Misplaced Pages

#929070

126-813: The republic was proclaimed on November 1, 1823 by the Supreme Executive Power , months after the fall of the Mexican Empire ruled emperor Agustin I , a former royalist military officer-turned-insurgent for independence. The federation was formally and legally established on October 4, 1824, when the Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States came into force. The First Republic was plagued through its entire twelve-year existence by severe financial and political instability. Political controversies, ever since

252-422: A brother joined the insurgents. He served directly under his father at first and after two years was able to be in charge of a body of troops that passed to the province of Veracruz and took control of Coscomatepec . After a victory at Palma, he had to experience the defeat, imprisonment, and death of his father. Bravo later gained a reputation for clemency after releasing three hundred royalist prisoners. Bravo

378-406: A change in the commemoration of Mexican Independence. The War of Mexican Independence went through multiple phases, not at all under the same leadership or with the same aims, and in 1821, it was Iturbide who had finally gained independence from Spain, leading to a commemoration of the matter on the anniversary of his army's entrance into Mexico City on September 27. However, with the fall of Iturbide,

504-654: A circle of intellectuals who sought to reform the colonial system triggered the Mexican War of Independence in 1810 by accusing the Spanish ruling classes of seeking to recognize Joseph Bonaparte, while proclaiming loyalty to the imprisoned Ferdinand VII. The subsequent uprising would go on to seriously threaten the capital yet it was ultimately defeated within a year and Hidalgo was captured and executed. The war would continue and be organized under Jose Maria Morelos who would gain control over much of southern New Spain. At

630-541: A decree signed by Bocanegra, Velez, Gorostiza, and Tornel dissolving congress and decreeing that they be replaced by a Junta of Notables. In the early dawn hours of that day there had been skirmishes in the Ciudadela and throughout the morning the Celaya Battalion had remained stationed in the corridor contiguous to the hall where congress met in order to prevent the deputies from entering. Most of them met at

756-643: A loan from a British banking house, but the bank failed in 1827, leading to a financial crisis in the Mexican government. Tensions against the Spaniards who remained in Mexico were also rising at this time and they sought to defend themselves by supporting the Escoceses . Calls to expel the Spaniards from the country challenged the tenets of the newly established liberal constitution, which stressed equality before

882-411: A new congress was convened to establish a federation. In San Luis Potosí Santa Ana , who had already led the movement to overthrow the empire, rose up and declared himself protector of the federal system. Santa Ana was captured and sent to the capital to answer for his conduct, however he was pardoned after his efforts were vindicated with the triumph of the federal system and subsequently sent to command

1008-477: A new constituent congress meant to write a new constitution. The subsequent congress which was installed on 10 June 1842, was strongly federalist, against the wishes of the organizers of the Bases of Tacubaya who were strongly centralist. Santa Anna began to scheme to dissolve the congress, and left Bravo in charge of the presidency on 26 October 1842. Bravo was not in accord with Santa Anna's schemes for while he too

1134-710: A new constitution known as the Bases Orgánicas . During the Mexican–American War he commanded the Mexican forces at the Battle of Chapultepec . Bravo was born on 10 September 1786, in Chilpancingo , to a wealthy family. His parents were Leonardo Bravo and Gertrudis Rueda de Bravo  [ es ] . After the Mexican War of Independence broke out in September, 1810, he along with his father, and

1260-465: A passionate supporter of the movement, and who had to pawn some jewels in order to gather all the required funds. Iturbide was alerted of Bravo and Guerrero's whereabouts through the mayor of Mexicaltzingo , and promptly set a lieutenant colonel after them, but Bravo was able to evade capture by simply bribing him. Brigadier José Gabriel de Armijo , commander of the South, however now went after them and

1386-533: A place called the Junta de los Rios. From there he headed towards Oaxaca . Bravo was in the process of arranging a governing junta when he learned of the Plan of Casa Mata . With the troops that he was able to gather at Oaxaca, he headed out and entered the capital with the rest of the insurgent army. Emperor Iturbide restored congress and offered his abdication. When congress decreed that Iturbide be moved to Tulancingo ,

SECTION 10

#1732765359930

1512-430: A pronunciamiento in the obscure town of Huejotzingo, calling for the dissolution of congress, and demanding the installation of a council of notables to work on the new constitution. Minister Tornel was among the conspirators promoting the revolution. In spite of his earlier reluctance to go against congress and reassurance towards them, at the decisive hour, Bravo sided with the insurrectionists and on 19 December, he signed

1638-607: A report to congress that the Society had been forced to close one of its branches over a lack of contributions. In 1832, Minister Alaman sought to organize higher education in the nation by decreeing that theology was to be taught at the Conciliar Seminary, the College of San Ildefonso was to teach law and classical literature, the College of Mines was to teach physical sciences, and the College of San Juan de Letran

1764-598: A responsibility for municipal authorities to provide primary instruction. State governments such as Chihuahua , Oaxaca , and Zacatecas also took steps to establish institutes of secondary education during this time. Throughout the era of the First Republic, the institutions of the Lancasterian Society struggled to make ends meet through private contributions and had to increasingly rely on government support. By 1831, Minister Lucas Alaman noted in

1890-535: A revolution that would eventually result in a new constitution, and the inauguration of the Centralist Republic of Mexico. In 1836, shortly after Mexico lost Texas, Bravo was in charge of the army of the north, but he retired, disgusted by the events, to Chilpancingo. Anastasio Bustamante had meanwhile returned to the presidency and in 1839, Bravo was invited to be a part of his council of state, resulting that when Bustamante temporarily stepped down from

2016-524: A skirmish ensued in the vicinity of Almolonga , where they were then defeated. Guerrero was shot through the lungs and his men fled the scene in panic, in spite of Bravo's efforts to stop them, believing Guerrero to be dead. Bravo fled to the Santa Rosa ranch, and from here he sought to reorganize at the Mixteca region where he intended to join up at Huajuapam with Antonio Leon. He fortified himself at

2142-469: A sword of honor, considering that the victory was a decisive defeat against the ongoing operations of Guerrero. Anastasio Bustamante's conservative government fell during through an insurrection known as the Plan of Veracruz in 1832, but Bravo was reluctant to recognize the rebels, but Santa Anna, who had played a key role in the Plan of Veracruz, eventually won him over. In 1834, the nation would experience

2268-523: A system of auditors. Loans were needed, and the government sent agents to England, which already had a reputation for sponsoring Latin American nations during the wars of independence. It was also assumed that granting loans to Mexico would give England a vested interest in the political success and independence of the Mexican nation. On May 1, 1823, Congress approved the borrowing of £3,200,000 from Goldschmidt & Co. Three English commissioners by

2394-421: Is obliged to procure the widest possible benefits and apply them from the palace of the rich to the wooden shack of the humble laborer." He went on to extol liberal values of equality before the law and rewards for those with talent and virtue. The first major crisis faced by the new government was an attempt by Spain to reconquer its former colony, the so-called Barradas Expedition of 1829. Troops were landed at

2520-633: The Centralist Republic . The unitary regime was formally established on December 30, 1836, with the enactment of the seven constitutional laws . The Spanish Empire disintegrated in the wake of Napoleon's invasion of Spain and the overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons in 1808. Throughout Spain and her colonies there was a widespread refusal to recognize Napoleon's brother Joseph II as the new French-backed king of Spain. The cleric Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , who had long been part of

2646-574: The Congress of Chilpancingo in 1813 he renounced loyalty to Ferdinand and expounded a plan for an independent, Republican Mexico. The Constitution of Apatzingán was ratified on October 22, 1814, but it would never come into effect. The tide of war began to turn against the insurgents, and Morelos was captured and executed in 1815. Meanwhile, in Spain, the Spanish government in exile, the liberal dominated Cortes of Cádiz had included representatives from

SECTION 20

#1732765359930

2772-599: The First Mexican Empire . As Iturbide became more autocratic, and Santa Anna proclaimed the Plan of Veracruz , against him in 1823, Bravo once again decided to fight against the government. He left Mexico City on 5 January 1823, being joined by Vicente Guerrero , and they planned to raise a revolution in the south of the country, carrying with them a copy of the Plan of Vera Cruz which had been sent to them by Santa Anna. He received money for his campaign from María Petra Teruel de Velasco, wife of Antonio Velasco

2898-516: The Mexican War of Independence , and served as Mexico's first Vice President under President Guadalupe Victoria from 1824 until 1827, when he attempted to overthrow Victoria. He was also the fourth vice president under President Mariano Paredes in 1846, and served in the Mexican–American War . He first distinguished himself during the Mexican War of Independence . He was Mexico's first Vice President though while holding this office Bravo would try to overthrow President Guadalupe Victoria through

3024-573: The Scottish Rite and were called Esoceses while liberal supporters of federalism tended to gather in the York Rite and were called Yorkinos . Participants in political discussions at the lodges were bound by secrecy, and there was some effort in the government to ban such secret societies, but it came to nothing. In order to fund the government the Victoria administration had taken out

3150-591: The Siete Leyes , and was formally promulgated in December, 1836. Now would begin the Centralist Republic of Mexico , a decade of conservative and centralist rule, whose first president was expected to be Santa Anna. The Constitution of 1824 began by declaring the absolute independence of the country, confirming the Roman Catholic religion as the only one permitted in the nation, and formally establishing

3276-488: The American, decreed that in a presidential election the winner becomes president while second place became vice president. In the elections of 1824, Bravo was elected to be the nation's first vice-president and the Independence War hero, Guadalupe Victoria was elected president, but the two men belonged to opposite parties, with the latter being a Yorkino and the former being an Escoses . On 23 December 1827,

3402-626: The Chapultepec with two thousand troops, with Monterde, director of the fortifications there, as his second-in-command. The place began to be bombarded on 12 September, and an assault followed the next day, which ultimately ended in a Mexican defeat, and Bravo was taken prisoner. During the Battle of Chapultepec, Bravo had asked for reinforcements and only the Battalion of San Blas commanded by Xicotencatl could help. Bravo's reputation suffered in

3528-557: The Constitution of 1824 was still in effect and held elections for a new congress before the end of the year. Santa Anna at this point retired as he had during the Gomez Farias administration and he was replaced by Miguel Barragan. On October 23, 1835, the bicameral congress decreed to unite and turn itself into a constituent congress tasked with drafting a new constitution. The resulting centralist document came to be known as

3654-532: The Escoceses, led by Vice President Bravo, proclaimed the Plan de Montaño  [ es ] , demanding the expulsion of the American ambassador Joel Poinsett , the end to secret societies, and the dismissal of the current cabinet, the latter measure due to the belief that the Yorkino dominated government was about to take decisive measures to suppress the Escoceses. The insurrection was short-lived and Bravo

3780-564: The Iturbidist General Luis de Quintanar . During the newly established First Mexican Republic , Bravo allied himself with the Centralist party , preferring a strong unitary government for the country, and to which were also allied various conservative interests ranging from the remaining Spaniards in the country, to the upper classes, to the clergy. Politics in Mexico at this time was associated with Masonic lodges, and

3906-428: The Junta of Notables would call itself the national legislature, and the eighty individuals who were to make it up were finally named. The Junta opened its sessions on 6 January 1843, and General Valencia and Quintana Roo were elected president and vice president of the congress respectively. The Departmental Juntas which had not supporter the Bases of Tacubaya were dissolved. During this time President Bravo established

First Mexican Republic - Misplaced Pages Continue

4032-472: The Plan of Montaño in 1827. His revolt failed and in part due to the services Bravo had provided the nation during the War of Independence, he was allowed to live, but nonetheless exiled. Bravo would return to the country and later go on to serve as interim president of Mexico three separate times in 1839, 1842, and 1846. During his second presidency he oversaw the transition of the Centralist Republic of Mexico to

4158-490: The Plan of Montaño, demanding the expulsion of Joel Poinsett , the end to secret societies, and the dismissal of the current cabinet, the latter measure due to the belief that the Yorkino dominated government was about to take decisive measures to suppress the Escoceses .The insurrection was ironically led by Victoria's own vice-president, Nicolas Bravo , but it was suppressed and Bravo was exiled. More violence would follow

4284-468: The School of Mines were added schools of Physical and Natural Sciences, Mathematics, Cosmography, Physics, Chemistry, Natural History, Geology, Geography, and Mineralogy. In October 1833, a directory general of public instruction was established, headed by Gomez Farias himself, and charged with responsibilities such as planning textbooks, inspecting public libraries, and fostering public instructions through

4410-485: The Supreme Moderating Power, a governing council that according to the constitution was above even the president, to declare that it was the will of the nation to reform the constitution, at the direction of the national representatives, without waiting for a more suitable time. This first presidency would ultimately last only nine days and yet Bravo treated his duties with energy and dedication. When

4536-485: The Swiss naturalist Jean-Louis Berlandier . The latter two would collaborate through the following four years on a journal which included mineralogical, botanical, and zoological observations. A collection of samples was also gathered that contained more than two thousand plants. The journalist, playwright, and pioneering Mexican novelist José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi spent the final years of his career and life during

4662-545: The United States and unsuited to the political situation in Mexico. He reasoned that the American states were separate sovereign provinces that had federated to become stronger together, while the provinces in Mexico had never been independent political entities, and that federating them would split the nation apart, resulting in the exact opposite outcome that the Americans had sought through federation. Notwithstanding

4788-529: The United States from his time in exile and as a Mexican ambassador. Supreme Executive Power The Supreme Executive Power (Spanish: Supremo Poder Ejecutivo ) was the provisional government of Mexico that governed between the fall of the First Mexican Empire in April 1823 and the election of the first Mexican president, Guadalupe Victoria , in October 1824. After Emperor Iturbide abdicated,

4914-413: The United States. Federation for Mexico, according to Mier would then be more an act of separation rather than unification and only lead to internal conflict. The arguments for federation prevailed however, motivated by the autonomy already gained, and an eagerness to reap the salaries that would accompany local bureaucracies. For historian Timothy Anna, "the transition to a federal republic [as opposed to

5040-400: The aftermath of the loss, for in the official report by Santa Anna he assured that Bravo had been taken prisoner after hiding in a waterlogged trench, submerged up to the neck, after which he was recognized by his white hair. After the war Bravo attempted to defend his reputation. He retired to Chilpancingo where he lived in obscurity until he died in April 1854. He had coincidentally died on

5166-511: The age of 18, and using the three-tiered system established by the Constitution of 1812 , by which voters in each parish chose electors, who then met at the district level and chose electors for the province level, whom in turn finally voted for representatives to be sent to Congress. The new congress elected in late October was mainly federalist in composition. It first met on November 7, 1823, and soon divided itself into two main factions:

First Mexican Republic - Misplaced Pages Continue

5292-444: The capital at the time, José Mariano Michelena and José Miguel Domínguez were chosen to serve as substitutes in that capacity while the members of the triumvirate were unavailable. José Ignacio García Illueca  [ es ] was named as the sole minister, holding all portfolios. On April 7, Congress concentrated on dealing with the abdication of Iturbide. The abdication was not officially recognized, as Iturbide's election

5418-520: The capital in January 1830 and replaced by the conservative Anastasio Bustamante. Guerrero however remained at large and continued to wage warfare against the government in the south of the country when Bravo occupied the port and fortress of Acapulco, to remove an important source of wealth from Guerrero and his supporters, but Bravo was dislodged from the city. Bravo however was later victorious at Chilpancingo in January 1831, for which congress granted him

5544-894: The capital, the Executive named new ministers: Lucas Alamán to Interior and Exterior Relations, Francisco de Arrillaga to the Treasury, Pablo de La Llave to Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs, and José Ignacio García Illueca  [ es ] to War and Marine. Political prisoners were liberated, Iturbide's council of state was abolished, and a new Supreme Court was established. On July 19, 1823, Congress honored 11 deceased heroes who had fought for Mexican independence: Miguel Hidalgo , Ignacio Allende , Juan Aldama , Mariano Abasolo , José María Morelos , Mariano Matamoros , Miguel Bravo  [ es ] , Leonardo Bravo , Galeana , Jiménez , Mina , Pedro Moreno , and Rosales . Their names were ordered to be inscribed in gold over

5670-448: The capital. As the tide seemed to be turning against him, Gomez Pedraza fled the country, and Guerrero was able to have his victory ratified by congress. For Guerrero's supporters, a visibly mixed-race man from Mexico's periphery becoming president of Mexico was a step toward in what one 1829 pamphleteer called "the reconquest of this land by its legitimate owners" and called Guerrero "that immortal hero, favorite son of Nezahualcoyotzin ",

5796-529: The capital. The former president Paredes fled the city on that same night, intending to go off to the front to lead some troops he had dispatched, but he was arrested and sent back by General Avalos. At a conference held by the belligerents, including Vizcaino Lemus, and Jose Ramon Pacheco, Martin Carrera, Jose Urrea, and Ramon Moralies, on 6 August it was agreed that Bravo should step down. Power would pass over to General Salas. Bravo continued to participate in

5922-533: The colonies, and taken into account many of the colonial grievances which were leading to independence. The consequent liberal Constitution of 1812 , was promulgated during the Morelos insurgency. It established a system of 'provincial deputations' which granted more autonomy to local governments in the colonies while also providing for freedom of speech. The newly liberated Mexican press however simply inflamed anti-Spanish sentiment, Morelos' rebellion continued, and on

6048-518: The commemoration of independence was moved to September 16, commemorating the Cry of Dolores that had begun the struggle for independence. The insolvency of the government was one of the most pressing issues at hand. The state was nearly bankrupt and the provisional government chose to accept the debt inherited from the Spanish Vicerealty . On April 11, 1823, the government decreed an end to

6174-399: The congress. While Bravo himself was against the dissolution of congress made it so that the Junta of Notables would be composed of individuals known for their knowledge and patriotism. The Junta was to last six months, during which the Bases of Tacubaya would reign as a provisional constitution. The council of government would continue to function. Another decree on 23 December declared that

6300-441: The congressional chamber, and monuments were ordered to be raised in their places of death. The remains which could be found were exhumed in order to hold a state funeral for them. In the aftermath of the ceremonies, a mob plotted to visit the tomb of Hernán Cortés in order to desecrate his bones, and the government had to send for the remains to be hidden and protected. The political opposition to Iturbide at this time also led to

6426-442: The conservative Mariano Paredes overthrew the government of Herrera in late 1845, claiming that the president was committing treason by attempting to recognize the independence of Texas. Paredes was elected president by a junta on 3 January, and Bravo was elected vice-president. Bravo was awarded by making him commandant general and governor of the department of Mexico, when the Mexican–American War had already begun in April 1846. He

SECTION 50

#1732765359930

6552-640: The conservatives met within lodges of the Scottish Rite, consequently being known as the Escoceses and in which Bravo acquired a position of leadership. The Escoceses were opposed by the federalists, who preferred the country to be governed by a federal system, and with which were associated various liberal causes. They too met within Masonic lodges but were rather followers of the York Rite, and so were known as Yorkinos . Mexico's constitution, following

6678-477: The constituent congress met. The most prominent opponent of sustaining and expanding the federal system however was Father Mier who had previously made a name for himself as a critic of Iturbide. He argued that the nation needed a strong centralized government to guard against Spanish attempts to reconquer her former colony, and that a federation rather suited a situation in which previously well established sovereign states were attempting to unite as had happened with

6804-501: The criminal Yanez, condemned to death by hanging for highway robbery, slit his own throat to avoid the hangman, friends of the family pleaded that the body not be displayed in public, but Bravo decreed that the body be displayed on the gallows anyway to serve as a warning. Bravo would next become president in 1842 during which the Centralist Republic of Mexico experienced a constitutional change. In response to multiple national crises, on 8 August 1841, Mariano Paredes had proclaimed against

6930-412: The crown of the empire on March 19, 1823. On March 31, 1823, Congress officially abolished the executive as it had functioned under the empire since May 19, 1822. In its place, was established a body known as the Supreme Executive Power , and chose to fill the office with a triumvirate made up of Nicolás Bravo , Guadalupe Victoria , and Pedro Celestino Negrete . As the first two were not present in

7056-563: The defense of the legitimate government. The revolt subsequently melted away. In Guadalajara, the situation became so serious that on June 11, 1824, the executive had to send a second military expedition to pacify another revolt, this time containing substantial Iturbidist sentiment. The cause for Iturbide's restoration however, effectively ended in July 1824 when the ex-emperor himself, returned from his exile, and landed in Tampico , upon which he

7182-508: The difficulties in transport and communication with the capital, and the tariff and excise taxes that the Mexican authorities imposed upon the provinces. Brigadier Vicente Filísola was sent to Central America by Iturbide to garrison the region, and yet after the fall of the empire Filísola convened a Central American Congress on June 24, which on July 1 declared independence, founding the Federal Republic of Central America with only

7308-431: The drafting of the constitution tended to center around whether Mexico should be a federal or a centralist state, with wider liberal and conservative causes attaching themselves to each faction respectively. With the exception of the inaugural office holder, Guadalupe Victoria , every single administration during the First Republic was overthrown by military coup d'état . The First Republic would finally collapse after

7434-518: The emerging separatist crisis in Texas, where the amount of American settlers was making it difficult for Mexico to administer the area. Further colonization was prohibited in 1830, and General Manuel de Mier y Terán was sent into the region to build a string of forts. The administration also managed to succeed in substantially alleviating the chronic financial instability. In his address to congress on 1 January 1832, Bustamante recorded surpluses in most of

7560-491: The emperor and the absence of solutions to the serious problems that the country was facing increased conspiracies to change the imperial system. Antonio López de Santa Anna proclaimed the Plan of Casa Mata , and was later joined by Vicente Guerrero and Nicolás Bravo . Iturbide then was forced to reestablish the Congress and in a vain attempt to save the order and keep the situation favorable to his supporters, he abdicated

7686-484: The empire. Elections for a new congress were held in October 1824, and the new legislature proceeded in the task of writing a new constitution, debates over the matter mainly being concerned with whether the new republic should take the form of a federation , or a centralized republic . The former faction triumphed, and the result was the 1824 Constitution of Mexico , and the Supreme Executive Power

SECTION 60

#1732765359930

7812-523: The executive, Victoria , was in Veracruz to prevent the influence of Santa Ana, in the wake of his rebellion in San Luis Potosí from creating another disturbance. This left the executive in the charge of the two substitutes, and so to fill in the missing member of the triumverate, on July 2, 1823, congress raised up Vicente Guerrero as a third substitute executive. The expedition to Guadalajara

7938-502: The famous ruler of prehispanic Texcoco . In his inaugural address, he pointed to his long service to the nation fighting for independence, but also importantly to his holding of high office in independent Mexico. He said, "The representatives are to be found in all classes of the people, and the true titles of superiority, the only ones that cause distinction and preference, are discovered wherever talent and virtue appear." In his first address to congress, he pledged that "the administration

8064-461: The federal government, practicing the same separation of powers. The Constitution of 1824 showed clear influence from the Constitution of the United States and hence was subsequently criticized for being maladapted to Mexican circumstances. However, in contrast to the U.S. Constitution, the Constitution of 1824 did not guarantee freedom of religion nor trial by jury. Throughout the First Republic, jurisdiction over education tended to move around

8190-400: The federalists, whose most prominent voice was Miguel Ramos Arizpe , and the centralists, whose most prominent voice was Servando Teresa de Mier . Through the minister of justice, the executive announced to the congress on November 14, that they must now set to work on answering the popular call to establish the government most suited for the nation. A constitutional committee headed by Arizpe,

8316-522: The former emperor chose that Bravo escort him and his family, although it later seemed Iturbide lost his trust in Bravo as he asked his guards to keep a watch over him. After Iturbide was deposed, Bravo was made a member of the Supreme Executive Power , the triumvirate now serving as the executive. During this period he continued to pacify the country and carried out a victorious campaign in Jalisco against

8442-672: The government and he eventually began an uprising in January 1832 which lasted until the end of the year and eventually proved to be successful. Manuel Gomez Pedraza was brought back to serve out the remaining three months of the term to which he had initially won against Guerrero in 1828. He was succeeded in the elections of 1833 by Santa Anna , then a liberal with another liberal Valentín Gómez Farías as his vice president. During this time, Santa Anna and Gómez Farías shared power by alternating offices with Santa Anna repeatedly retiring to his estate at Manga de Clavo while Gómez Farías took care of official matters. Gómez Farías attempted to reduce

8568-512: The government of Anastasio Bustamante, and when his insurgent troops reached the city of Tacubaya they were joined by Santa Anna. After failing to put down the insurgency, Bustamante officially surrendered power through the Estanzuela Accords on 6 October 1841. A military junta was formed which wrote the Bases of Tacubaya, a plan which swept away the entire structure of government, except the judiciary, and also called for elections for

8694-459: The home of the president of the congress Francisco Elorriaga and they directed a memo to President Bravo, asking him if they could continue their sessions, and the reply explained that "every garrison has pronounced against congress except myself and the commandant general of Mexico State." Most deputies then agreed to publish a manifesto explaining that the executive which had long been interfering with their labors had now used armed forces to dissolve

8820-474: The initial triumph of independence] was the real 'revolution' because the old gave way to the new in Mexican history." Mexico decided upon federation as a practical compromise between the need for effective national government and the desire for granting the provinces a voice. Miguel Ramos Arizpe , former Mexican deputy to the Spanish Cortes and one of the champions of federalism was tasked with drafting

8946-477: The journey he lost his only child. His banishment was shortened due to an amnesty granted by President Vicente Guerrero, and Bravo returned to Mexico in 1829. He continued to be a supporter of the Conservative Party and when and joined the Plan of Jalapa against President Guerrero that same year. After personally going out to lead his troops against the insurrection, President Guerrero was deposed at

9072-409: The law. The leading liberal intellectual, José María Luis Mora , was opposed to Spaniards' expulsion as a matter of principle, but also on practical grounds, since Spanish merchants had been vital to the flourishing of the colonial economy. Nonetheless, the Spaniards were expelled in December, 1827, under the pretext of suppressing sedition. On December 23, 1827, the conservative Escoseses proclaimed

9198-556: The matter in Puebla and he also succeeded in putting down a rebellion in Cautla that was clamoring for the expulsion of the Spaniards. A more serious revolt occurred in January 1824 in the capital itself, being led by general José María Lobato  [ es ] . When the government learned of the matter Congress immediately refused to hear any of the rebel's demands lest they lay down their arms, and ordered all loyal troops to come to

9324-473: The medical-military Health Corp, and also established a mint in Culicacan. He also recruited four hundred forty men into the military and declared that official stationery must only use paper manufactured in Mexico. Bravo and Santa Anna became suspicious of Mariano Paredes who had played such a key role in establishing the Bases of Tacubaya, but who now began to express dissatisfaction with the government. He

9450-532: The military in Yucatán . Congress, in order to accommodate the provinces, expanded the powers of the Provisional Deputations, giving them the power to appoint almost all government offices within their territories, and expressed support for the establishment of a federal system. To pacify Guadalajara, 2,000 men were sent under the command of Negrete and Bravo . Meanwhile, the third member of

9576-559: The ministries of the Mexican government, which themselves were in the process of often being reorganized. At one point education fell under the Ministry of Inner and Outer Relations, and at another time under Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs, and later under a newly formed Ministry of Justice. A Lancasterian Society had been founded in 1822 by the editors of the Mexican Paper El Sol to teach at an institution going by

9702-525: The name of Harvey, Ward and O'Gorman arrived in January 1824 in order to produce a report from the British government on the state of affairs in Mexico. The latter would stay as the first British consul to Mexico City. Central America, known at this time as the Captaincy General of Guatemala had at first chosen to unite itself to the empire , and yet many were discontented with matters such as

9828-452: The new constitution and he modeled the document on the Constitution of the United States . The completed constitution was published on October 4, 1824. In the new federated republican era, the transition from the colonial legal system was not easy. Crown edicts no longer had force and new legal codes had not yet come into being. No one knew which laws were valid, there were vacancies in the courts, and few trained lawyers. States were accorded

9954-698: The new federated republican order. The first presidential elections were held the same week that the constitution was promulgated and Guadalupe Victoria , war hero of independence, and one of the three members of the triumvirate was elected the first president of the First Mexican Republic. Fierce political controversy over federalism and centralism continued during the Victoria Administration, finding itself based in Mexico's Masonic lodges. Conservative supporters of centralism and surviving supporters of monarchy tended to belong to

10080-435: The opposition continued to clamor for Gómez Farías's overthrew, fueled by the ongoing anti-clerical campaign. Opponents of Gómez Farías had long sought help from vice-president Santa Anna in overthrowing the government, and after initially ignoring them, even participating in campaigns against the rebels, he eventually acquiesced in April, 1834. He proclaimed the Plan of Cuernavaca, condemning Gómez Farías's reforms. The president

10206-477: The opposition, the Acta Constitutativa was adopted on January 31, 1824, as a provisional constitution . Work on a full constitution began on April 1, 1824. A significant problem once a federation was agreed upon, was to now divide the nation into provinces that would not leave any province too powerful or too weak, a problem that was made worse by a lack of reliable statistical data. The president

10332-496: The outbreak of the Trienio Liberal in Spain, but also a compromise with those Mexican liberals who sought equality before the law. Mexico was to have its independence under a commonwealth system with constitutional monarchy maintaining ties to Spain and commissioners were sent to Spain to offer the throne to a Spanish prince. The Spanish government refused the offer and a popular demonstration led to Iturbide himself assuming

10458-475: The overthrow of the liberal president Valentín Gómez Farías , through a rebellion led by his former vice-president, General Antonio López de Santa Anna who had switched sides. Once in power, the conservatives, who had long been critical of the federal system and blamed it for the nation's instability, repealed the Constitution of 1824 on October 23, 1835, and the Federal Republic became a unitary state,

10584-583: The period of the First Republic. He published Conversaciones entre el Payo y el Sacristán (The Conversations of the Churl and the Sacristan) in 1824, and in 1826 founded his last newspaper the Correo Semanario de Mexico (Weekly Mail from Mexico) before dying in 1827. The Mexican dramatist Don Fernando Calderón y Beltrán , began his career during the First Republic with a steady output of plays in

10710-428: The power over most civil and criminal legal matters. The separate court for merchants, the consulado , was abolished, but the military and church courts retained jurisdiction over soldiers and clergy respectively as part of their fuero . For members of indigenous communities, the removal of colonial-era protections of their community lands and their access to the special General Indian Court made them more vulnerable in

10836-512: The presidency to lead the troops against the rebellion of Jose Urrea, Bravo on 10 July 1839, was named by congress the interim president of the Republic. There was much dissatisfaction with the state of the country at this time, and a great public clamor for constitutional reform, which included many generals and commanders. President Bravo wished for such concerns to be addressed through legal channels, and he directed his council of state to urge

10962-420: The presidential elections of 1828. They were won by the conservative candidate Gomez Pedraza, but supporters of the liberal candidate Vicente Guerrero refused to recognize the results and petitioned congress to nullify them. The efforts were rejected, and the government took advantage of the electoral challenge to begin prosecuting the liberal opposition. This in turn only inflamed further violence which spread to

11088-487: The pretext of necessity for subduing the rebels, the constitution was suspended in New Spain the same year it was proclaimed, making Mexican liberals lose hope of attaining reform within the colonial system, while not forgetting the local provincial autonomy that they had temporarily been granted. Independence was finally gained in 1821 under Agustín de Iturbide 's Plan of Iguala which was a conservative reaction against

11214-408: The priest and naturalist Pablo de La Llave from 1824 to 1825 in classifying and cataloging various species of Mexican plants, their work being published as Novorum Vegetabilium descriptiones . In 1827, the Mexican government sent a scientific expedition to study and survey the border of Texas . The expedition was led by Manuel de Mier y Terán and among its scientific staff were Rafael Chovell and

11340-436: The printing of paper money . On June 27, 1823, a poll tax was established. Anticipating the unpopularity of the measure, two days later the executive published a public appeal, explaining that the government was facing a grave financial crisis, and that the poll tax was established as a matter of necessity. The government sought to reform the treasury, reducing the bureaucracy involved in the collection of taxes, and setting up

11466-472: The province of Chiapas choosing to remain united to Mexico. The nascent Mexican Republic was also disturbed by several political uprisings against the national government. In April, news reached the capital that the governor of Texas had declared a rebellion in favor of restoring the empire. On May 12, the provincial deputation in Guadalajara passed a resolution nullify laws passed by the capital until

11592-450: The remnants of the imperial government. Iturbide himself and his family were exiled to Europe, and when he attempted to return in July 1824, he was captured and executed. A major challenge proved to be the multiple military revolts that flared up in the provinces, and in one case in the capital itself. The causes varied, ranging from agitation in favor of establishing a federation , anti-Spanish sentiment, and even efforts aiming at restoring

11718-488: The same name, and several Mexican states founded analogous institutions. In 1823 Minister of Relations, Alaman wrote a report establishing that the basis of national education was to be primary instruction, and argued that without education there could be no liberty. He published a plan for the Mexican educational system to embrace all sciences, and to assimilate the educational systems that had existed under Spanish Colonial administration. The Constitution of 1824 established

11844-532: The size of the army and also to pass a radical program of anti-clerical measures. The government closed all church schools including the university at Mexico City. It annulled monastic oaths and claimed for itself the right to pick officials in the church. It also suppressed monasteries in the north of the country. Members of congress wished to prosecute former members of the Bustamante administration, but Gomez Farias sought to moderate these measures. In response to

11970-433: The sovereignty of the nation passed over to Congress , which appointed a triumvirate , made up of Guadalupe Victoria , Pedro Celestino Negrete , and Nicolas Bravo , to serve as the executive, while a new constitution was being written. During this period the government oversaw the transition of the nation from monarchy to a republic, abolishing all titles of nobility, changing the national symbols, and removing from power

12096-411: The states and in the federal government. However, instability would erupt when ex-president Guerrero was captured in January 1831 before being court martialed and executed the following month. Guerrero's execution caused an uproar amongst the opposition, and Bustamante's government was accused of acting increasingly autocratically. The Liberal Party opposition appealed to Santa Anna to pronounce against

12222-570: The states that were to make up the republic Government was then divided into the three separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The legislative branch was to be made up of a two chambered congress: a popularly elected chamber of deputies with the seats each state had dependent on its population, and a senate elected by the state legislatures, with each state represented by two senators. Certain state, federal, military, and church officials were forbidden from simultaneously holding their offices and running for congress. The executive power

12348-518: The theaters of Guadalajara and Zacatecas between 1827 and 1836. The literary output of the Liberal historian and statesman Lorenzo de Zavala is entirely confined to this period. He published a detailed history of Mexico from the time of the War of Independence up until the first administration of Anastasio Bustamante . He also published a series of travelogues about Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, and

12474-469: The throne. The Emperor immediately however began to clash with legislature and showed himself determined to have supreme authority over the government, even shutting congress down and replacing it with a body of loyalists. Iturbide struggled to pay the army, and eventually Santa Anna pronounced in favor of a Federal Republic in his Plan of Casa Mata. After being unable to suppress the rebellion Iturbide reconvened congress and offered his abdication after which he

12600-401: The tropical port of Tampico , upon which they began to succumb to yellow fever and were defeated by the Mexican military. Guerrero had been given emergency powers for the crisis and he was slow to relinquish them even after the crisis had subsided, which became a point of contention for his opponents. Slavery was abolished, which only substantially affected the Mexican province of Texas ,there

12726-403: The uprisings that were flaring up around the nation, a Ley de Caso expelled from the country many conservatives, including ex-president Bustamante. Many generals associated with the previous administration were removed from office leading to further opposition. The government around this time also had to deal with an epidemic of cholera. The uprisings against the nation were mostly pacified, but

12852-405: The use of theaters. In April 1833, president Valentin Gomez Farias founded a National Institute of Geography and Statistics . A national museum was established in 1825 and reorganized in 1831 with a library on natural history, archaeology and history. A law was also passed in 1829 forbidding the exportation of Mexican antiquities. The botanist Juan José Martínez de Lexarza collaborated with

12978-462: The war effort, and was named commandant general of the Department of Puebla, but he retreated from that city when orders arrived to fall back on the capital. He took part in the efforts to defend the capital and he was assigned to the southern boundary of the city, which had previously belonged to General Andrade. After the defeats of Molino del Rey and Casa Mata he was placed in charge of defending

13104-409: Was a centralist, he did not wish to overturn the results of the election which had led to the strongly federal congress. Tornel the minister of war was the real power at the capital at this time, being the favorite of Santa Anna. President Bravo assured a commission sent by congress, that he would accept the new constitution, and congress continued working on its draft, when its work was interrupted by

13230-445: Was an attempt to regulate the press, and the government attempted to alleviate the financial crisis by passing new federal taxes. The new taxes were then ignored by every single state. Vice President Anastasio Bustamante and the opposition, under the pretext of opposing Guerrero's emergency powers, proclaimed a coup against the government, and Guerrero left the capital to oppose the insurgents, but Bustamante's movement triumphed and he

13356-526: Was being carried out by individuals who had published no political manifesto, and were simply looting properties. Meanwhile, a revolution had begun against the government of Santa Anna and Valentin Canalizo, and eventually Jose Joaquin Herrera ascended to the presidency on 6 December 1844. Bravo was named head of the national armies, and went after the deposed Santa Anna. Bravo joined in the revolution, when

13482-439: Was captured in 1817 in the south of the country and transported to the capital where he remained imprisoned for three years, until he was amnestied by the liberal Spanish government of 1820. He joined Agustín de Iturbide 's Plan of Iguala in 1821, and Iturbide named him colonel. The Constituent Congress made him a named him to the council of state and a member of the regency, which governed until Iturbide took over as Emperor of

13608-480: Was commissioned with writing a constitutional draft, and on November 22, 1823, delivered the Constitutive Act  [ es ] (Spanish: Acta Constitutativa ), with the fifth article declaring that Mexico adopts the republican, federal, popular, representative form of government, and debate on the matter began on December 3. Deputy Mier, argued that the act was proposing a constitution copied from

13734-480: Was declared to have been forced upon congress by threat of violence, and hence the throne was not legally his in the first place. The debates in congress over this matter became very heated. When a deputy attempted to declare that his vote for the emperor, representing the wishes of his district, had been free and uncompelled, the chamber rose in hostile uproar. Iturbide's coronation, titles of nobility, and hereditary succession were declared null and void. Nonetheless, he

13860-570: Was defeated at Tulancingo by his former ally Vicente Guerrero . Bravo was tried before a grand jury, and the case went to the Supreme Court. Although the law prescribed a severe punishment for his treason, his services during the Mexican War of Independence won him sympathy from his old colleagues who asked for clemency, and even President Guadalupe Victoria preferred leniency, so the court simply condemned him to banishment for two years. He departed from Acapulco to South America and on

13986-494: Was elected president of the Republic. Nicolas Bravo and Vicente Guerrero had tied for second place, and Congress chose in favor of Bravo, making him vice-president. On October 10, 1824, Guadalupe Victoria took office as the first president of Mexico . Nicolas Bravo Nicolás Bravo Rueda (10 September 1786 – 22 April 1854) was a Mexican soldier and politician who served as interim President of Mexico three times, in 1839, 1842, and 1846. Previously, he fought in

14112-427: Was exiled from the nation. He would attempt to return the following year while Mexico was under a provisional government only to be captured and executed. The provisional government was led by a triumvirate consisting of Nicolas Bravo , Pedro Negrete , and Guadalupe Victoria , the latter who would eventually go on to become the first president of Mexico. Congress organized elections for a new Constituent Congress that

14238-512: Was granted an annual pension of 25,000 pesos on the condition that he would leave the country. The Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba which had established the empire, were declared null and void. On May 11, escorted by Nicolas Bravo, and supervised in his departure by Guadalupe Victoria at La Antigua , Iturbide and his family left the country on the British merchant frigate Rawlins , with Livorno as his destination. Upon Bravo's return to

14364-486: Was installed as president in February 1830, with congress subsequently declaring Guerrero to be unfit for office. With President Bustamante, the escoceses or the Conservative Party came into power for the first time. Lucas Alamán , the preeminent conservative intellectual of the time, would also be added to the cabinet and would play a notable role in guiding government policy. Strong measures were taken in response to

14490-500: Was invited to join the Junta and then made commandant general of Mexico State, and later arrested for speaking against the government, but eventually acquitted. Bravo would eventually resign on 5 May, after growing tired of playing the role of Santa Anna's puppet. Bravo retired temporarily from politics until the end of 1844, when he was called by the government to help suppress an uprising that had flared up in Chilapa. The insurrection

14616-495: Was meant to draft a new constitution, and the newly elected body met on November 7, 1823. Controversy now raged over whether the new republic was going to be a federal system or a unitary system. A certain level of local autonomy had already been granted through a system of provincial deputations introduced through the Spanish Constitution of 1812 . A de facto state of federalism to a degree already existed when

14742-413: Was named general and chief of the forces destined for the departments of Puebla, Oaxaca, Veracruz, and Tabasco, and he published a proclamation calling for the unity of all parties. Amidst increasing opposition to his policies, and the conduct of the war which had been so far a grievous set of defeats for Mexico, Mariano Paredes stepped down and passed the presidency over to Bravo on 28 July 1846. Bravo

14868-493: Was officially proclaimed Emperor of Mexico on May 18, 1822. However, the Constitutional Empire soon found itself being torn by conflicts between the emperor and Congress. Deputies were imprisoned simply for expressing their disagreements with Iturbide and finally, Iturbide decided to abolish the Congress, establishing instead a National Junta subservient to him. The lack of a congress, the arbitrary nature of

14994-449: Was overthrown and prominent liberal and federalist thinkers José María Luis Mora and Lorenzo de Zavala were exiled from the nation. Gómez Farías's reforms would eventually be attempted again by the government in during the pivotal La Reforma period. As part of his revolution Santa Anna dissolved the national congress, state congresses, and replaced state governors and municipal governments with loyalists. He however also maintained that

15120-655: Was replaced by the First Mexican Republic . Independent Mexico was originally a monarchy : "constitutional and moderate" according to the Treaty of Córdoba . The new country adopted the name of the Mexican Empire . The Plan of Iguala had provided for a Bourbon monarch to be placed on the Mexican throne, but when the offer was refused, a barracks revolt in the capital declared Agustín de Iturbide as emperor; congress, in search of stability and surrounded by Iturbide's military partisans, acquiesced. Iturbide

15246-520: Was subsequently tried by local authorities and executed in accordance with a bill of attainder that had been passed by congress on September 27, 1823. On the May 21, 1823, elections were announced for a new congress whose term was scheduled to begin on October 31. Rules for the new election were published on June 17. Congressional seats were allocated on a basis of one representative per 50,000 inhabitants, elected by manhood suffrage available to any man over

15372-519: Was successful in detaching the province of Colima from the renegade authorities in Guadalajara. A revolt in Querétaro resulted in the execution of the ringleaders. Puebla tried to establish a legislature without the approval of Congress under the pretext that it needed to pass a protective tariff against foreign textiles to protect its own factories. The executive sent Guerrero to deal with

15498-418: Was summoned to the capital from the department of Veracruz where he was in the middle of fortifying the city against a potential assault, and replaced with General Mosso. Four days after he assumed the presidency, on 3 August, the garrison of Vera Cruz and San Juan de Ulua revolted, proclaiming the plan of Guadalajara, and early on the morning of 4 August, General Salas with more than a thousand troops revolted in

15624-533: Was to serve for four years, and the candidate who came in second was to assume the office of vice-president, a device that was copied from the United States. Congress called for presidential elections in August 1824. Each state legislature would appoint two candidates, and the two who received the most votes from state legislatures would be elected as president and vice president. The results were announced on October 1, and by majority of 17 states, Guadalupe Victoria

15750-523: Was to teach medicine, also assimilating the faculty of the National College of Surgery. Mexican archaeology was to be taught at the newly established Botanical Garden. The Gomez Farias administration also added faculties to Mexico's existing schools of higher education. To the school of the Hospital de Jesús Nazareno were added faculties on eight languages, philosophy, and natural theology. To

15876-430: Was vested in a president that was to be elected by the state legislatures, which were supposed to each nominate two individuals for the presidency, one of whom must not reside in their state. The judicial branch was vested in a supreme court composed of eleven judges and an attorney general, elected by the state legislatures in the same fashion as they were to elect the president. State governments were to be modeled on

#929070