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122-516: Irish clans are traditional kinship groups sharing a common surname and heritage and existing in a lineage-based society, originating prior to the 17th century. A clan (or fine in Irish, plural finte ) included the chief and his patrilineal relatives; however, Irish clans also included unrelated clients of the chief. Before the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland which took place during

244-497: A taoiseach or chief who had the status of royalty and the smaller and more dependent clans were led by chieftains. Under brehon law , the leaders of Irish clans were appointed by their kinsmen as custodians of the clan and were responsible for maintaining and protecting their clan and its property. The clan system formed the basis of society up to the 17th century. According to T. F. O'Rahilly , in his works Goides and Their Predecessors and later Early Irish History , there were

366-702: A centralised royal administration in which the county and the sheriff replaced the "country" and the clan chief. When the Kingdom of Ireland was created in 1541, the Dublin administration wanted to involve the Gaelic chiefs into the new entity, creating new titles for them such as the Baron Upper Ossory , Earl of Tyrone , and Baron Inchiquin . In the process, they were granted new coats of arms from 1552. The associated policy of surrender and regrant involved

488-621: A change to succession to a title by the European system of primogeniture , and not by the Irish tanistry , where a group of male cousins of a chief were eligible to succeed by election. The early 17th century was a watershed in Ireland. It marked the destruction of Ireland's ancient Gaelic aristocracy following the Tudor re-conquest and cleared the way for the Plantation of Ulster . In 1607

610-787: A classificatory terminology groups many different types of relationships under one term. For example, the word brother in English-speaking societies indicates a son of one's same parent; thus, English-speaking societies use the word brother as a descriptive term referring to this relationship only. In many other classificatory kinship terminologies, in contrast, a person's male first cousin (whether mother's brother's son, mother's sister's son, father's brother's son, father's sister's son) may also be referred to as brothers. The major patterns of kinship systems that are known which Lewis Henry Morgan identified through kinship terminology in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of

732-421: A father and his brothers. Kinship terminologies include the terms of address used in different languages or communities for different relatives and the terms of reference used to identify the relationship of these relatives to ego or to each other. Kin terminologies can be either descriptive or classificatory . When a descriptive terminology is used, a term refers to only one specific type of relationship, while

854-475: A father in relation to a child) or reflect an absolute (e.g. the difference between a mother and a childless woman). Degrees of relationship are not identical to heirship or legal succession. Many codes of ethics consider the bond of kinship as creating obligations between the related persons stronger than those between strangers, as in Confucian filial piety . In a more general sense, kinship may refer to

976-403: A feature of humans, but also of many other primates , was yet to emerge and society was considered to be a uniquely human affair. As a result, early kinship theorists saw an apparent need to explain not only the details of how human social groups are constructed, their patterns, meanings and obligations, but also why they are constructed at all. The why explanations thus typically presented

1098-459: A four generation group in early medieval Ireland but in late medieval Ireland it was almost always the son, brother or nephew of the king. As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the Cruthin were the first Celts to settle in Ireland between about 800 and 500 BC. In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of

1220-772: A group known as the Feni who came to Ireland directly from the Continent and according to tradition landed in south Kerry and the Boyne estuary. The earlier inhabitants of the country fiercely resisted the newcomers who were referred to as the Gaeil because they spoke the Gaelic language . The power and influence of the Gaeils gradually spread over the next three centuries, northwards, from Kerry into Tipperary and Limerick , as well as to

1342-406: A kind of relation on all peoples, insisting that kinship consists in relations of consanguinity and that kinship as consanguinity is a universal condition.(Schneider 1984, 72) Schneider preferred to focus on these often ignored processes of "performance, forms of doing, various codes for conduct, different roles" (p. 72) as the most important constituents of kinship. His critique quickly prompted

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1464-684: A language, both in the uses of terms for kin but also in the fluidities of language, meaning, and networks. His field studies criticized the ideas of structural-functional stability of kinship groups as corporations with charters that lasted long beyond the lifetimes of individuals, which had been the orthodoxy of British Social Anthropology . This sparked debates over whether kinship could be resolved into specific organized sets of rules and components of meaning, or whether kinship meanings were more fluid, symbolic, and independent of grounding in supposedly determinate relations among individuals or groups, such as those of descent or prescriptions for marriage. From

1586-421: A man and a woman such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners." Edmund Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures, but offered a list of ten rights frequently associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children (with specific rights differing across cultures). There is wide cross-cultural variation in

1708-420: A maternal grandfather and his sister are referred to as paanth ngan-ngethe and addressed with the vocative ngethin. In Bardi , a father and his sister are irrmoorrgooloo ; a man's wife and his children are aalamalarr. In Murrinh-patha , nonsingular pronouns are differentiated not only by the gender makeup of the group, but also by the members' interrelation. If the members are in a sibling-like relation,

1830-400: A more or less literal basis. Kinship can also refer to a principle by which individuals or groups of individuals are organized into social groups , roles, categories and genealogy by means of kinship terminologies . Family relations can be represented concretely (mother, brother, grandfather) or abstractly by degrees of relationship (kinship distance). A relationship may be relative (e.g.

1952-454: A new generation of anthropologists to reconsider how they conceptualized, observed and described social relationships ('kinship') in the cultures they studied. Cruthin The Cruthin ( Old Irish: [ˈkruθʲinʲ] ; Middle Irish : Cruithnig or Cruithni ; Modern Irish : Cruithne [ˈkɾˠɪ(h)nʲə] ) were a people of early medieval Ireland . Their heartland

2074-528: A number of related concepts and terms in the study of kinship, such as descent , descent group, lineage , affinity/affine , consanguinity/cognate and fictive kinship . Further, even within these two broad usages of the term, there are different theoretical approaches. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related by both descent – i.e. social relations during development – and by marriage . Human kinship relations through marriage are commonly called "affinity" in contrast to

2196-577: A patrilineal grandfather or great-grandfather. However, according to Eoin MacNeill , the system known as Tanistry which also took place before the position of king or chief had become vacant is not found in records until the time of feudalism in Ireland which was not until the time of the Normans, and it was preceded by the similar system known as Rigdomna but which took place only after the position of king or chief had become vacant. This theory however,

2318-755: A period of time and the leaders of some were accorded the status of royalty in Gaelic Ireland. Some of the more important septs to achieve this power were O'Connor in Connacht, MacCarthy of Desmond and O'Brien of Thomond in Munster, Ó Neill of Clandeboy in Ulster, and MacMorrough Kavanagh in Leinster. The largely symbolic role of High king of Ireland tended to rotate among the leaders of these royal clans. The larger or more important clans were led by

2440-471: A relationship between two entities (e.g. the word 'sister' denotes the relationship between the speaker or some other entity and another feminine entity who shares the parents of the former), trirelational kin-terms—also known as triangular, triadic, ternary, and shared kin-terms—denote a relationship between three distinct entities. These occur commonly in Australian Aboriginal languages with

2562-412: A similarity or affinity between entities on the basis of some or all of their characteristics that are under focus. This may be due to a shared ontological origin, a shared historical or cultural connection, or some other perceived shared features that connect the two entities. For example, a person studying the ontological roots of human languages ( etymology ) might ask whether there is kinship between

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2684-457: A single child or children, by extension race or descendants'. For instance, the O'Daly family were poetically known as Clann Dalaigh , from a remote ancestor called Dalach. Clann was used in the later Middle Ages to provide a plural for surnames beginning with Mac meaning 'son of'. For example, "Clann Cárthaigh" meant the men of the MacCarthy family and " Clann Suibhne " meant the men of

2806-448: A social relationship as created, constituted and maintained by a process of interaction, or doing (Schneider 1984, 165). Schneider used the example of the citamangen / fak relationship in Yap society, that his own early research had previously glossed over as a father / son relationship, to illustrate the problem; The crucial point is this: in the relationship between citamangen and fak

2928-457: A society who are not close genealogical relatives may nevertheless use what he called kinship terms (which he considered to be originally based on genealogical ties). This fact was already evident in his use of the term affinity within his concept of the system of kinship . The most lasting of Morgan's contributions was his discovery of the difference between descriptive and classificatory kinship terms, which situated broad kinship classes on

3050-425: A species (e.g. as in kin selection theory). It may also be used in this specific sense when applied to human relationships, in which case its meaning is closer to consanguinity or genealogy . Family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity (by recognized birth), affinity (by marriage), or co-residence/shared consumption (see Nurture kinship ). In most societies, it is the principal institution for

3172-440: A systemic cultural model that can be elicited in fieldwork, but also when allowing considerable individual variability in details, such as when they are recorded through relative products. In trying to resolve the problems of dubious inferences about kinship "systems", George P. Murdock (1949, Social Structure) compiled kinship data to test a theory about universals in human kinship in the way that terminologies were influenced by

3294-461: A third pronoun (SIB) will be chosen distinct from the Masculine (MASC) and Feminine/Neuter (FEM). In many societies where kinship connections are important, there are rules, though they may be expressed or be taken for granted. There are four main headings that anthropologists use to categorize rules of descent. They are bilateral , unilineal , ambilineal and double descent. A descent group

3416-614: A total of four waves of Celtic invasions of the British Isles and that the first three of these were pre-Gaelic. According to O'Rahilly, these were people who had largely remained unconquered by the Romans whose territory was mostly restricted to the broad plains of England . A larger part of England remained out of the control of the West Germanic people who invaded after the imperial collapse of Roman Britain and who founded

3538-465: A wide array of lineage-based societies with a classificatory kinship system , potential spouses are sought from a specific class of relatives as determined by a prescriptive marriage rule. Insofar as regular marriages following prescriptive rules occur, lineages are linked together in fixed relationships; these ties between lineages may form political alliances in kinship dominated societies. French structural anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss developed

3660-480: Is Cruithen (modern Irish: Cruithean ). The adjectival form is Cruithnech (modern Irish: Cruithneach ), which is also used as a noun . It is thought to relate to the Irish word cruth , meaning "form, figure, shape". The name is believed to derive from *Qritani , a reconstructed Goidelic / Q-Celtic version of the Brittonic / P-Celtic *Pritani . Ancient Greek geographer Pytheas called

3782-512: Is a social group whose members talk about common ancestry. A unilineal society is one in which the descent of an individual is reckoned either from the mother's or the father's line of descent. Matrilineal descent is based on relationship to females of the family line. A child would not be recognized with their father's family in these societies, but would be seen as a member of their mother's family's line. Simply put, individuals belong to their mother's descent group. Matrilineal descent includes

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3904-604: Is a descent group composed of three or more clans each of whose apical ancestors are descended from a further common ancestor. If a society is divided into exactly two descent groups, each is called a moiety , after the French word for half . If the two halves are each obliged to marry out, and into the other, these are called matrimonial moieties . Houseman and White (1998b, bibliography) have discovered numerous societies where kinship network analysis shows that two halves marry one another, similar to matrimonial moieties, except that

4026-480: Is considered most significant differs from culture to culture. A clan is generally a descent group claiming common descent from an apical ancestor. Often, the details of parentage are not important elements of the clan tradition. Non-human apical ancestors are called totems . Examples of clans are found in Chechen , Chinese , Irish , Japanese , Polish , Scottish , Tlingit , and Somali societies. A phratry

4148-531: Is fronted, however, the term nakurrng now incorporates the male speaker as a propositus ( P i.e. point of reference for a kin-relation) and encapsulates the entire relationship as follows: Many Australian languages also have elaborate systems of referential terms for denoting groups of people based on their relationship to one another (not just their relationship to the speaker or an external propositus like 'grandparents'). For example, in Kuuk Thaayorre ,

4270-498: Is his claim that the Cruthin or Priteni were pre-Celtic as opposed to Celts themselves. However, this model has since been refuted by authors such as Kenneth H. Jackson and John T. Koch . There is a lack of archaeological evidence for O'Rahilly's theory, and it was conclusively shown to be false in the landmark 2017 publication of the "Irish DNA Atlas", which sets out in great detail the genealogical history and modern day makeup of

4392-488: Is not the only function of the family; in societies with a sexual division of labor , marriage , and the resulting relationship between two people, it is necessary for the formation of an economically productive household . Different societies classify kinship relations differently and therefore use different systems of kinship terminology – for example some languages distinguish between affinal and consanguine uncles, whereas others have only one word to refer to both

4514-457: Is one criterion for membership of many social groups. But it may not be the only criterion; birth, or residence, or a parent's former residence, or utilization of garden land, or participation in exchange and feasting activities or in house-building or raiding, may be other relevant criteria for group membership."(Barnes 1962,6) Similarly, Langness' ethnography of the Bena Bena also emphasized

4636-491: Is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged. When defined broadly, marriage is considered a cultural universal . A broad definition of marriage includes those that are monogamous , polygamous , same-sex and temporary. The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved, and any offspring they may produce. Marriage may result, for example, in "a union between

4758-573: Is stated that Columba needed to speak through an interpreter on his mission into Pictland (section XXXIII) (signifying that he could not understand the Pictish language), and that he brought with him two Irish Cruthin (St. Comgall and St. Canice) to translate for him. Historian Alex Woolf suggested that the Dál Riata were a part of the Cruthin and that they were descended from the Epidii . Dál Riata

4880-624: Is the case in many societies practicing totemic religion where society is divided into several exogamous totemic clans, such as most Aboriginal Australian societies. Marriages between parents and children, or between full siblings, with few exceptions, have been considered incest and forbidden. However, marriages between more distant relatives have been much more common, with one estimate being that 80% of all marriages in history have been between second cousins or closer. Systemic forms of preferential marriage may have wider social implications in terms of economic and political organization. In

5002-673: The Celtic Britons the Pretanoí , which became Britanni in Latin. It is suggested that Cruthin was not what the people called themselves, but was what their neighbours called them . The name Cruthin survives in the placenames Duncrun ( Dún Cruithean , "fort of the Cruthin") and Drumcroon ( Droim Cruithean , "ridge of the Cruthin") in County Londonderry, and Ballycrune ( Bealach Cruithean , "pass of

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5124-739: The Clan Fearghaill whose chiefs were the O'Hallorans , the MacCotters , and the O'Doyles . The following surnames found in Ireland are believed to be of Norman origin and to have arrived following the Norman invasion of Ireland: Barry , Branne, Burke , Butler , Condon , Cusak , Dalton , Darcy , de Covcy, Dillon , Fagun, Fitzgerald , MacGibbon, French , Hackett , Jordan , Keating , Lacy , Lynch , MacCostello , Martin, Nugent, Power, Purcell , Rothes, Sarsfield , Wall. The following surnames are believed to have come to Ireland with

5246-517: The Dál Riata of Antrim who later founded a powerful kingdom in Argyll , Scotland. The 11th century Lebor Gabála Érenn or Book of the Invasions of Ireland , describes a series of failed invasions of Ireland before settlement in the 8th century. However, by the 8th century battles in Ireland were not between the natives and invaders but between tribes and dynasties for control of different parts of

5368-672: The Iron Age . During this time, the Irish people came into contact with Roman traders. According to the writers of Ulster: An Illustrated History , there is evidence for the Ulaid who are referred to as the Erainn by some genealogists which is also the name given on Ptolemy's map of Ireland which dates from the second century AD for the Iverni who lived in County Cork , as well as being

5490-719: The Northern Uí Néill , promising them the territories of Ard Eólairg ( Magilligan peninsula ) and the Lee, both west of the River Bann in County Londonderry. As a result, the battle of Móin Daire Lothair (modern-day Moneymore ) was fought between them and an alliance of Cruthin kings, in which the Cruthin suffered a devastating defeat. Afterwards the Northern Uí Néill settled their Airgíalla allies in

5612-561: The Oirialla in the north-east where they controlled what is now the counties of Tyrone , Armagh , Fermanagh and Monaghan . There was also the Ulaidh who inhabited what is now the counties of Down and Antrim . Within these large areas there were up to 150 small divisions known as Túath and the names of many of these are reflected today in the names of the Irish baronies that make up

5734-515: The Sogain of Leinster and Connacht , are also claimed as Cruthin in early Irish genealogies. By 773 AD, the annals had stopped using the term Cruthin in favour of the term Dál nAraidi, who had secured their over-kingship of the Cruthin. In medieval Irish writings, the plural form of the name is variously spelt Cruthin , Cruithin , Cruthini , Cruthni , Cruithni or Cruithini ( modern Irish : Cruithne ). The singular form

5856-567: The alliance theory to account for the "elementary" kinship structures created by the limited number of prescriptive marriage rules possible. Claude Lévi-Strauss argued in The Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949), that the incest taboo necessitated the exchange of women between kinship groups. Levi-Strauss thus shifted the emphasis from descent groups to the stable structures or relations between groups that preferential and prescriptive marriage rules created. One of

5978-473: The " House of Windsor ". The concept of a house society was originally proposed by Claude Lévi-Strauss who called them " sociétés à maison ". The concept has been applied to understand the organization of societies from Mesoamerica and the Moluccas to North Africa and medieval Europe. Lévi-Strauss introduced the concept as an alternative to 'corporate kinship group' among the cognatic kinship groups of

6100-506: The 11th century, also known as the Book of the Invasions of Ireland , and not historic facts based on contemporary evidence. J. P. Mallory stated that O'Rahilly has argued that this manuscript showed that the medieval people of Ireland had seen a series of invasions from whom various dynasties and families might have traced their origins to. According to Mallory, Ireland may have been inhabited by Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) hunters, but that

6222-515: The 1950s onwards, reports on kinship patterns in the New Guinea Highlands added some momentum to what had until then been only occasional fleeting suggestions that living together (co-residence) might underlie social bonding, and eventually contributed to the general shift away from a genealogical approach (see below section). For example, on the basis of his observations, Barnes suggested: [C]learly, genealogical connexion of some sort

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6344-468: The Batek people of Malaysia recognize kinship ties through both parents' family lines, and kinship terms indicate that neither parent nor their families are of more or less importance than the other. Some societies reckon descent patrilineally for some purposes, and matrilineally for others. This arrangement is sometimes called double descent. For instance, certain property and titles may be inherited through

6466-477: The Cruthin and Picts were the same people or were in some way linked. Professor T. F. O'Rahilly argued that the Qritani/Pritani were "the earliest inhabitants of these islands to whom a name can be assigned". Other scholars disagree. Historian Francis John Byrne notes that although in Irish both groups were called by the same name, in Latin they had different names, with Picti being reserved for

6588-404: The Cruthin are "archaeologically invisible"; there is no evidence of them being a distinct group and "there is not a single object or site that an archaeologist can declare to be distinctly Cruthin"; they further considered Adamson's claims "quite remarkable". Much of Adamson's theories are based on the historical model put forward by Irish linguist T. F. O'Rahilly in 1946. Where Adamson differs

6710-518: The Cruthin are indistinguishable from their neighbours in Ireland. The records show that the Cruthin bore Irish names, spoke Irish and followed the Irish derbfine system of inheritance rather than the matrilineal system sometimes attributed to the Picts. Possible linguistic connection between Cruthin and Picts is nevertheless mentioned in St. Andomnán's Life of St. Columba (c. 697-700 AD), in which it

6832-430: The Cruthin as invaders, including by Ian Adamson . O'Rahilly's history has been entirely unaccepted by some historians including Francis John Byrne . According to Myles Dillon and Nora K. Chadwick , while O'Rahilly's version of history has been accepted by some scholars and dismissed by others, it is an entirely traditional history that he had sourced from Lebor Gabála Érenn which was a historic manuscript written in

6954-532: The Cruthin king Mael Caích defeated Connad Cerr of the Dál Riata at Fid Eóin, but in 637 an alliance between Congal Cláen and Domnall Brecc of the Dál Riata was defeated, and Congal was killed, by Domnall mac Aedo of the northern Uí Néill at Mag Roth ( Moira, County Down ), establishing the supremacy of the Uí Neill in the north. In 681 another Dál nAraide king, Dúngal Eilni , and his allies were killed by

7076-636: The Cruthin territory of Eilne , which lay between the River Bann and the River Bush . The defeated Cruthin alliance meanwhile consolidated itself within the Dál nAraidi dynasty. Their most powerful historical king was Fiachnae mac Báetáin , King of Ulster and effective High King of Ireland . Under their king, Congal Cláen , they were routed by the Uí Néill at Dún Cethirnn (between Limavady and Coleraine ) in 629, although Congal survived. The same year,

7198-636: The Cruthin with the Britons and Picts. The Cruthin comprised several túatha (territories), which included the Dál nAraidi of County Antrim and the Uí Echach Cobo of County Down. Early sources distinguish between the Cruthin and the Ulaid , who gave their name to the over-kingdom , although the Dál nAraidi would later claim in their genealogies to be na fír Ulaid , "the true Ulaid". The Loígis , who gave their name to County Laois in Leinster, and

7320-618: The Cruthin") and Crown Mound ( Áth Cruithean , "ford of the Cruthin") in County Down. These placenames are believed to mark the edges of Cruthin territory. By the start of the historic period in Ireland in the 6th century, the over-kingdom of Ulaid was largely confined to the east of the River Bann in north-eastern Ireland. The Cruthin still held territory west of the Bann in County Londonderry, and their emergence may have concealed

7442-571: The English nation. O'Rahilly's version of the origins of the Irish, as supported by C. Thomas Cairney and John Grenham is as follows: The first of the Celtic invaders of Ireland were known as the Cruthin who arrived between 800 and 500 BC . The second wave of Celts to come to Ireland were known as the Erainn and this is supposedly where the Gaelic name for Ireland, Erin , originated from. These people arrived between 500 and 100 BC. They came from

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7564-459: The English word seven and the German word sieben . It can be used in a more diffuse sense as in, for example, the news headline " Madonna feels kinship with vilified Wallis Simpson ", to imply a felt similarity or empathy between two or more entities. In biology , "kinship" typically refers to the degree of genetic relatedness or the coefficient of relationship between individual members of

7686-465: The Human Family are: There is a seventh type of system only identified as distinct later: The six types (Crow, Eskimo, Hawaiian, Iroquois, Omaha, Sudanese) that are not fully classificatory (Dravidian, Australian) are those identified by Murdock (1949) prior to Lounsbury's (1964) rediscovery of the linguistic principles of classificatory kin terms. While normal kin-terms discussed above denote

7808-562: The Iroquois proper are specifically matrilineal. In a society which reckons descent bilaterally (bilineal), descent is reckoned through both father and mother, without unilineal descent groups. Societies with the Eskimo kinship system, like the Inuit , Yupik , and most Western societies, are typically bilateral. The egocentric kindred group is also typical of bilateral societies. Additionally,

7930-576: The MacSweeny family. Clann was also used to denote a subgroup within a wider surname, the descendants of a recent common ancestor, such as the Clann Aodha Buidhe or the O'Neills of Clandeboy, whose ancestor was Aodh Buidhe who died in 1298. Such a "clan", if sufficiently closely related, could have common interests in landownership, but any political power wielded by their chief was territorially based. From ancient times, Irish society

8052-405: The Norman invasion but are believed to have been of Flemish origin: Tobin , Flemming , Prendergast . The following surnames are believed to have come to Ireland with the Norman invasion but are believed to have been of Welsh origin: Roche , Blake , Joyce , MacQuillan , Rice , Taffe, Walsh , Savage. In the 16th century, English common law was introduced throughout Ireland, along with

8174-649: The Pacific region. The socially significant groupings within these societies have variable membership because kinship is reckoned bilaterally (through both father's and mother's kin) and comes together for only short periods. Property, genealogy and residence are not the basis for the group's existence. Marriage is a socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that establishes rights and obligations between them, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws. The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it

8296-431: The Picts. Professor Dáibhí Ó Cróinín says the "notion that the Cruthin were 'Irish Picts' and were closely connected with the Picts of Scotland is quite mistaken", while Professor Kenneth H. Jackson wrote that the Cruthin "were not Picts, had no connection with the Picts, linguistic or otherwise, and are never called Picti by Irish writers". There is no archaeological evidence of a Pictish link and in archaeology

8418-493: The Uí Néill in what the annals call "the burning of the kings at Dún Cethirnn". The ethnic term "Cruthin" was by this stage giving way to the dynastic name of the Dál nAraide. The Annals record a battle between the Cruthin and the Ulaid at Belfast in 668, but the last use of the term is in 773, when the death of Flathruae mac Fiachrach, " rex Cruithne ", is noted. By the twelfth century it had fallen into disuse as an ethnonym , and

8540-843: The Western Pacific) described patterns of events with concrete individuals as participants stressing the relative stability of institutions and communities, but without insisting on abstract systems or models of kinship. Gluckman (1955, The judicial process among the Barotse of Northern Rhodesia) balanced the emphasis on stability of institutions against processes of change and conflict, inferred through detailed analysis of instances of social interaction to infer rules and assumptions. John Barnes , Victor Turner , and others, affiliated with Gluckman's Manchester school of anthropology, described patterns of actual network relations in communities and fluid situations in urban or migratory context, as with

8662-443: The actual bonds of blood relationship had a force and vitality of their own quite apart from any social overlay which they may also have acquired, and it is this biological relationship itself which accounts for what Radcliffe-Brown called "the source of social cohesion". (Schneider 1984, 49) Schneider himself emphasised a distinction between the notion of a social relationship as intrinsically given and inalienable ( from birth ), and

8784-678: The area which is today known as Belgium and had superior iron weaponry, and thus eventually reduced the Irish Cruthin to tributary status. The third wave of Celtic settlement in Ireland came from Continental Europe during the first century BC and this was probably because of pressure from the Romans on the south of Gaul . These people were known as the Dumnonii and gave their name to Devon in England. Their most powerful branch in Ireland

8906-437: The attempts to break out of universalizing assumptions and theories about kinship, Radcliffe-Brown (1922, The Andaman Islands ; 1930, The social organization of Australian tribes) was the first to assert that kinship relations are best thought of as concrete networks of relationships among individuals. He then described these relationships, however, as typified by interlocking interpersonal roles. Malinowski (1922, Argonauts of

9028-465: The basis of imputing abstract social patterns of relationships having little or no overall relation to genetic closeness but instead cognition about kinship, social distinctions as they affect linguistic usages in kinship terminology , and strongly relate, if only by approximation, to patterns of marriage. Source: A more flexible view of kinship was formulated in British social anthropology . Among

9150-405: The behavioral similarities or social differences among pairs of kin, proceeding on the view that the psychological ordering of kinship systems radiates out from ego and the nuclear family to different forms of extended family . Lévi-Strauss (1949, Les Structures Elementaires), on the other hand, also looked for global patterns to kinship, but viewed the "elementary" forms of kinship as lying in

9272-476: The boundaries of incest . A great deal of inference was necessarily involved in such constructions as to "systems" of kinship, and attempts to construct systemic patterns and reconstruct kinship evolutionary histories on these bases were largely invalidated in later work. However, anthropologist Dwight Read later argued that the way in which kinship categories are defined by individual researchers are substantially inconsistent. This not only occurs when working within

9394-457: The context of Australian Aboriginal kinship . In Bininj Kunwok , for example, the bi-relational kin-term nakurrng is differentiated from its tri-relational counterpart by the position of the possessive pronoun ke . When nakurrng is anchored to the addressee with ke in the second position, it simply means 'brother' (which includes a broader set of relations than in English). When the ke

9516-565: The dominance of earlier tribal groupings. A certain Dubsloit of the Cruthin is said to have killed the son of High King Diarmait mac Cerbaill in 555 or 558, and Diarmait himself was killed by a Cruthin over-king of Ulster, Áed Dub mac Suibni , in 565. In 563, according to the Annals of Ulster, an apparent internal struggle amongst the Cruthin resulted in Báetán mac Cinn making a deal with

9638-508: The early 20th century. Kinship systems as defined in anthropological texts and ethnographies were seen as constituted by patterns of behavior and attitudes in relation to the differences in terminology, listed above, for referring to relationships as well as for addressing others. Many anthropologists went so far as to see, in these patterns of kinship, strong relations between kinship categories and patterns of marriage, including forms of marriage, restrictions on marriage, and cultural concepts of

9760-521: The evidence for this is only a few pieces of flint . The first actual evidence of human residence in Ireland dates to around 8000 BC. Evidence of the first Neolithic farmers in Ireland dates to around 4000 BC. There is little evidence of a warrior elite in Ireland before 1500 BC and evidence for this appears during the Bronze Age where everyone of a wealthy class had weaponry. The Irish language first appeared from between 700/600 BC and 400 AD during

9882-696: The exception of the Clann Cholmáin , Cineal Laoghaire and the Muintear Tadhagain, the existence of all of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by the literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity. Vikings and Normans are Ethnically linked in ancestry from the 9th to 11th centuries and who raided and settled in Britain and Ireland. In Ireland the Vikings became completely Gaelicized and established

10004-518: The fact of life in social groups ( which appeared to be unique to humans ) as being largely a result of human ideas and values. Morgan's explanation for why humans live in groups was largely based on the notion that all humans have an inherent natural valuation of genealogical ties (an unexamined assumption that would remain at the heart of kinship studies for another century, see below), and therefore also an inherent desire to construct social groups around these ties. Even so, Morgan found that members of

10126-428: The first towns. The Normans invaded and conquered England in 1066 and later had similar success invading Ireland in the late 12th century. The Normans were the first people to introduce the mounted knight . In Ireland they were influenced just as much as they themselves influenced and have been described as having become "more Irish than the Irish". The following three Irish families are believed to be of Viking descent:

10248-531: The following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of the four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Erainn were the second of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, with the exception of the Clann Choinleagain, the existence of all of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by

10370-461: The foundational works in the anthropological study of kinship was Morgan's Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (1871). As is the case with other social sciences, Anthropology and kinship studies emerged at a time when the understanding of the Human species' comparative place in the world was somewhat different from today's. Evidence that life in stable social groups is not just

10492-534: The four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Cruthin were the first of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, the existence of all three of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by the literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity. As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the Erainn were the second wave of Celts to settle in Ireland between about 500 and 100 BC. In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended

10614-501: The fourth and final wave of Celtic settlement in Ireland which took place during the first century BC. In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of the four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Gaels or Gaeils were the fourth of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, with

10736-534: The island. Donnchadh Ó Corráin put the evidence for the Irish naitional identity back to the 7th century emphasising the impact that Christianity had on the people there. In 1002, the Uí Néill lost the high kingship of Ireland to the leader of the Dal gCais or Dalcassians , Brian Boru. It was during the century of declining Uí Néill dominance that surnames first started being used in Ireland. This meant that Ireland

10858-620: The late 12th century, the Irish people were Celts who lived in kinship groups as found recorded in historic manuscripts such as the Irish annals , the Leabhar na nGenealach (the Great Book of Irish Genealogies), the Book of Ballymote , the Great Book of Lecan and Ó Cléirigh Book of Genealogies (the O Clery Book of Genealogies). The Irish word clann is a borrowing from the Latin planta , meaning 'a plant, an offshoot, offspring,

10980-481: The literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity. As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the Dumnonii or Laigin were the third wave of Celts to settle in Ireland during the first century BC. In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of the four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Dumnonii or Laigin were

11102-527: The male line, and others through the female line. Societies can also consider descent to be ambilineal (such as Hawaiian kinship ) where offspring determine their lineage through the matrilineal line or the patrilineal line . A lineage is a unilineal descent group that can demonstrate their common descent from a known apical ancestor . Unilineal lineages can be matrilineal or patrilineal, depending on whether they are traced through mothers or fathers, respectively. Whether matrilineal or patrilineal descent

11224-483: The mistake of assuming these particular cultural values of 'blood is thicker than water', common in their own societies, were 'natural' and universal for all human cultures (i.e. a form of ethnocentrism). He concluded that, due to these unexamined assumptions, the whole enterprise of 'kinship' in anthropology may have been built on faulty foundations. His 1984 book A Critique of The Study of Kinship gave his fullest account of this critique. Certainly for Morgan (1870:10)

11346-503: The modern counties. Each Túath had a ruler or petty king who owed allegiance to a more powerful king who was over-king of three or more Túath. This over-king would in turn be subordinate to the king of a province, usually either the Eoghanacht or Uí Néill. The succession of kings or chiefs was governed by a system known as Tanistry whereby after a chief had died, the new chief would be elected from all paternal cousins descended from

11468-565: The modern province of Connacht . The most important of the Connacta tribes was the Uí Néill who claimed descent from Niall of the Nine Hostages. Niall's brothers included Ailill , Brion and Fiachra who were founders of the important Connachta tribes of Ui Ailella, Uí Briúin and Uí Fiachrach . Although the Eoghanacht and Uí Néill were the most powerful tribal groups in Ireland, there were others who were locally powerful including

11590-480: The mother's brother, who in some societies may pass along inheritance to the sister's children or succession to a sister's son. Conversely, with patrilineal descent , individuals belong to their father's descent group. Children are recognized as members of their father's family, and descent is based on relationship to males of the family line. Societies with the Iroquois kinship system, are typically unilineal, while

11712-431: The native clans and their lordships. A number of modern Irish clan societies were former or reformed in the latter half of the 20th century. Today, such groups are organised in Ireland and in many other parts of the world. Several independent Irish clans have sprung up with international affiliation and membership from across the global Irish diaspora for the purposes of helping others with preserving history, culture, and

11834-662: The origin of the name for Ireland. The centre of the Ulaid's land was in the Diocese of Down . The main population group of the Ulaid was the Cruthin whose territory was in the Diocese of Connor and Dromore . There is also evidence for the Loígis in Leinster and the Cíarraige in Munster who also belong to this group and it is possible that their ancestors in Ireland were pre-Celtic. It is also possible to identify from Ptolemy's map

11956-425: The primacy of residence patterns in 'creating' kinship ties: The sheer fact of residence in a Bena Bena group can and does determine kinship. People do not necessarily reside where they do because they are kinsmen: rather they become kinsmen because they reside there." (Langness 1964, 172 emphasis in original) In 1972 David M. Schneider raised deep problems with the notion that human social bonds and 'kinship'

12078-503: The pursuit of genealogy . In 1989, the private organisation Clans of Ireland was formed under the leadership of Rory O'Connor, "Chieftain" of the "O'Connor Kerry Clan", with the purpose of creating and maintaining a register of clans. Kinship Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves, or it can refer to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures (i.e. kinship studies). Over its history, anthropology has developed

12200-415: The relationships that arise in one's group of origin, which may be called one's descent group. In some cultures, kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to people an individual has economic or political relationships with, or other forms of social connections. Within a culture, some descent groups may be considered to lead back to gods or animal ancestors ( totems ). This may be conceived of on

12322-493: The reversal of terms so that the old, dependent man becomes fak , to the young man, tam . The European and the anthropological notion of consanguinity, of blood relationship and descent, rest on precisely the opposite kind of value. It rests more on the state of being... on the biogenetic relationship which is represented by one or another variant of the symbol of 'blood' (consanguinity), or on 'birth', on qualities rather than on performance. We have tried to impose this definition of

12444-562: The senior Gaelic chiefs of Ulster left Ireland to recruit support in Spain but failed, and instead eventually arrived in Rome where they remained for the rest of their lives (see Flight of the Earls ) . After this point, the English authorities in Dublin established real control over all of Ireland for the first time, bringing a centralised government to the entire island, and successfully disarmed

12566-439: The social rules governing the selection of a partner for marriage. In many societies, the choice of partner is limited to suitable persons from specific social groups. In some societies the rule is that a partner is selected from an individual's own social group – endogamy , this is the case in many class and caste based societies. But in other societies a partner must be chosen from a different group than one's own – exogamy , this

12688-440: The socialization of children. As the basic unit for raising children, Anthropologists most generally classify family organization as matrifocal (a mother and her children); conjugal (a husband, his wife, and children; also called nuclear family ); avuncular (a brother, his sister, and her children); or extended family in which parents and children co-reside with other members of one parent's family. However, producing children

12810-743: The story of the Táin Bó Cúailnge as representing this; and argues that most of the Cruthin were driven to Scotland after the Battle of Moira (637), only for their descendants to return 1,000 years later in the Plantation of Ulster . Adamson suggests that the Gaelic Irish are not really native to Ulster and that the Ulster Scots have merely returned to their ancient lands. His theory has been adopted by some Ulster loyalists and Ulster Scots activists to counter Irish nationalism , and

12932-411: The stress in the definition of the relationship is more on doing than on being. That is, it is more what the citamangen does for fak and what fak does for citamangen that makes or constitutes the relationship. This is demonstrated, first, in the ability to terminate absolutely the relationship where there is a failure in the doing, when the fak fails to do what he is supposed to do; and second, in

13054-545: The symbolic meanings surrounding ideas of kinship in American Culture found that Americans ascribe a special significance to 'blood ties' as well as related symbols like the naturalness of marriage and raising children within this culture. In later work (1972 and 1984) Schneider argued that unexamined genealogical notions of kinship had been embedded in anthropology since Morgan's early work because American anthropologists (and anthropologists in western Europe) had made

13176-595: The third of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, with the exception of the Ciarraighe Loch na nAirne and the Feara Cualann, the existence of all of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by the literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity. As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the Gaels or Gaeils were

13298-597: The two halves—which they call matrimonial sides —are neither named nor descent groups, although the egocentric kinship terms may be consistent with the pattern of sidedness, whereas the sidedness is culturally evident but imperfect. The word deme refers to an endogamous local population that does not have unilineal descent. Thus, a deme is a local endogamous community without internal segmentation into clans. In some societies kinship and political relations are organized around membership in corporately organized dwellings rather than around descent groups or lineages , as in

13420-406: The ways that families were connected by marriage in different fundamental forms resembling those of modes of exchange : symmetric and direct, reciprocal delay, or generalized exchange . Building on Lévi-Strauss's (1949) notions of kinship as caught up with the fluid languages of exchange, Edmund Leach (1961, Pul Eliya) argued that kinship was a flexible idiom that had something of the grammar of

13542-457: The west into Galway and Roscommon . By the 5th century they were dominant in most of Ireland and had established dynasties and tribal groups. These groups determined the Irish politics and culture until the Norman invasion of Ireland which took place during the late 12th century. O'Rahilly's version of history has been questioned by archaeologists and historians who have played down the role of

13664-534: The west. The tribes in the south called themselves the Eoghanacht and in about the year 400 AD they established at Cashel a dynasty which held power throughout most of southern Ireland from the 5th to 12th centuries. The Munster families of O'Sullivan , MacCarthy and O'Connell claim descent from the Eoghanacht. In the midlands of Ireland, the Gaeil tribes were known as Connachta and their name continues in

13786-642: The work of J. Clyde Mitchell (1965, Social Networks in Urban Situations). Yet, all these approaches clung to a view of stable functionalism , with kinship as one of the central stable institutions. More recently, under the influence of "new kinship studies", there has been a shift of emphasis from the being to the doing of kinship. A new generation of anthropologist study the processes of doing kinship in new contexts such as in migrant communities and in queer families. The concept of "system of kinship" tended to dominate anthropological studies of kinship in

13908-466: Was a Gaelic kingdom that included parts of western Scotland and northeastern Ireland. The Irish part of the kingdom was surrounded by Cruthin territory. In the 1970s, Unionist politician Ian Adamson proposed that the Cruthin were a British people who spoke a non-Celtic language and were the original inhabitants of Ulster. He argues that they were at war with the Irish Gaels for centuries, seeing

14030-618: Was a natural category built upon genealogical ties and made a fuller argument in his 1984 book A Critique of the Study of Kinship which had a major influence on the subsequent study of kinship. Before the questions raised within anthropology about the study of 'kinship' by David M. Schneider and others from the 1960s onwards, anthropology itself had paid very little attention to the notion that kinship bonds were anything other than connected to consanguineal (or genealogical) relatedness (or its local cultural conceptions). Schneider's 1968 study of

14152-409: Was disputed by Gearóid Mac Niocaill who stated that there is no good evidence to support that the usage of the term Rigdomna in early medieval Ireland was any different to that of tanaise (Tanistry) in late medieval Ireland and that the two terms were synonymous with each other. Although Mac Niocaill did state that MacNeill was correct in identifying a number of cases where Rigdomna was limited to

14274-506: Was in Ulster and included parts of the present-day counties of Antrim , Down and Londonderry . They are also said to have lived in parts of Leinster and Connacht . Their name is the Irish equivalent of * Pritanī , the reconstructed native name of the Celtic Britons , and Cruthin was sometimes used to refer to the Picts , but there is a debate among scholars as to the relationship of

14396-530: Was one of the first countries in Europe to start using surnames. Descendants of Niall of the Nine Hostages , who was the ancestor of the Uí Néill dynasty, include people with the surnames O'Boyle , O'Connor and O'Donnell . From the Dal gCais or Dalcassians came the surnames O'Brien and Kennedy . Within the Gaeil there was distinction between the tribes of the south from those of the north, and also from those of

14518-526: Was organised around traditional kinship groups or clans. These clans traced their origins to larger pre-surname population groupings or clans such as Uí Briúin in Connacht , Eóganachta and Dál gCais in Munster , Uí Néill in Ulster , and Fir Domnann in Leinster . Within these larger groupings there tended to be one sept (division) who through war and politics became more powerful than others for

14640-690: Was promoted by elements in the Ulster Defence Association (UDA). They saw this new 'origin myth' as "a justification for their presence in Ireland and for partition of the country". Historians, archaeologists and anthropologists have widely rejected Adamson's theory. Prof. Stephen Howe of the University of Bristol argues it was designed to provide ancient underpinnings for a militantly separate Ulster identity. Historian Peter Berresford Ellis likens it to Zionism . Archaeologists such as J. P. Mallory and T. E. McNeil note that

14762-518: Was remembered only as an alternative name for the Dál nAraide. The Pictish Chronicle names the first king of the Picts as the eponymous " Cruidne filius Cinge ". Early Irish writers used the name Cruthin to refer to both the north-eastern Irish group and to the Picts of Scotland. Likewise, the Scottish Gaelic word for a Pict is Cruithen or Cruithneach , and Pictland is Cruithentúath . It has thus been suggested that

14884-634: Was the Laigin who gave their name to Leinster . A branch of the Irish group of the Dumnonii settled just to the south of Dumbarton in Scotland and were the ancestors of the Strathclyde-Britons . The fourth and last major Celtic settlements in Ireland took place around 50 BC. This was directly because of Roman attempts to dominate the Gauls of Continental Europe. This included, among others,

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