107-807: (Redirected from Flanders Campaign ) Flanders campaign may refer to: 1709 campaign in the War of the Spanish Succession Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition (1792–1795) during the French Revolutionary War Battle of Flanders (disambiguation) , any of a series of battles in the First World War (1914–1918) Campaign during
214-540: A European war was true "only so long as English commerce does not suffer". Louis either failed to appreciate this or decided to ignore it and his actions gradually eroded Tory opposition. In early 1701, Louis registered Philip's claim to the French throne with the Parlement of Paris , raising the possibility of union with Spain, contrary to Charles' will, though Philip was only third in the French succession. In February,
321-570: A mixture of anti-Castilian and anti-French sentiment meant the others supported Archduke Charles, the most important being Catalonia. Allied victory at Vigo Bay in October 1702 persuaded Peter II of Portugal to switch sides, giving them an operational base in this area. Archduke Charles landed at Lisbon in March 1704 to begin a land campaign, while the British-Dutch capture of Gibraltar
428-520: A natural embarkation point for an attack on England, as demonstrated in 1688 . The third was to maintain a navy strong enough to protect British trade, control her waters and launch attacks on her enemies' commercial routes and coastal areas. Alignment on reducing the power of France and securing the Protestant succession for the British throne masked differences on how to achieve them. In general,
535-488: A navy , and as the campaigns of 1708–1710 proved, even under severe pressure it could defend its borders. The Nine Years' War had shown France could not impose its objectives without support, and its new alliance with Spain and Bavaria made a successful outcome more likely. However, the previous wars had left France with severe economic problems. This was recognized by the Marquis de Chamlay , who advised Louis to not take on
642-537: A policy weapon. The 1651–1663 Navigation Acts were a major factor in the Anglo-Dutch Wars , while between 1690 and 1704, English import duties on foreign goods increased by 400%. On 6 September 1700, France banned the import of English manufactured goods such as cloth and imposed prohibitive duties on a wide range of others. The field armies that operated in the Southern Netherlands during
749-637: A purely offensive strategy. He argued that the combined might of the Grand Alliance forces made it highly improbable for France to launch a successful attack. The Dutch and Imperial fortresses were located far from convenient Franco-Spanish bases, and the Netherlands and Rhineland lacked easily navigable rivers for the Bourbon armies. Furthermore, besieging a major Dutch fortress demanded the commitment of two full armies. The French would thus pursue
856-644: A reversal of long-standing strategic policy, with France now supporting the Spanish position in Lombardy, rather than seeking to weaken it, and Austria doing the opposite. While Victor Amadeus initially allied Savoy with France, his long-term goal was the acquisition of the Duchy of Milan , which neither Bourbons nor Habsburgs would relinquish voluntarily. As discussed elsewhere in this article, securing his borders in Italy
963-665: A separate peace but could not agree on the terms. The Great Frost of 1709 caused widespread famine in France and Spain, forcing Louis to re-open negotiations and he hinted at his willingness to cede French fortresses to the Dutch Republic. In May 1709 the Allies presented him with the preliminaries of the Hague. Britain and Austria still insisted on an undivided Spanish monarchy for Archduke Charles. The Allies demanded that Philip
1070-703: A strategy described as a "mixed war" in Europe. In this strategy, the Franco-Spanish forces would primarily assume a defensive posture to safeguard the vital fortresses they needed to retain. Offensive actions, on the other hand, were characterized by assertive posturing and strategic positioning, with an emphasis on sustaining their forces by living off enemy territory whenever feasible, while blocking enemy thrusts, and trying to engage them in battle where possible. Apart from denying an undivided Spanish monarchy to others, Louis's objectives were to secure his borders with
1177-585: A strong town on the eastern side of the Dutch Republic, and took Venlo , Roermond , Stevensweert and Liège along the Meuse . The 1703 campaign was marred by Allied conflicts over strategy. Despite capturing Bonn , they failed to take Antwerp , while a Dutch contingent narrowly escaped disaster at Ekeren in June. On the Upper Rhine , Imperial forces under Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden remained on
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#17327648888501284-478: A temporary suspension of hostilities. Unlike the crowns of France or Austria , that of Spain could be inherited through the female line. This allowed Charles' sisters Maria Theresa (1638–1683) and Margaret Theresa (1651–1673) to pass their rights onto the children of their respective marriages with Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold. Louis sought to avoid conflict over the issue through direct negotiation with his main opponent William III of England while excluding
1391-586: A will leaving an undivided Spanish monarchy to Joseph Ferdinand. However, the latter's death from smallpox in February 1699 undid these arrangements. In 1685, Maria Antonia passed her claim to the Spanish throne onto Leopold's sons, Joseph and Archduke Charles. Her right to do so was doubtful, but Louis and William used this to devise the 1700 Treaty of London . Archduke Charles became the new heir, while France, Savoy and Austria received territorial compensation; however, since neither Leopold nor Charles agreed,
1498-558: Is considered a connected conflict since it affected the involvement of states such as Sweden , Saxony , Denmark–Norway and Russia . Armies in the 1688 to 1697 Nine Years' War frequently numbered over 100,000, requiring expenditure unsustainable for pre-industrial economies. The 1690s also marked the low point of the Little Ice Age , a period of cold and wet weather that drastically reduced crop yields across Europe. The Great Famine of 1695–1697 killed an estimated 15–25% of
1605-685: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages War of the Spanish Succession The War of the Spanish Succession was a European great power conflict fought between 1701 and 1714. The immediate cause was the death of the childless Charles II of Spain in November 1700, which led to a struggle for control of the Spanish Empire between supporters of
1712-575: The 1720 Treaty of The Hague . The treaty's territorial provisions did not go as far as the Whigs in Britain would have liked, considering that the French had made overtures for peace in 1706 and again in 1709. The Whigs considered themselves the heirs of the staunch anti-French policies of William III of England and the John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough . The Whigs were now a minority in
1819-585: The Americas , the Spanish Netherlands , and colonies such as the Philippines . Negotiations between Louis and Emperor Leopold centred on dividing these territories, which the Spanish refused to allow. Since the acquisition of an undivided empire by either Austria or France would make them too powerful, its inheritance led to a war that involved most of Europe. The 1700–1721 Great Northern War
1926-536: The Dutch Republic , helped end the war. The treaties were concluded between the representatives of Louis XIV of France and of his grandson Philip on one hand, and representatives of Queen Anne of Great Britain , King Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia , King John V of Portugal and the United Provinces of the Netherlands on the other. Though the king of France ensured the Spanish crown for his dynasty,
2033-547: The German invasion of Belgium (1940) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Flanders campaign . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flanders_campaign&oldid=1161972528 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
2140-518: The Great Northern War , while Frederick I made his support dependent on Leopold recognising Prussia as a kingdom and making it an equal member of the Grand Alliance. Since George, Elector of Hanover , was also heir to the British throne, his support was more reliable, but the suspicion remained that the interests of Hanover came first. British foreign policy was based on three general principles, which remained largely consistent from
2247-831: The Kingdom of Naples , Sardinia , and the bulk of the Duchy of Milan went to Emperor Charles VI . In South America, Spain returned Colónia do Sacramento in modern Uruguay to Portugal and recognised Portuguese sovereignty over the lands between the Amazon and Oyapock rivers, now in Brazil . In North America, France recognised British suzerainty over the Iroquois , and ceded Nova Scotia and its claims to Newfoundland and territories in Rupert's Land . The French portion of Saint Kitts in
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#17327648888502354-815: The Ottoman Empire . Even after paying expenses associated with the Dutch Barrier , increased tax revenues from the Austrian Netherlands funded a significant upgrade of the Austrian military. However, these gains were diminished by various factors, chiefly the disruption of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 caused by Charles disinheriting his nieces in favour of his daughter Maria Theresa . Attempts to ensure its succession involved Austria in wars of little strategic value; much of
2461-583: The Rhine and Adda , while their absence limited operations in areas like Northern Spain. Better logistics, unified command, and simpler internal lines of communication gave Bourbon armies an advantage over their opponents. In 1700, Spain remained a great power in terms of territory control; recent research moreover shows that imports of bullion from the Americas reached their highest level between 1670 and 1700. However, this concealed major structural weaknesses;
2568-567: The Spanish Americas . For the Dutch, despite attaining their long sought-after Barrier Treaty , the war is seen as marking the beginning of their decline as a significant European power. Although Louis succeeded in placing his grandson on the Spanish throne, France was left financially exhausted. Charles II of Spain succeeded his father Philip IV at the age of four in 1665. Subject to extended periods of ill-health for much of his life,
2675-655: The Tories favoured a mercantilist strategy of using the Royal Navy to attack French and Spanish trade while protecting and expanding their own; land commitments were viewed as expensive and primarily of benefit to others. The Whigs argued France could not be defeated by seapower alone, making a Continental strategy essential, while Britain's financial strength made it the only member of the Alliance able to operate on all fronts against France. The Dutch had been engaged in
2782-619: The West Indies was also ceded in its entirety to Britain. France retained its other pre-war North American possessions, including Cape Breton Island , where it built the Fortress of Louisbourg , then the most expensive military installation in North America. The successful French Rhineland campaign of 1713 finally induced Charles to sign the 1714 treaties of Rastatt and Baden , although terms were not agreed with Spain until
2889-605: The West Indies , which produced sugar , then a hugely profitable commodity. Also, there were minor trade conflicts in South America, India, and Asia; the financial strains of war particularly affected the Dutch East India Company , as it was a huge drain on scarce naval resources. Related conflicts include Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary , which was funded by France and a serious concern for
2996-480: The capture of Menorca in 1708 allowed the Royal Navy to dominate the Western Mediterranean. Since many British politicians considered this their primary objective, they became reluctant to approve further expensive land campaigns in this theatre. The close links between war and trade meant conflict extended beyond Europe, particularly in North America, where it is known as Queen Anne's War , and
3103-584: The strategic depth needed to protect their commercial and demographic heartlands around Amsterdam against attack from the south. However, with the help of Maximilian of Bavaria, the governor of the Spanish Netherlands, the Dutch garrison troops had been replaced by French troops by 1701. Dutch priorities were to re-establish and strengthen the Barrier fortresses, retain control of the economically vital Scheldt estuary, and gain access to trade in
3210-659: The 'Barrier' fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands , granted at Ryswick. It also threatened the Dutch monopoly over the Scheldt granted by the 1648 Peace of Münster , while French control of Antwerp and Ostend would allow them to blockade the English Channel at will. Combined with other French actions that threatened English trade, this produced a clear majority for war and in May 1701, Parliament urged William to negotiate an anti-French alliance. On 7 September, Leopold,
3317-473: The 16th through the 20th centuries. The first, overriding all others, was to preserve a balance of power in Europe, an objective threatened by French expansion under Louis XIV. The second was to prevent the Low Countries from being controlled by a hostile power or one stronger than Britain; this included both the Spanish Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, whose deep harbours and prevailing winds made her
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3424-536: The 1707 Convention of Milan Emperor Joseph gave French troops in Lombardy free passage to Southern France. A combined Savoyard-Imperial attack on the French base of Toulon planned for April was postponed when Imperial troops were diverted to seize the Spanish Bourbon Kingdom of Naples . By the time they besieged Toulon in August, the French were too strong, and they were forced to withdraw. By
3531-534: The Allied offer of 1709 had been, it gained little that had not already been achieved through diplomacy by February 1701. Though France remained a great power, concern at its relative decline in military and economic terms compared to Britain was an underlying cause of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740. The British historian G. M. Trevelyan has argued that: That Treaty, which ushered in
3638-481: The Allies continued to advance in northern France, by 1709 Philip had cemented his position in Spain, the ostensible cause of the war. When Emperor Joseph I died in 1711, Archduke Charles succeeded his brother as Holy Roman Emperor . Since a union of Spain and Austria was as unwelcome as one with France, the new British government argued it was pointless to continue. By now, only British subsidies kept their allies in
3745-528: The Allies during the war, Spain only agreed to grant an amnesty, thus implying the imposition of the laws and institutions of Castile to the Principality of Catalonia , as it already happened in 1707 to the other occupied kingdoms of the Crown of Aragon. Spanish territories in Italy and Flanders were divided, with Savoy receiving Sicily and parts of the Duchy of Milan . The former Spanish Netherlands ,
3852-406: The Allies would still have to exhaust themselves in Spain, while France, after a period of recuperation, might once again lend support to Phillip. Peace of Utrecht The Peace of Utrecht was a series of peace treaties signed by the belligerents in the War of the Spanish Succession , in the Dutch city of Utrecht between April 1713 and February 1715. The war involved three contenders for
3959-562: The Americas . The Asiento de Negros had come about due to the fact that the Spanish Empire rarely engaged in the transatlantic slave trade itself, preferring to outsource this to foreign merchants. Bourbon France had previously held the Asiento de Negros , allowing French slave traders to supply 5,000 slaves to the Spanish Empire each year; France had gained control over this contract after Philip V had become King of Spain. After
4066-448: The Americas. While modern economists generally assume a constantly growing market, the then dominant theory of mercantilism viewed it as relatively static. This meant increasing your own share of a market required taking it from someone else, with the state facilitating this by attacking opponents' merchant ships and colonies. As a result, the war quickly expanded to North America , India , and other parts of Asia, with tariffs used as
4173-627: The Balance of Power , it was widely publicised in Britain by author and Tory satirist Daniel Defoe in his 1709 article A Review of the Affairs of France . The idea was reflected in the wording of the treaties and resurfaced after the defeat of Napoleon in the 1815 Concert of Europe that dominated Europe in the 19th century. For the individual signatories, Britain established naval superiority over its competitors, commercial access to Spain and America, and control of Menorca and Gibraltar; it retains
4280-439: The Bourbon candidate as Philip V of Spain to remain as king. In return, Philip renounced the French throne, both for himself and his descendants, with reciprocal renunciations by French Bourbons to the Spanish throne, including Louis XIV's nephew Philippe of Orléans . These became increasingly important after a series of deaths between 1712 and 1714 left the five year old Louis XV as his great-grandfather's heir. Great Britain
4387-595: The Bourbons or the Habsburgs from doing so. This divergence and Austria's financial collapse in 1703 meant the campaign in Spain was reliant on Anglo-Dutch naval support and after 1706, British funding. Particularly during the reign of Joseph I , the priority for the Habsburgs was to secure their southern borders from French intervention in northern Italy and suppress Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary. Much of
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4494-701: The British commander, the Duke of Ormonde , to withdraw from the Allied forces before the Battle of Denain (informing the French but not the Allies), and the fact that they secretly arrived at separate peace with France was a fait accompli , made the objections of the Allies pointless. In any case, the Dutch achieved their condominium in the Austrian Netherlands with the Austro-Dutch Barrier Treaty of 1715. The Treaty stipulated that "because of
4601-529: The British government gained access to the Asiento de Negros , the economic prominence held by Dutch Sephardic Jewish slaveowners began to fade, while the South Sea Company was established in hopes of gaining exclusive access to the contract. The British government sought to reduce its debt by increasing the volume of trade it had with Spain, which required gaining access to the Asiento de Negros ; as historian G.M. Trevelyan noted: "The finances of
4708-512: The Castilian elite. The Spanish Netherlands had been governed by prince-elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria since 1692, while links with Italy, traditionally the major source of Spanish recruits and funding, had been weakened by decades of neglect and heavy taxation. It was widely, if reluctantly, accepted in Madrid that preserving an independent Spanish Empire required comprehensive reforms, including
4815-425: The Dutch Republic and Britain signed the Treaty of The Hague renewing the 1689 Grand Alliance . Its provisions included securing the Dutch Barrier in the Spanish Netherlands, the Protestant succession in England and Scotland and an independent Spain but did not refer to placing Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne. When the exiled James II of England died on 16 September 1701, Louis reneged on his recognition of
4922-472: The French Bourbons and the Habsburgs . Charles named his heir as Philip of Anjou , a grandson of Louis XIV of France , whose claim was backed by France and most of Spain . His rival, Archduke Charles of Austria , was supported by the Grand Alliance , whose primary members included Austria , the Dutch Republic , and Great Britain . Significant related conflicts include the 1700 to 1721 Great Northern War , and Queen Anne's War . Although by 1701 Spain
5029-447: The French behind the Adda River . Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme , one of the best French generals, took command and was substantially reinforced; Prince Eugene managed a draw at the Battle of Luzzara but the French recovered most of the territory and lost the year before. In October 1703, Victor Amadeus declared war on France; by May 1706, the French held most of Savoy except Turin while victories at Cassano and Calcinato forced
5136-417: The French would prevent the Allies from making a decisive breach in their frontiers. British involvement was primarily driven by the need to protect their trade routes in the Mediterranean. By putting Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne, they also hoped to gain commercial privileges within the Spanish Empire. Despite their dynastic claim, the Austrian Habsburgs viewed securing Northern Italy and suppressing
5243-437: The Grand Alliance in 1701 had been achieved, but success in 1708 made them overconfident. French diplomats focused on the Dutch, whom they considered were more likely to favour peace than their allies, for victory at Ramillies removed any direct military threat to the Republic, while highlighting differences with Britain on the Spanish Netherlands. Peace talks broke down in late 1708 because the Allies had agreed not to negotiate
5350-404: The Habsburgs throughout the war. In South-Eastern France, Britain funded the Huguenot 1704-1710 Camisard rebellion; one objective of the 1707 campaign in Northern Italy and Southern France was to support this revolt, one of a series that began in the 1620s. By the end of 1708, the French had withdrawn from Northern Italy, while the maritime powers controlled the Spanish Netherlands, and secured
5457-400: The Holy Roman Empire, weaken his rival Austria, and increase French commercial strength through access to trade with the Americas. Despite being the dominant power within the Holy Roman Empire, Austrian and Imperial interests did not always coincide. The Habsburgs wanted to put Archduke Charles on the throne of an undivided Spanish monarchy, while their Allies were fighting to prevent either
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#17327648888505564-470: The Hungarian revolt as higher priorities. With the Dutch focusing on Flanders post-1704, this theatre was largely dependent on British naval and military support. Spain at the time was a personal union between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon . The latter was further divided into the separate entities of Catalonia , Aragon , Valencia , Majorca , Sicily , Naples , and Sardinia . In 1701, Majorca, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia declared for Philip, while
5671-412: The Imperialists into the Trentino valley. However, in July 1706, Vendôme and any available forces were sent to reinforce France's northern frontier after the defeat at Ramillies . Reinforced by German auxiliaries led by Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau , Prince Eugene broke the siege of Turin in September; despite a minor French victory at Castiglione , the war in Italy was over. To the fury of his allies,
5778-473: The Nine Years' War had often reached 100,000 men. The size of armies continued to grow during the War of the Spanish Succession. Between 1702 and 1707, the field armies in the Southern Netherlands had a strength of 60,000 to 80,000 men, and from 1708 onwards, over 120,000 men. These extensive armies placed immense strain on pre-industrial economies. Armies were restricted by their dependence on water-borne transport for supplies, so campaigns focused on rivers like
5885-399: The Protestant William III as king of England and Scotland and supported the claim of James' son, James Francis Edward Stuart . War became inevitable and when William himself died in March 1702, his successor Queen Anne confirmed her support for the Treaty of the Hague. The Dutch now led by Grand Pensionary Anthonie Heinsius did the same, despite French hopes that without a Stadtholder
5992-417: The Rhine, joined forces with Louis of Baden and Prince Eugene, and crossed the Danube on 2 July. Allied victory at Blenheim on 13 August forced Bavaria out of the war and the Treaty of Ilbersheim placed it under Austrian rule. Allied efforts to exploit their victory in 1705 floundered on poor coordination, tactical disputes, and command rivalries. A diplomatic crisis between the Dutch Republic and England
6099-443: The Spanish Empire. Although the English Duke of Marlborough was Allied commander in the Low Countries , the Dutch provided most of the manpower and supplies. Strategy in this theatre was thus subject to the approval of their field deputies and generals. When Dutch forces operated outside the Spanish Netherlands this was often a concession to their English allies. Throughout the 17th century, Savoy sought to replace Spain as
6206-403: The Spanish nobility resented what they considered to be the arrogance of the Austrians, a key factor in the selection of Philip as their preferred candidate in 1700. In return for British support, Charles agreed to major commercial concessions within the empire, as well as accepting British control of Gibraltar and Menorca . These made him widely unpopular at all levels of Spanish society, and he
6313-406: The Spanish-controlled Duchy of Milan and allied Duchy of Mantua in Northern Italy announced their support for Philip and accepted French troops. Combined with efforts to build an alliance between France and Imperial German states in Swabia and Franconia , these were challenges Leopold could not ignore. Helped by the governor, Max Emanuel of Bavaria , French troops replaced Dutch garrisons in
6420-495: The Spanish. Leopold and Margaret's daughter Maria Antonia (1669–1692) married Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria in 1685, and on 28 October 1692, they had a son, Joseph Ferdinand . Under the October 1698 Treaty of the Hague between France, Britain and the Dutch Republic, five-year-old Joseph was designated heir to Charles II; in return, France and Austria would receive parts of Spain's European territories. Charles refused to accept this; on 14 November 1698, he published
6527-416: The administration of Robert Harley (created Earl of Oxford and Mortimer on 23 May 1711) and the Viscount Bolingbroke proved more flexible at the bargaining table and were characterized by the Whigs as "pro-French"; Oxford and Bolingbroke persuaded the Queen to create twelve new "Tory peers" to ensure ratification of the treaty in the House of Lords . The opponents of the treaty tried to rally support under
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#17327648888506634-410: The borders of the Dutch Republic; in the Mediterranean, the maritime powers had achieved naval supremacy, and Britain acquired permanent bases in Gibraltar and Menorca. However, as Marlborough himself pointed out, the French frontiers remained largely intact, their army showed no signs of being defeated, while Philip proved far more popular with the Spanish than his rival. Many of the objectives set out by
6741-458: The continued existence of the empire was not due to Spanish strength but to maintain a balance between the powers competing for a share of its markets. Despite fighting a series of wars against Spain from 1667 to 1697, France was also its most significant economic partner, supplying labour and controlling a large proportion of its foreign trade. This consideration was an important factor in the decision to name Philip his heir. Its dependence on others
6848-443: The country were based in May 1711 on the assumption that the Asiento, or monopoly of the slave trade with Spanish America, would be wrested from France as an integral part of the terms of peace". Following the passage of the treaty, the British government gained a thirty-year access to the Asiento de Negros . The importance placed by British negotiators on commercial interests was demonstrated by their demand for France to "level
6955-419: The defensive, although they took Landau in 1702. Supported by the Bavarians, during the 1703 campaign French forces retook Landau, won victories at Friedlingen , Höchstädt and Speyerbach , then captured Kehl and Breisach . With Austrian resources absorbed by Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary, the Franco-Bavarian plan for 1704 was to march on Vienna. To relieve the pressure, Marlborough marched up
7062-495: The dominant power in Northern Italy . Savoy consisted of two main geographic segments; Piedmont , which contained the capital Turin , and the Duchy of Aosta on the Italian side of the Alps , with the Duchy of Savoy and County of Nice in Transalpine France. The latter were almost impossible to defend and combined with the anti-Habsburg policy pursued by Louis XIV and his predecessors, this meant Savoy generally sided with France. However, Piedmont provided foreign powers access to
7169-452: The elimination of the privileges or Fueros held by the Aragonese states. It was no coincidence Archduke Charles had strong support in areas that were part of the Crown of Aragon, including Catalonia and Valencia . Under Louis XIV , France was the most powerful state in Europe, with revenue-generating capacities that far exceeded those of its rivals. Its geographical position provided enormous tactical flexibility; unlike Austria, it had
7276-425: The end of 1707, fighting in Italy ceased, apart from small-scale attempts by Victor Amadeus to recover Nice and Savoy. The first objective for the Grand Alliance in this theatre was to secure the Dutch frontiers, threatened by the alliance between France, Bavaria, and Joseph Clemens of Bavaria , ruler of Liège and Cologne . During 1702, the Grand Alliance repelled an assault on Nijmegen , captured Kaiserswerth ,
7383-502: The fighting in the 1733–1735 War of the Polish Succession taking place in its maritime provinces in Italy. Austria had traditionally relied on naval support from the Dutch, whose own capability had been severely degraded; Britain prevented the loss of Sicily and Naples in 1718 but refused to do so again in 1734. The dispute continued to loosen Habsburg control over the Empire; Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia and Saxony increasingly acted as independent powers and in 1742, Charles of Bavaria became
7490-493: The first non-Habsburg Emperor in over 300 years. The Dutch Republic ended the war effectively bankrupt, while the damage suffered by the Dutch merchant navy permanently affected their commercial and political strength and it was superseded by Britain as the pre-eminent European mercantile power. The acquisition of the Barrier Fortresses however became an important asset of Dutch foreign policy and enlarged their sphere of influence. Although judged favourably by contemporaries, it
7597-460: The fortifications of Dunkirk , block up the port and demolish the sluices that scour the harbour, [which] shall never be reconstructed". This was because Dunkirk was the primary base for French privateers , as it was possible to reach the North Sea in a single tide and escape British patrols in the English Channel. Under Article XIII and, despite the British demands to preserve Catalan constitutions and rights in return for Catalonia's support for
7704-420: The great danger which threatened the liberty and safety of all Europe, from the too close conjunction of the kingdoms of Spain and France, ... one and the same person should never become King of both kingdoms". Some historians argue this makes it a significant milestone in the evolution of the modern nation state and concept of a balance of power . First mentioned in 1701 by Charles Davenant in his Essays on
7811-493: The guarantees to be given by France and Spain that their crowns would be kept separate, and little progress was made until 10 July 1712, when Philip signed a renunciation. With Great Britain, France and Spain having agreed to a "suspension of arms" (armistice) covering Spain on 19 August in Paris, the pace of negotiation quickened. The first treaty signed at Utrecht was the truce between France and Portugal on 7 November, followed by
7918-558: The house, but still pushing their anti-peace agenda. The whigs opposed peace every step of the way. The Whigs even called the treaty a sellout for letting the duke of Anjou stay on the Spanish throne. However, in the Parliament of 1710 the Tories had gained control of the House of Commons , and they wished for an end to Great Britain's participation in a European war. Queen Anne and her advisors had also come to agree. The party in
8025-434: The issue of his successor was a matter of diplomatic debate for decades. For example, in 1670 Charles II of England agreed to support the rights of Louis XIV of France , while the 1689 Grand Alliance committed England and the Dutch Republic to back those of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor . When Charles died in 1700, the Spanish Empire was no longer the dominant great power , but still included much of Italy and
8132-496: The latter territory to this day. France accepted the Protestant succession on the British throne, ensuring a smooth transition when Anne died in August 1714, and ended its support for the Stuarts under the 1716 Anglo-French Treaty . While the war left all participants with unprecedented levels of government debt, only Great Britain successfully financed it. Spain retained the majority of its Empire and recovered remarkably quickly;
8239-417: The next year, for the peace treaty between Spain and the Netherlands was only signed on 26 June 1714 and that between Spain and Portugal on 6 February 1715. Several other treaties came out of the congress of Utrecht. France signed treaties of commerce and navigation with Great Britain and the Dutch Republic (11 April 1713). Great Britain signed a like treaty with Spain (9 December 1713). The Peace confirmed
8346-466: The popularity of the motto "Gallicus amicus non vicinus" (France is a good friend, not a good neighbour) within the Dutch Republic. The War of Devolution (1667–68) and the Franco-Dutch War (1672–78) showed the Spanish could not defend the Southern Netherlands, and so the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick allowed the Dutch to place garrisons in eight key cities. They hoped this barrier would provide
8453-484: The population in present-day Scotland , Scandinavia and the Baltic states , plus another two million in France and Northern Italy . This combination of financial exhaustion and famine led to the October 1697 Treaty of Ryswick , a compromise that left the succession unresolved. Since it now seemed clear Charles would die without children, Leopold signed only with extreme reluctance, and all sides viewed Ryswick as only
8560-589: The preliminaries of peace had been signed in London . The preliminaries were based on a tacit acceptance of the partition of Spain's European possessions. Following this, the Congress of Utrecht opened on 29 January 1712, with the British representatives being John Robinson , Bishop of Bristol , and Thomas Wentworth, Lord Strafford . Reluctantly the United Provinces accepted the preliminaries and sent representatives, but Emperor Charles VI refused to do so until he
8667-543: The recapture of Naples and Sicily in 1718 was only prevented by British naval power and a second attempt was successful in 1734. The 1707, 1715 and 1716 Nueva Planta decrees abolished regional political structures in the kingdoms of Aragon , Valencia , Majorca and the Principality of Catalonia , although Catalonia and Aragon retained some of these rights until 1767. Despite failure in Spain, Austria secured its position in Italy and Hungary, allowing it to continue expansion into areas of South-East Europe previously held by
8774-592: The republic would be torn apart internally. On 8 May the Dutch Republic declared war on France, followed by the British and the Emperor on 15 May and the Imperial Diet on 30 September. The importance of trade and economic interests to the participants is often underestimated; contemporaries viewed Dutch and English support for the Habsburg cause as primarily driven by a desire for access to Spanish markets in
8881-557: The restive southern French provinces of the Dauphiné and Vaunage , former Huguenot strongholds with a long history of rebellion. This provided Victor Amadeus II with a degree of leverage, allowing him to manoeuvre between opposing parties to expand his territories. During the Nine Years' War in 1690, Savoy joined the Grand Alliance before agreeing to a separate peace with France in 1696. The accession of Philip V in 1701 led to
8988-588: The slogan of No Peace Without Spain . Although the fate of the Spanish Netherlands in particular was of interest to the United Provinces, Dutch influence on the outcome of the negotiations was fairly insignificant, even though the talks were held on their territory. The French negotiator Melchior de Polignac taunted the Dutch with the scathing remark de vous, chez vous, sans vous , meaning that negotiations would be held "about you, around you, without you". The fact that Bolingbroke had secretly ordered
9095-514: The stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilization, marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large, – the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great Britain. The British academic Brendan Simms argues that: Britain had shaped Europe in her interests at the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It soon became clear, however, that she had designed
9202-459: The struggle to contain France since the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) of 1672, when the Dutch Republic had nearly been overrun by the French army. Apart from the worry about the balance of power, the Dutch had long been concerned with the fate of the Spanish Netherlands, viewing it as a strategic buffer against France. This perception endured even during periods of alliance with France, as evidenced by
9309-467: The succession of Archduke Charles, insisting William help him enforce the Treaty of London meant he might achieve his territorial aims without fighting. However, his son the Dauphin rejected the idea; French diplomats also advised Austria would fight regardless, while neither the British nor Dutch would go to war for a settlement intended to avoid war. Louis therefore accepted on behalf of his grandson, who
9416-543: The treaties marked the end of French ambitions of hegemony in Europe expressed in the continuous wars of Louis XIV, and paved the way to the European system based on the balance of power in international relations . On 2 January 1710, King Louis XIV of France agreed to commence peace negotiations in Geertruidenberg [ es ] . France and Great Britain had come to terms in October 1711, when
9523-480: The treaty was largely pointless. By early October 1700, Charles was dying; his final will left the throne to Louis XIV's grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou ; if he refused, the offer would pass to his younger brother the Duke of Berry , followed by Archduke Charles. Charles died on 1 November 1700, and on the 9th, Spanish ambassadors formally offered the throne to Philip. Louis briefly considered refusing; although it meant
9630-609: The truce between France and Savoy on 14 March 1713. That same day, Spain, Great Britain, France and the Empire agreed to the evacuation of Catalonia and an armistice in Italy . The main treaties of peace followed on 11 April 1713. These were five separate treaties between France and Great Britain, the Dutch Republic , Savoy , Prussia and Portugal . Spain under Philip V signed separate peace treaties with Savoy and Great Britain at Utrecht on 13 July. Negotiations at Utrecht dragged on into
9737-519: The vacant throne of Spain, and involved much of Europe for over a decade. Essentially, the treaties allowed Philip V (grandson of King Louis XIV of France) to keep the Spanish throne in return for permanently renouncing his claim to the French throne, along with other necessary guarantees that would ensure that France and Spain should not merge, thus preserving the balance of power in Europe. The treaties between several European states, including Spain , Great Britain , France , Portugal , Savoy and
9844-482: The vast majority of these imports were used to fund debt or pay foreign merchants. When the new Bourbon administration took over in 1701, they found the empire bankrupt and effectively defenceless, with fewer than 15,000 troops in Spain itself and a navy consisting of 20 ships in total. Almost constant warfare during the 17th century made the economy subject to long periods of low productivity and depression, and largely reliant upon others for its prosperity. In many ways,
9951-541: The war, and their withdrawal led to the Peace of Utrecht in 1713, followed by the treaties of Rastatt and Baden in 1714. Philip was confirmed as king of Spain but renounced his claim and those of his descendants to the French throne. The Spanish Empire ceded much of its Italian territories to Savoy and Austria, along with the Spanish Netherlands, although it remained largely intact outside Europe. Britain received Gibraltar and Menorca and acquired major trade concessions in
10058-488: Was a significant blow to Bourbon prestige. An attempt to retake it was defeated in August , with a land siege being abandoned in April 1705. The 1705 Pact of Genoa between Catalan representatives and Britain opened a second front in the north-east; the loss of Barcelona and Valencia left Toulon as the only major port available to the Bourbons in the Western Mediterranean. Philip tried to retake Barcelona in May 1706 but
10165-455: Was assured that the preliminaries were not binding. This assurance was given, and so in February the Imperial representatives made their appearance. As Philip was not yet recognized as its king, Spain did not at first send plenipotentiaries, but the Duke of Savoy sent one, and the Kingdom of Portugal was represented by Luís da Cunha . One of the first questions discussed was the nature of
10272-459: Was given two months to cede his throne to Charles, while France was required to remove him by force if he did not comply, besides having to cede the strongholds, Thionville , Cambrai and Valenciennes as collateral. Although Spain was of less importance to them, the Dutch negotiators, led by Heinsius, considered these strict conditions necessary to ensure that peace conditions were honoured, as they doubted Louis' sincerity. They were concerned that
10379-515: Was illustrated in 1703; despite the presence of an invading Allied army, the French ambassador urged Louis to allow Dutch and English merchants to purchase wool from Spanish farmers, "otherwise the flocks cannot be maintained". Enacting political or economic reform was extremely complex since Habsburg Spain was a personal union between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon , each with very different political cultures. Most of Philip's support came from
10486-420: Was initially successful when the French surprised the Allied garrisons at Ghent and Bruges , it failed after the Allies defeated them at the Battle of Oudenaarde . In its aftermath the Allies managed to capture Lille , the strongest fortress of the French fortress belts, while a French assault on Brussels was reppelled and Ghent and Bruges recaptured. But despite losses like Lille and other strongpoints,
10593-432: Was later argued that the barrier proved to be largely illusory when put to the test during the War of Austrian Succession . The Dutch had in any case successfully defended their positions in the Southern Netherlands and their troops were central in the alliance which halted French territorial expansion in Europe until a new cycle began in 1792 . While the final settlement at Utrecht was far more favourable to France than
10700-567: Was never able to sustain himself outside the coastal regions, which could be supplied by the Anglo-Dutch navies. The Wittelsbach -controlled states of Bavaria , Liège , and Cologne allied with France, but the vast majority of the Empire remained neutral, or limited their involvement to the supply of mercenaries. Like Bavaria, the larger entities pursued their own policies; his claim to the Polish crown meant Augustus of Saxony focused on
10807-473: Was no longer the predominant European power, its global empire still included the Spanish Netherlands , large parts of Italy , and the Americas . Its acquisition by either France or Austria threatened the European balance of power , and Philip's proclamation as king of Spain on 16 November 1700 led to war. The French held the advantage in the early stages but were forced onto the defensive after 1706. Although
10914-888: Was of greater concern to Emperor Leopold than Spain itself. This meant Britain was the only power inclined to help Victor Amadeus achieve this objective and he changed sides in 1703 after the Anglo-Dutch navies won control of the Western Mediterranean. The war in Italy primarily involved the Spanish-ruled Duchy of Milan and the French-allied Duchy of Mantua , considered essential to the security of Austria's southern borders. In 1701, French troops occupied both cities and Victor Amadeus II , Duke of Savoy, allied with France, his daughter Maria Luisa marrying Philip V. In May 1701, an Imperial army under Prince Eugene of Savoy moved into Northern Italy; by February 1702, victories at Carpi , Chiari , and Cremona forced
11021-478: Was only averted by the dismissal of General Slangenburg , while the imposition of Austrian rule in Bavaria caused a brief but vicious peasant revolt . In May 1706, the French were comprehensively defeated at Ramillies by an Allied army under Marlborough, which then occupied much of the Spanish Netherlands in under two weeks. France assumed a largely defensive posture for the rest of the war. The 1707 campaign
11128-570: Was proclaimed Philip V of Spain on 16 November 1700. With most of his objectives achieved by diplomacy, Louis now made a series of moves that combined to make war inevitable. The Tory majority in the English Parliament objected to the Partition Treaties, chiefly the French acquisition of Sicily , an important link in the lucrative Levant trade. However, a foreign diplomat observed their refusal to become involved in
11235-495: Was repulsed, while his absence allowed an Allied force from Portugal to enter Madrid and Zaragoza . However, lack of popular support and logistical issues meant the Allies could not hold territory away from the coastline, and by November, Philip controlled Castile, Murcia , and parts of Valencia. Allied efforts to regain the initiative ended with defeat at Almansa in April 1707, followed by an unsuccessful siege of Toulon in August. Despite these failures, control of Gibraltar and
11342-617: Was the main beneficiary; Utrecht marked the point at which it became the primary European commercial power. In Article X, Spain ceded the strategic ports of Gibraltar and Menorca . In a major coup for the British delegation, the British government emerged from the treaty with the Asiento de Negros , which referred to the monopoly contract granted by the Spanish government to other European nations to supply slaves to Spain's colonies in
11449-515: Was without any significant events, as both parties focussed on other fronts. The French, now under Marshal Vendôme, avoided battle and Marlborough did little to force one upon them. By 1708, the focus of both sides was again almost entirely on the fighting in the Low Countries. The allies once more set their sights on breaking French fortification belts, while the French themselves planned a major counteroffensive . Although this counteroffensive
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