India's three-stage nuclear power programme features
8041-424: Is more expensive than producing new fuel from mined uranium . All reactors breed some plutonium-239 , which is found in the spent fuel, and because Pu-239 is the preferred material for nuclear weapons , reprocessing is seen as a weapon proliferation risk. The first nuclear power plant was built in the 1950s. The global installed nuclear capacity grew to 100 GW in the late 1970s, and then expanded during
8228-521: Is much less radioactive than spent nuclear fuel by weight, coal ash is produced in much higher quantities per unit of energy generated. It is also released directly into the environment as fly ash , whereas nuclear plants use shielding to protect the environment from radioactive materials. Nuclear waste volume is small compared to the energy produced. For example, at Yankee Rowe Nuclear Power Station , which generated 44 billion kilowatt hours of electricity when in service, its complete spent fuel inventory
8415-478: Is naturally present in seawater at a concentration of about 3 micrograms per liter, with 4.4 billion tons of uranium considered present in seawater at any time. In 2014 it was suggested that it would be economically competitive to produce nuclear fuel from seawater if the process was implemented at large scale. Like fossil fuels, over geological timescales, uranium extracted on an industrial scale from seawater would be replenished by both river erosion of rocks and
8602-617: Is the reactor-grade plutonium (RGPu) that is extracted from spent fuel. It is mixed with uranium oxide and fabricated into mixed-oxide or MOX fuel . Because thermal LWRs remain the most common reactor worldwide, this type of recycling is the most common. It is considered to increase the sustainability of the nuclear fuel cycle, reduce the attractiveness of spent fuel to theft, and lower the volume of high level nuclear waste. Spent MOX fuel cannot generally be recycled for use in thermal-neutron reactors. This issue does not affect fast-neutron reactors , which are therefore preferred in order to achieve
8789-486: Is the ability to hold at risk or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains. Strategic attack is defined as "offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic objectives without necessarily having to achieve operational objectives as
8976-583: Is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. Command and control is "the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by
9163-630: Is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity . Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission , nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions. Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium in nuclear power plants . Nuclear decay processes are used in niche applications such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators in some space probes such as Voyager 2 . Reactors producing controlled fusion power have been operated since 1958, but have yet to generate net power and are not expected to be commercially available in
9350-458: Is then converted into a compact ore concentrate form, known as yellowcake (U 3 O 8 ), to facilitate transport. Fission reactors generally need uranium-235 , a fissile isotope of uranium . The concentration of uranium-235 in natural uranium is low (about 0.7%). Some reactors can use this natural uranium as fuel, depending on their neutron economy . These reactors generally have graphite or heavy water moderators. For light water reactors,
9537-684: Is to achieve commander's intent and desired effects by gaining and keeping offensive initiative. The origins of the United States Air Force can be traced back to the Union Army Balloon Corps of the American Civil War . The Union Balloon Corps, established by aeronaut Thaddeus S. C. Lowe , provided aerial reconnaissance for the Union Army . This early use of balloons for military purposes marked
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#17327984861319724-689: The Bomber Mafia ), followed by fighters ( Fighter Mafia ). In response to a 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident , Secretary of Defense Robert Gates accepted in June 2009 the resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley . Moseley's successor, General Norton A. Schwartz , a former airlift and special operations pilot,
9911-415: The Department of State to terminate the project. On 1 July 1964, seven years and six months after it was started, Project Pluto was canceled. Merkle hosted a celebratory dinner at a nearby country club for project participants where SLAM tie tacks and bottles of "Pluto" mineral water were given away as souvenirs. At its peak, Project Pluto had employed around 350 people at Livermore and 100 at Site 401, and
10098-540: The Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository of the Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant was under construction as of 2015. Most thermal-neutron reactors run on a once-through nuclear fuel cycle , mainly due to the low price of fresh uranium. However, many reactors are also fueled with recycled fissionable materials that remain in spent nuclear fuel. The most common fissionable material that is recycled
10285-530: The cab . The former was normally used; the latter was as a backup. The Cold Assembly Bay (Room 101) in Building 2201 was used for storage and assembly of components of the reactor test vehicle. It also contained a maintenance service pit and battery charger for the locomotives. In 1957, the Livermore Laboratory began working on a prototype reactor called Tory II-A to test the proposed design. It
10472-467: The control rod actuators. Vaults within each cell were equipped with remote manipulators. All controls were located in the central control room, which was air conditioned with a positive pressure so air always flowed towards the disassembly bay and the hot cells, and the used air from them was passed through filters. The main disassembly bay and the hot cells were accessible through openings that were normally covered with lead plates. There were showers and
10659-439: The integral fast reactor and molten salt reactors , can use as fuel the plutonium and other actinides in spent fuel from light water reactors, thanks to their fast fission spectrum. This offers a potentially more attractive alternative to deep geological disposal. The thorium fuel cycle results in similar fission products, though creates a much smaller proportion of transuranic elements from neutron capture events within
10846-422: The thermal energy released from nuclear fission . A fission nuclear power plant is generally composed of: a nuclear reactor , in which the nuclear reactions generating heat take place; a cooling system, which removes the heat from inside the reactor; a steam turbine , which transforms the heat into mechanical energy ; an electric generator , which transforms the mechanical energy into electrical energy. When
11033-452: The thermocouples used to monitor the core's temperature. The next step was to conduct a low power test with 454 °C (850 °F) air at 820 kilograms per second (1,800 lb/s) on 7 May 1964. As the air flow was reaching its maximum, shim actuator B2 became noisy and was placed on hold. Then, soon after the maximum was reached, actuator A1 detected a loss of air pressure and scrammed. Actuators A2 and B1 began moving to compensate for
11220-642: The 1980s, reaching 300 GW by 1990. The 1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States and the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in the Soviet Union resulted in increased regulation and public opposition to nuclear power plants. These factors, along with high cost of construction, resulted in the global installed capacity only increasing to 392 GW by 2023. These plants supplied 2,602 terawatt hours (TWh) of electricity in 2023, equivalent to about 9% of global electricity generation , and were
11407-766: The 2 billion year old natural nuclear fission reactors in Oklo , Gabon is cited as "a source of essential information today." Experts suggest that centralized underground repositories which are well-managed, guarded, and monitored, would be a vast improvement. There is an "international consensus on the advisability of storing nuclear waste in deep geological repositories ". With the advent of new technologies, other methods including horizontal drillhole disposal into geologically inactive areas have been proposed. There are no commercial scale purpose built underground high-level waste repositories in operation. However, in Finland
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#173279848613111594-507: The 2011 disaster. Kishida is also pushing for research and construction of new safer nuclear plants to safeguard Japanese consumers from the fluctuating price of the fossil fuel market and reduce Japan's greenhouse gas emissions. Kishida intends to have Japan become a significant exporter of nuclear energy and technology to developing countries around the world. By 2015, the IAEA's outlook for nuclear energy had become more promising, recognizing
11781-480: The Air Force and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force retain administrative authority over their members. Along with conducting independent air operations, the United States Air Force provides air support for land and naval forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2020 , the service operates approximately 5,500 military aircraft and approximately 400 ICBMs . The world's largest air force, it has
11968-528: The Air Force is the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , who exercises supervision over Air Force units and serves as one of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . As directed by the Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Air Force, certain Air Force components are assigned to unified combatant commands . Combatant commanders are delegated operational authority of the forces assigned to them, while the Secretary of
12155-410: The Air Force states as global vigilance, global reach, and global power. Air superiority is "that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force" (JP 1-02). Offensive Counter-Air (OCA)
12342-422: The Air Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike operations mission as well as from specific actions taken to assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD and delivering them contributes to promoting security and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are
12529-598: The BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and opposing forces in a deployment exercise. In November 2022, the USAF announced that it will discontinue BEAST and replace it with another deployment training program called PACER FORGE. In 2007,
12716-797: The Navy , and the newly created Department of the Air Force. Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army Air Forces and its predecessor organizations (for land-based operations), the Navy (for sea-based operations from aircraft carriers and amphibious aircraft), and the Marine Corps (for close air support of Marine Corps operations). The 1940s proved to be important for military aviation in other ways as well. In 1947, Air Force Captain Chuck Yeager broke
12903-622: The PWR being the reactor of choice also for power generation, thus having a lasting impact on the civilian electricity market in the years to come. On June 27, 1954, the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant in the USSR became the world's first nuclear power plant to generate electricity for a power grid , producing around 5 megawatts of electric power. The world's first commercial nuclear power station, Calder Hall at Windscale, England
13090-534: The Pacific Ocean where it was 6,000 meters (20,000 ft) deep. By the early 1960s there was increasing public awareness of the undesirable environmental impacts of radioactive contamination of the atmosphere and the ocean, and the radioactive emissions from the missile were considered unacceptable wherever the tests were conducted. The AEC requested $ 8 million (equivalent to $ 60.00 million in 2023) in fiscal year 1965 for continued tests of Tory II-C and
13277-461: The ROMO. The purpose of nuclear deterrence operations (NDO) is to operate, maintain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capability to deter an adversary from taking action against vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. The sub-elements of this function are: Assure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from
13464-543: The US determines national or multinational security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in turn provide the direction for developing overall military objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and strategy for each theater. At the operational level command and control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply
13651-514: The USAF dwarfs all other U.S. and allied air components, it often provides support for allied forces in conflicts to which the United States is otherwise not involved, such as the 2013 French campaign in Mali . The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following: The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots, at first those piloting bombers (driven originally by
13838-464: The USAF established the nuclear-focused Air Force Global Strike Command on 24 October 2008, which later assumed control of all USAF bomber aircraft. On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure plan that cut fighter aircraft and shifted resources to better support nuclear, irregular and information warfare. On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force UAS plans through 2047. One third of
14025-509: The USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty personnel to 316,000. The size of the active duty force in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was at the end of the first Gulf War in 1991. However, the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 personnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of combatant commanders and associated mission requirements. These same constraints have seen
14212-530: The United States Armed Forces in 1947 with the enactment of the National Security Act of 1947 . It is the second youngest branch of the United States Armed Forces and the fourth in order of precedence . The United States Air Force articulates its core missions as air supremacy , global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance , rapid global mobility , global strike , and command and control . The United States Air Force
14399-585: The United States in the early 1960s. In the late 1960s, some members of the scientific community began to express pointed concerns. These anti-nuclear concerns related to nuclear accidents , nuclear proliferation , nuclear terrorism and radioactive waste disposal . In the early 1970s, there were large protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in Wyhl , Germany. The project was cancelled in 1975. The anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of Europe and North America. By
14586-401: The United States, over 120 Light Water Reactor proposals were ultimately cancelled and the construction of new reactors ground to a halt. The 1979 accident at Three Mile Island with no fatalities, played a major part in the reduction in the number of new plant constructions in many countries. During the 1980s one new nuclear reactor started up every 17 days on average. By the end of
14773-526: The ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the initiative through speed and surprise. Airlift is "operations to transport and deliver forces and materiel through the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives" (Annex 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders
14960-407: The ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a finished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness. Dissemination and integration is "the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions" (JP 2-01). It provides
15147-425: The ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to military and national decision-makers. Rapid global mobility is the timely deployment, employment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining
15334-455: The ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis. Air refueling is "the refueling of an aircraft in flight by another aircraft" (JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as
15521-640: The actinides (the most active and dangerous components) in the present inventory of nuclear waste, while also producing power and creating additional quantities of fuel for more reactors via the breeding process. As of 2017, there are two breeders producing commercial power, BN-600 reactor and the BN-800 reactor , both in Russia. The Phénix breeder reactor in France was powered down in 2009 after 36 years of operation. Both China and India are building breeder reactors. The Indian 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor
15708-430: The beginning of modern aerial warfare and set the stage for the development of the United States Air Force. The U.S. War Department created the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force, as a part of the U.S. Army, on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual independence 40 years later. In World War II , almost 68,000 U.S. airmen died helping to win
15895-593: The building of larger single-purpose production reactors for the production of weapons-grade plutonium for use in the first nuclear weapons. The United States tested the first nuclear weapon in July 1945, the Trinity test , and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki happened one month later. Despite the military nature of the first nuclear devices, there was strong optimism in the 1940s and 1950s that nuclear power could provide cheap and endless energy. Electricity
16082-702: The bulk of the long-term radioactivity. High-level waste (HLW) must be stored isolated from the biosphere with sufficient shielding so as to limit radiation exposure. After being removed from the reactors, used fuel bundles are stored for six to ten years in spent fuel pools , which provide cooling and shielding against radiation. After that, the fuel is cool enough that it can be safely transferred to dry cask storage . The radioactivity decreases exponentially with time, such that it will have decreased by 99.5% after 100 years. The more intensely radioactive short-lived fission products (SLFPs) decay into stable elements in approximately 300 years, and after about 100,000 years,
16269-467: The components under conditions of strain and vibration, Tory II-A, the world's first nuclear ramjet engine, was run at full power (46 MW) on 14 May 1961. A larger, fully-functional ramjet engine was then developed called Tory II-C. This was run at full power (461 MW) on 20 May 1964, thereby demonstrating the feasibility of a nuclear-powered ramjet engine. Despite these and other successful tests, ICBM technology developed quicker than expected, and this reduced
16456-415: The concentration of naturally occurring radioactive materials in coal. A 2008 report from Oak Ridge National Laboratory concluded that coal power actually results in more radioactivity being released into the environment than nuclear power operation, and that the population effective dose equivalent from radiation from coal plants is 100 times that from the operation of nuclear plants. Although coal ash
16643-464: The core temperature reached 1,242 °C (2,268 °F), at which point the power output was around 461 MW. The reactor was run for five minutes, after which a manual scram was initiated, and the airflow reduced to 91 kilograms per second (200 lb/s) for two minutes. The whole test took about an hour. Inspection of the reactor afterwards was done without disassembly. No blockages or anomalies were detected. The control rods were all in place, and there
16830-412: The core under air flow conditions approaching those of a full power run. The test plan for the first test called for running air at 427 °C (800 °F) at a rate of 270 kilograms per second (600 lb/s) for 60 seconds. The test was aborted and the shim rods scrammed (shut down the reactor) when vibration exceeded a pre-set level. It turned out that the vibration of the core was not the problem: it
17017-404: The correct column length and arrangement. The tubes consisted of a BeO matrix with a grain size between 5 and 20 micrometers (0.00020 and 0.00079 in) in diameter containing a solid solution of urania ( UO 2 ), zirconia ( ZrO 2 ) and yttria ( Y 2 O 3 ). The Tory II-A reactor used a uranium-beryllia mixture, but by the time Tory II-C was built zirconia and yttria
17204-747: The cusp of World War II , in order to develop a nuclear weapon . In the United States, these research efforts led to the creation of the first man-made nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1 under the Stagg Field stadium at the University of Chicago , which achieved criticality on December 2, 1942. The reactor's development was part of the Manhattan Project , the Allied effort to create atomic bombs during World War II. It led to
17391-409: The decade, global installed nuclear capacity reached 300 GW. Since the late 1980s, new capacity additions slowed significantly, with the installed nuclear capacity reaching 366 GW in 2005. The 1986 Chernobyl disaster in the USSR , involving an RBMK reactor, altered the development of nuclear power and led to a greater focus on meeting international safety and regulatory standards. It
17578-479: The development of Tory III. In April 1964, the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy recommended that $ 1.5 million be cut from this request. This provided continued funding for Tory II-C, but not for the development of Tory III. The Department of Defense's Director of Research and Engineering , Harold Brown favored the continuation of Project Pluto at a low level of funding to progress the technology. This
17765-472: The disaster, Japan shut down all of its nuclear power reactors, some of them permanently, and in 2015 began a gradual process to restart the remaining 40 reactors, following safety checks and based on revised criteria for operations and public approval. In 2022, the Japanese government, under the leadership of Prime Minister Fumio Kishida , declared that 10 more nuclear power plants were to be reopened since
17952-422: The enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to
18139-431: The engine. To allow it to still reach criticality with reduced fuel, the core was surrounded by a thick nuclear graphite neutron reflector . The Tory II-A design process was completed by early 1960. During the summer and early fall of that year, the core was assembled at Livermore inside a special fixture in a shielded containment building. It reached criticality on 7 October 1960 with the control vanes rotated 90° from
18326-483: The fire and movement of friendly forces is not required" (Annex 3-03, Counterland Operations). Close Air Support is defined as "air action by fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces" (JP 1-02). This can be as a pre-planned event or on demand from an alert posture (ground or airborne). It can be conducted across
18513-483: The fuel elements was awarded to the Coors Porcelain Company . The process of making horseradish involved mixing sinterable BeO powder with oralloy uranyl nitrate , yttrium nitrate and zirconium nitrate to form a slurry which was coprecipitated by adding ammonium nitrate . Because the process involved oralloy, criticality safety required a long, narrow geometry for the mix tanks. The mixture
18700-456: The full energy potential of the original uranium. The main constituent of spent fuel from LWRs is slightly enriched uranium . This can be recycled into reprocessed uranium (RepU), which can be used in a fast reactor, used directly as fuel in CANDU reactors, or re-enriched for another cycle through an LWR. Re-enriching of reprocessed uranium is common in France and Russia. Reprocessed uranium
18887-411: The full shutdown position. A test was then carried out with the cooling passages of the core and neutron reflector filled with water. Instead of the predicted increase in reactivity, there was a drop, and the reactor could not go critical at all. The water was replaced with heavy water , but it was barely able to reach criticality. It was therefore concluded that additional fuel would be required to attain
19074-603: The globe to conduct current and future operations. Planning and directing is "the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision-makers. Collection
19261-463: The heart of France's drive for carbon neutrality by 2050. Meanwhile, in the United States, the Department of Energy , in collaboration with commercial entities, TerraPower and X-energy , is planning on building two different advanced nuclear reactors by 2027, with further plans for nuclear implementation in its long term green energy and energy security goals. Nuclear power plants are thermal power stations that generate electricity by harnessing
19448-578: The highest output mines are remote underground operations, such as McArthur River uranium mine , in Canada, which by itself accounts for 13% of global production. As of 2011 the world's known resources of uranium, economically recoverable at the arbitrary price ceiling of US$ 130/kg, were enough to last for between 70 and 100 years. In 2007, the OECD estimated 670 years of economically recoverable uranium in total conventional resources and phosphate ores assuming
19635-659: The hot cells in Building 2201 and taken to Area 6, from whence they were shipped to the Idaho National Laboratory . Building 2201 was used in the 1970s and 1980s to house the Hydrogen Content Test Facility. Starting in 1986, the Sandia National Laboratory used it for a series of classified nuclear weapons related projects, and in 1998 an unidentified organization used it for a classified project. Building 2201
19822-425: The importance of low-carbon generation for mitigating climate change . As of 2015 , the global trend was for new nuclear power stations coming online to be balanced by the number of old plants being retired. In 2016, the U.S. Energy Information Administration projected for its "base case" that world nuclear power generation would increase from 2,344 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2012 to 4,500 TWh in 2040. Most of
20009-442: The intention of taking the initiative" (JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, counter-measures, and stealth. Airspace control is "a process used to increase operational effectiveness by promoting the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace" (JP 1-02). It promotes
20196-574: The largest earthquakes ever recorded. The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant suffered three core meltdowns due to failure of the emergency cooling system for lack of electricity supply. This resulted in the most serious nuclear accident since the Chernobyl disaster. The accident prompted a re-examination of nuclear safety and nuclear energy policy in many countries. Germany approved plans to close all its reactors by 2022, and many other countries reviewed their nuclear power programs. Following
20383-551: The late 1970s. During the 1970s and 1980s rising economic costs (related to extended construction times largely due to regulatory changes and pressure-group litigation) and falling fossil fuel prices made nuclear power plants then under construction less attractive. In the 1980s in the U.S. and 1990s in Europe, the flat electric grid growth and electricity liberalization also made the addition of large new baseload energy generators economically unattractive. The 1973 oil crisis had
20570-516: The life of nuclear fuel to a few years. In some countries, such as the United States, spent fuel is classified in its entirety as a nuclear waste. In other countries, such as France, it is largely reprocessed to produce a partially recycled fuel, known as mixed oxide fuel or MOX . For spent fuel that does not undergo reprocessing, the most concerning isotopes are the medium-lived transuranic elements , which are led by reactor-grade plutonium (half-life 24,000 years). Some proposed reactor designs, such as
20757-578: The lifetime of a facility and saved in a decommissioning fund. United States Air Force The United States Air Force ( USAF ) is the air service branch of the United States Armed Forces , and is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States . Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of the United States Army Signal Corps , the USAF was established as a separate branch of
20944-431: The loss of reactivity. A manual scram was then ordered, although in hindsight this was unnecessary. The problem with B2 was traced to a faulty wire, and the problem with A1 to a faulty pressure switch. Since there were no outstanding problems, the decision was taken to proceed with an intermediate power test on 12 May. This test aimed to simulate the conditions of a Mach 2.8 flight at 3,000 meters (10,000 ft). The reactor
21131-719: The majority from France, 17% from Germany, and 9% from Japan. Breeding is the process of converting non-fissile material into fissile material that can be used as nuclear fuel. The non-fissile material that can be used for this process is called fertile material , and constitute the vast majority of current nuclear waste. This breeding process occurs naturally in breeder reactors . As opposed to light water thermal-neutron reactors, which use uranium-235 (0.7% of all natural uranium), fast-neutron breeder reactors use uranium-238 (99.3% of all natural uranium) or thorium. A number of fuel cycles and breeder reactor combinations are considered to be sustainable or renewable sources of energy. In 2006 it
21318-407: The metals used in most jet and rocket engines . The solution arrived at was to use ceramic fuel elements.The core of the reactor would be made of beryllium oxide ( BeO ), the only available neutron moderator material that could withstand the high temperatures required. Over 80 percent of the fueled tubes were 9.97 centimeters (3.925 in) long; the rest varied in length so as to achieve
21505-488: The mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism gained a wider appeal and influence, and nuclear power began to become an issue of major public protest. In some countries, the nuclear power conflict "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies". The increased public hostility to nuclear power led to a longer license procurement process, more regulations and increased requirements for safety equipment, which made new construction much more expensive. In
21692-762: The mid-2030s. On 22 October 2023, the USAF conducted its first-ever trilateral exercise with the South Korean and Japanese air forces near the Korean Peninsula. On 29 November 2023, a USAF Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey crashed in the Japan island of Yakushima killing 1 airman. In 2024, citing the Supreme Court 's ruling in Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo , the Air Force refused to comply with an EPA order that they develop
21879-403: The mission. Merkle estimated that about 100 grams of fission products would be produced, of which he expected a few grams to be released and dispersed over a wide area. Although small compared to that produced by a nuclear explosion, it was a problem for testing. It was anticipated that numerous test flights would be required. Atmospheric nuclear testing was still ongoing in the early 1960s, so
22066-437: The most common type of reactor, this concentration is too low, and it must be increased by a process called uranium enrichment . In civilian light water reactors, uranium is typically enriched to 3.5–5% uranium-235. The uranium is then generally converted into uranium oxide (UO 2 ), a ceramic, that is then compressively sintered into fuel pellets, a stack of which forms fuel rods of the proper composition and geometry for
22253-418: The most hazardous substances in nuclear waste), there is an estimated 160,000 years worth of uranium in total conventional resources and phosphate ore at the price of 60–100 US$ /kg. However, reprocessing is expensive, possibly dangerous and can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons. One analysis found that uranium prices could increase by two orders of magnitude between 2035 and 2100 and that there could be
22440-411: The movement of the rods was restricted to 7.6 centimeters per second (3 in/s) but in the event of a scram they could be moved in 1.5 seconds. The shim rods were moved by four actuators , each of which handled three shim rods. The shim rods were 1,607 millimeters (63.25 in) long and 25 millimeters (1.0 in) in diameter, with a 100-centimeter (40 in) travel. The contract to manufacture
22627-428: The natural process of uranium dissolved from the surface area of the ocean floor, both of which maintain the solubility equilibria of seawater concentration at a stable level. Some commentators have argued that this strengthens the case for nuclear power to be considered a renewable energy . The normal operation of nuclear power plants and facilities produce radioactive waste , or nuclear waste. This type of waste
22814-432: The near future. Most nuclear power plants use thermal reactors with enriched uranium in a once-through fuel cycle . Fuel is removed when the percentage of neutron absorbing atoms becomes so large that a chain reaction can no longer be sustained, typically three years. It is then cooled for several years in on-site spent fuel pools before being transferred to long-term storage. The spent fuel, though low in volume,
23001-574: The need for a nuclear upper stage, and the development effort was concentrated at LASL, where it became known as Project Rover . On 1 January 1957, the USAF and the AEC selected the Livermore Laboratory to study the design of a nuclear reactor to power ramjet engines. This research became known as Project Pluto. It was directed by Theodore C. (Ted) Merkle, leader of the Laboratory's R Division. The proposed use for nuclear-powered ramjets would be to power
23188-572: The need for cruise missiles. By the early 1960s, there was greater sensitivity about the dangers of radioactive emissions in the atmosphere, and devising an appropriate test plan for the necessary flight tests was difficult. On 1 July 1964, seven years and six months after it was started, Project Pluto was canceled. During the 1950s, the United States Air Force (USAF) considered the use of nuclear powered aircraft and missiles as part of its Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion project, which
23375-454: The need for such highly capable cruise missiles. The ICBM has several advantages over the SLAM. An ICBM required less ground support and maintenance, and could be launched in minutes instead of several hours, and so was less vulnerable to a nuclear first strike . An ICBM also traveled to its target faster and was less vulnerable to interception by Soviet air defenses. The main advantage of the SLAM
23562-416: The once-through fuel cycle. While reprocessing reduces the volume of high-level waste, it does not reduce the fission products that are the primary causes of residual heat generation and radioactivity for the first few centuries outside the reactor. Thus, reprocessed waste still requires an almost identical treatment for the initial first few hundred years. Reprocessing of civilian fuel from power reactors
23749-469: The particular reactor. After some time in the reactor, the fuel will have reduced fissile material and increased fission products, until its use becomes impractical. At this point, the spent fuel will be moved to a spent fuel pool which provides cooling for the thermal heat and shielding for ionizing radiation. After several months or years, the spent fuel is radioactively and thermally cool enough to be moved to dry storage casks or reprocessed. Uranium
23936-415: The planes that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be unmanned. According to Air Force Chief Scientist, Greg Zacharias , the USAF anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s, hypersonic unmanned aerial vehicles (also known as remotely-piloted vehicles, or RPAs) by the 2030s and recoverable hypersonic RPAs aircraft by the 2040s. The USAF intends to deploy a Sixth-generation jet fighter by
24123-546: The potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. In conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, the Air Force achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to
24310-497: The predicted increase was expected to be in Asia. As of 2018, there were over 150 nuclear reactors planned including 50 under construction. In January 2019, China had 45 reactors in operation, 13 under construction, and planned to build 43 more, which would make it the world's largest generator of nuclear electricity. As of 2021, 17 reactors were reported to be under construction. China built significantly fewer reactors than originally planned. Its share of electricity from nuclear power
24497-459: The primary motivations of the anti-nuclear movement , which contends that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment, citing the potential for accidents like the Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan in 2011, and is too expensive/slow to deploy when compared to alternative sustainable energy sources. Nuclear fission was discovered in 1938 after over four decades of work on
24684-630: The private sector. The first organization to develop practical nuclear power was the U.S. Navy , with the S1W reactor for the purpose of propelling submarines and aircraft carriers . The first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus , was put to sea in January 1954. The S1W reactor was a pressurized water reactor . This design was chosen because it was simpler, more compact, and easier to operate compared to alternative designs, thus more suitable to be used in submarines. This decision would result in
24871-483: The production of intelligence" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to transform, extract, and make available collected information suitable for further analysis or action across the ROMO. Analysis and production is "the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements" (JP 2-01). It provides
25058-612: The project depended upon a series of technological advances in metallurgy and materials science . Pneumatic motors necessary to control the reactor in flight had to operate while red-hot and in the presence of intense ionizing radiation . The need to maintain supersonic speed at low altitude and in all kinds of weather meant that the missile would have to fly though much denser air. In turn, this meant that it would encounter much greater air resistance and have to generate more power to overcome it. The reactor, code-named "Tory", would therefore have to survive high temperatures that would melt
25245-409: The purpose of the USAF as: The five core missions of the Air Force have not changed dramatically since the Air Force became independent in 1947, but they have evolved and are now articulated as air superiority, global integrated ISR (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance), rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The purpose of all of these core missions is to provide what
25432-414: The radioactive emissions were not considered to be a major problem by comparison. The noise level was estimated to be a deafening 150 decibels . There was also the possibility of the missile going out of control. The idea of testing it over Nevada was quickly discarded. It was proposed to conduct test flights in the vicinity of Wake Island , flying a figure-eight course. The reactor would then be dumped into
25619-462: The reaction rate is contained by control rods that absorb excess neutrons. The controllability of nuclear reactors depends on the fact that a small fraction of neutrons resulting from fission are delayed . The time delay between the fission and the release of the neutrons slows changes in reaction rates and gives time for moving the control rods to adjust the reaction rate. The life cycle of nuclear fuel starts with uranium mining . The uranium ore
25806-488: The reactor reached criticality with the control vanes at 75°; with heavy water for coolant it was reached with them at 67°. With hot air flowing through the reactor, the core temperature was raised to 220 °F (104 °C), then to 440 °F (227 °C), and finally to 635 °F (335 °C). It was then operated at 10 KW for 60 seconds at 643 °F (339 °C). A final test was conducted on 3 May 1961, with an air flow rate of 54 kilograms per second (120 lb/s),
25993-418: The reactor while it was subcritical to test the integrity of the components under conditions of strain and vibration. On 17 and 18 December, air flow rates of 27, 34, 45 and 150 kilograms per second (60, 75, 100 and 330 lb/s) for 30 seconds. During what was intended to be the final qualification test on 11 January 1961, with an air flow rate of 330 kilograms per second (720 lb/s) and
26180-477: The required margin for error when more components were installed. The reactor was shipped to the Nevada Test Site for a series of dry runs and zero- or low-power tests. Another layer of 10-centimeter (4 in) fuel elements was added. The reactor was mounted on the test vehicle and, with heavy water for coolant, reached criticality during a test run on 9 December 1960, with the control vanes at 65°. It
26367-637: The restart of another ten reactors. Prime Minister Fumio Kishida in July 2022 announced that the country should consider building advanced reactors and extending operating licences beyond 60 years. As of 2022, with world oil and gas prices on the rise, while Germany is restarting its coal plants to deal with loss of Russian gas that it needs to supplement its Energiewende , many other countries have announced ambitious plans to reinvigorate ageing nuclear generating capacity with new investments. French President Emmanuel Macron announced his intention to build six new reactors in coming decades, placing nuclear at
26554-491: The safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace, mitigates the risk of fratricide, enhances both offensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as a whole. It both deconflicts and facilitates the integration of joint air operations. Global integrated intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across
26741-602: The safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (a Broken Arrow incident ). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations
26928-450: The science of radioactivity and the elaboration of new nuclear physics that described the components of atoms . Soon after the discovery of the fission process, it was realized that a fissioning nucleus can induce further nucleus fissions, thus inducing a self-sustaining chain reaction. Once this was experimentally confirmed in 1939, scientists in many countries petitioned their governments for support for nuclear fission research, just on
27115-512: The second-largest low-carbon power source after hydroelectricity . As of November 2024, there are 415 civilian fission reactors in the world , with overall capacity of 374 GW, 66 under construction and 87 planned, with a combined capacity of 72 GW and 84 GW, respectively. The United States has the largest fleet of nuclear reactors, generating almost 800 TWh of low-carbon electricity per year with an average capacity factor of 92%. The average global capacity factor
27302-558: The sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America. The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air Force are: During the early 2000s, two USAF aircraft procurement projects took longer than expected, the KC-X and F-35 programs. As a result, the USAF was setting new records for average aircraft age. Since 2005, the USAF has placed
27489-426: The spent fuel becomes less radioactive than natural uranium ore. Commonly suggested methods to isolate LLFP waste from the biosphere include separation and transmutation , synroc treatments, or deep geological storage. Thermal-neutron reactors , which presently constitute the majority of the world fleet, cannot burn up the reactor grade plutonium that is generated during the reactor operation. This limits
27676-493: The test bunker area during checkout. The test was conducted as if it were a critical one, with all personnel evacuated from the test area and the test managed remotely from the control room. The test verified the predictions made at Livermore; the operational rods could be withdrawn safely. A cold critical test was then conducted the following day to verify that the instrumentation was working correctly. Hot zero-power tests were conducted on 9 and 23 April 1964. These involved testing
27863-482: The test facilities for Tory II-C testing commenced on 17 November 1962. The facilities were incomplete when this testing began, so many of the tests were in support of the construction program. These tests fell into four categories: testing of the air supply system; testing of the other facilities components; qualification of the test vehicle; and operator training. The facilities checkout ended on 5 March 1964, by which time 82 tests had been carried out. Before attempting
28050-422: The test reactors were highly radioactive once they were started, they were transported to and from the test site on railroad cars. The "Jackass and Western Railroad", as it was light-heartedly described, was said to be the world's shortest and slowest railroad. There were two locomotives, the remotely controlled electric L-1, and the diesel/electric L-2, which was manually controlled but had radiation shielding around
28237-488: The test vehicle suddenly opened, and the test vehicle careered down the track and violently struck the concrete face of the test pad bunker at the end. The test vehicle was extensively damaged, and had to be stripped down and rebuilt. All the reactor components had to be checked for cracks. With repairs completed, the Tory II-A was returned to the test pad for another series of tests. It was found that without cooling water,
28424-452: The tests conducted successfully, the reactor was dissembled between December 1961 and September 1962. Tory II-A tested the reactor design and the integrity of the fuel elements under a simulation of operational conditions. Livermore now produced a second reactor, Tory II-C, which would be a fully functional engine for a ramjet missile. Issues that had been ignored in the design of Tory II-A had to be resolved in that of Tory II-C. The new design
28611-417: The then-current use rate. Light water reactors make relatively inefficient use of nuclear fuel, mostly using only the very rare uranium-235 isotope. Nuclear reprocessing can make this waste reusable, and newer reactors also achieve a more efficient use of the available resources than older ones. With a pure fast reactor fuel cycle with a burn up of all the uranium and actinides (which presently make up
28798-412: The tie rods (known as guard tubes) were unfueled and had smaller 3.3-millimeter (0.130 in) diameter holes. The core was surrounded by neutron reflectors on all sides.The forward reflector was 250 millimeters (9.7 in) thick and the aft reflector 61 millimeters (2.4 in) thick. Both were composed of BeO tubes. The side reflector consisted of 51 millimeters (2 in) of BeO tubes around which
28985-651: The total amount spent had been about $ 260 million (equivalent to $ 2,000 million in 2023). The Tory II-C reactor was not disassembled after the high power test, and remained there until 1976, when it was dissembled at the Engine Maintenance, Assembly, and Disassembly (E-MAD) building. In 1971 and 1972, Building 2201 was used by the Fuel Repackaging Operations Project. Fuel elements from the Tory II reactors were removed from
29172-578: The tubes was 2 to 3 percent. In practice it was only 0.5 percent. Tests were conducted at new facilities constructed for $ 1.2 million on 21 square kilometers (8 sq mi) of Jackass Flats at the AEC's Nevada Test Site (NTS), known as Site 401. The facilities here were intended for use by Project Rover, but while Rover's reactor was still under development, they were used for Project Pluto. The complex included 10 kilometers (6 mi) of roads, critical-assembly building, control building, assembly and shop buildings, and utilities. An aggregate mine
29359-524: The use of a thorium fuel cycle in the third stage, as it has abundant thorium reserves but little uranium. Nuclear decommissioning is the process of dismantling a nuclear facility to the point that it no longer requires measures for radiation protection, returning the facility and its parts to a safe enough level to be entrusted for other uses. Due to the presence of radioactive materials, nuclear decommissioning presents technical and economic challenges. The costs of decommissioning are generally spread over
29546-565: The vehicle pushed air in through the front of the vehicle (the ram effect). If a nuclear reactor heated the air, the hot air expanded at high speed out through a nozzle at the back, providing thrust. The concept appeared feasible, so in October 1956, the USAF issued a system requirement, SR 149, for the development of a winged supersonic missile. At the time, the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)
29733-467: The war, with only the infantry suffering more casualties. In practice, the U.S. Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) was virtually independent of the Army during World War II, and in virtually every way functioned as an independent service branch, but airmen still pressed for formal independence. The National Security Act of 1947 was signed on 26 July 1947, which established the Department of the Air Force , but it
29920-401: Was 25 millimeters (1 in) of nickel shims . The reactor was controlled through the movement of hafnium control rods that moved axially within the tie rods. Twelve of the rods, known as shim rods, were located about 230 millimeters (9 in) from the central axis of the core, while two were located closer to the reflector; one was a vernier rod and the other as a safety rod. Normally
30107-563: Was 5% in 2019 and observers have cautioned that, along with the risks, the changing economics of energy generation may cause new nuclear energy plants to "no longer make sense in a world that is leaning toward cheaper, more reliable renewable energy". In October 2021, the Japanese cabinet approved the new Plan for Electricity Generation to 2030 prepared by the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE) and an advisory committee, following public consultation. The nuclear target for 2030 requires
30294-442: Was added in a 1.06:1:1 ratio of urania:zirconia:yttria. The zirconia and yttria stabilized the urania against phase transition to triuranium octoxide ( U 3 O 8 ) at temperatures around 1,200 °C (2,190 °F). The fuel particles of the urania-zirconia-yttria mixture (known as "horseradish") were mostly from 0.5 to 1 micrometer (2.0 × 10 to 3.9 × 10 in) in size, although some were smaller or larger. The uranium
30481-403: Was cleaned and decontaminated between 2007 and 2009 to make it safe for future demolition. In September 2013, it was reported that it had been demolished. [REDACTED] This article incorporates public domain material from Nevada National Security Site History: Project Pluto Factsheet (PDF) . United States Department of Energy . Nuclear-powered Nuclear power
30668-454: Was complete by August 1962. The Tory II-C reactor was cylindrical in shape, 2.6 meters (8.5 ft) long and 1.45 meters (4.75 ft) in diameter. It contained about 293,000 fueled and 16,000 unfueled beryllium oxide tubes, which occupied 55 percent of its volume. The fuel loading varied through the reactor to achieve the right power profile. In operation, the core generated 350 megawatts per cubic meter (10 MW/cu ft). The checkout of
30855-598: Was conducting studies of the use of a nuclear rocket as an upper stage of an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) on behalf of the United States Air Force (USAF). The AEC farmed this work out to its two rival atomic weapons laboratories, the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) in Los Alamos, New Mexico , and the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory at Livermore, California . By late 1956 improvements in nuclear weapon design had reduced
31042-466: Was connected to the national power grid on 27 August 1956. In common with a number of other generation I reactors , the plant had the dual purpose of producing electricity and plutonium-239 , the latter for the nascent nuclear weapons program in Britain . The total global installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than 1 gigawatt (GW) in 1960 to 100 GW in
31229-676: Was coordinated by the Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion Office. Research into missiles was coordinated by the Missile Projects Branch. The concept of using a nuclear reactor to provide a heat source for a ramjet was explored by Frank E. Rom and Eldon W. Sams at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Lewis Research Center in 1954 and 1955. The principle behind the nuclear ramjet was relatively simple: motion of
31416-399: Was created as a direct outcome of the 1986 Chernobyl accident. The Chernobyl disaster played a major part in the reduction in the number of new plant constructions in the following years. Influenced by these events, Italy voted against nuclear power in a 1987 referendum, becoming the first country to completely phase out nuclear power in 1990. In the early 2000s, nuclear energy was expecting
31603-420: Was estimated that with seawater extraction, there was likely five billion years' worth of uranium resources for use in breeder reactors. Breeder technology has been used in several reactors, but as of 2006, the high cost of reprocessing fuel safely requires uranium prices of more than US$ 200/kg before becoming justified economically. Breeder reactors are however being developed for their potential to burn all of
31790-402: Was estimated that without the heavy water, 71° would have been required. Boron rods were then inserted into the six central tie tubes. This lowered the reactivity of the core, and the vanes had to be turned to 132° before criticality was achieved. Uranium-235 foils were placed in the core tubes, and the reactor was run at 150 W for ten minutes. The next set of tests involved blowing air through
31977-522: Was filtered, dried and calcined at 538 °C (1,000 °F). It was then blended with a binding mixture containing polyvinyl alcohol , methyl cellulose and water and extruded through a die at 55,000 to 69,000 kilopascals (8,000 to 10,000 psi) to form the tubes. The tubes were dried, the binder was burned out by heating to 820 °C (1,500 °F), and they were fired in hydrogen at 1,700 °C (3,090 °F) to densify them. The maximum permissible effect on reactivity due to impurities in
32164-692: Was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951, at the EBR-I experimental station near Arco, Idaho , which initially produced about 100 kW . In 1953, American President Dwight Eisenhower gave his " Atoms for Peace " speech at the United Nations , emphasizing the need to develop "peaceful" uses of nuclear power quickly. This was followed by the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 which allowed rapid declassification of U.S. reactor technology and encouraged development by
32351-462: Was in the form of oralloy: uranium enriched to 93.2 percent uranium-235 ). The tubes had a hexagonal cross-section measuring 7.5 millimeters (0.297 in) from one flat side to the opposite, with a 7.5-millimeter diameter hole in the center. They were closely packed to form a honeycomb pattern. The metal tie rods were made of René 41 and Hastelloy R235 and were cooled so they did not exceed 760 °C (1,400 °F). The ceramic tubes surrounding
32538-399: Was initially intended to build two Tory II-A test reactors, which were designated IIA-1 and IIA-2, but in the event only one was built, and designated II-A. The purpose was to test the design under conditions similar to that in a ramjet engine, but to save time and money, and reduce complexity, Tory II-A would have a much smaller diameter than the final design, about a third of that required for
32725-451: Was its ability to carry a larger payload but the value of this was diminished by improvements in nuclear weapon design, which made them smaller and lighter, and the subsequent development of multiple warhead capability in ICBMs. The other major problem with the SLAM concept was the environmental damage caused by radioactive emissions during flight, and the disposal of the reactor at the end of
32912-739: Was necessary to store the approximately 540,000 kilograms (1,200,000 lb) of compressed air at 25,000 kilopascals (3,600 psi) used to simulate ramjet flight conditions for Pluto. Three giant compressors were borrowed from the Naval Submarine Base New London in Groton, Connecticut that could replenish the farm in five days. A five-minute, full-power test involved 910 kilograms per second (2,000 lb/s) of air being forced over 14 million 2.5-centimeter (1 in) diameter steel balls that were held in four steel tanks which were heated to 730 °C (1,350 °F). Because
33099-512: Was no evidence of damage or corrosion. Despite the successful tests, the Department of Defense , the sponsor of the Pluto project, had second thoughts. The weapon was considered "too provocative", and it was believed that it would compel the Soviets to construct a similar device. Intercontinental ballistic missile technology had proven to be more easily developed than previously thought, reducing
33286-500: Was not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force, W. Stuart Symington , was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed as an independent service branch. The act created the National Military Establishment (renamed Department of Defense in 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely the Department of the Army , the Department of
33473-404: Was possible with ICBMs at the time and, unlike them, it could be recalled. It was estimated that the unit cost of each missile would be less than $ 5 million (equivalent to $ 38.00 million in 2023), making them much cheaper than a Boeing B-52 Stratofortress bomber. Operating costs would also be low, as keeping them in readiness would be cheaper than a submarine or bomber, and comparable with
33660-495: Was possible with intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBMs) at the time and, unlike them, could be recalled. This research became known as Project Pluto, and was directed by Theodore Charles (Ted) Merkle, leader of the laboratory's R Division. Originally carried out at Livermore, California , testing was moved to new facilities constructed for $ 1.2 million on 21 square kilometers (8 sq mi) at NTS Site 401, also known as Jackass Flats. The test reactors were moved about on
33847-436: Was purchased to supply the concrete for the walls of the disassembly building, Building 2201, which were 1.8 to 2.4 meters (6 to 8 ft) thick. Building 2201 was designed to allow radioactive components to be adjusted, dissembled or replaced remotely. Operations in the main disassembly bay could be viewed through 1.2-meter (4 ft) lead glass viewing windows. "Hot" cells adjacent to the disassembly bay were used to monitor
34034-495: Was rejected by the House Appropriations Committee ; the technology had been demonstrated by the successful Tory II-C tests, and if there was no longer a military requirement for it, there was no reason to continue funding. It therefore cut another $ 5.5 million from the funding request, leaving only $ 1 million for "mothballing" the project. This led to the decision by the Department of Defense and
34221-425: Was started and power raised to 700 kW. Air was introduced at 91 kilograms per second (200 lb/s) and then raised to 190 kilograms per second (410 lb/s). The reactor power was then increased to around 76 MW, at which point the core temperature was 940 °C (1,730 °F). All systems were functioning normally, so the airflow was increased to 754 kilograms per second (1,663 lb/s) and power increased until
34408-455: Was taken to critical and the power increased to 750 kW. Air flow was then increased to 570 kilograms per second (1,260 lb/s) at an average temperature of 1,091 °C (1,995 °F). The core reached 1,242 °C (2,268 °F). The test was concluded after an hour and 45 minutes. The stage was now set for a full power test on 20 May 1964. This would simulate a Mach 2.8 flight on a hot 38 °C (100 °F) day at sea level. The reactor
34595-429: Was that he had repeatedly clashed with Wynne and Moseley over other important non-nuclear related issues to the service. This followed an investigation into two incidents involving mishandling of nuclear weapons : specifically a nuclear weapons incident aboard a B-52 flight between Minot AFB and Barksdale AFB , and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan. To put more emphasis on nuclear assets,
34782-403: Was the transducers used to measure vibration that were not operating properly. Loose connections were repaired, and a second test scheduled. This time it was planned to operate successively at 91, 181, 272, 363, 544 and 816 kilograms per second (200, 400, 600, 800, 1,200 and 1,800 lb/s). This was done, and there was no vibration. The test also qualified
34969-530: Was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot. The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps. In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals in the Air Force's missile launch officer community, Secretary of the Air Force Deborah Lee James admitted that there remained
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