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118-635: Floridia lies 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) west of Syracuse . Its principal industries are agriculture, livestock, and manufacturing. Neighboring communities are Canicattini Bagni , Palazzolo Acreide , Syracuse, and Solarino . On 11 August 2021, Floridia broke the record for the highest recorded temperature in Europe at 48.8 °C (119.8 °F). Floridia was founded in 1628. Floridia's streets are laid out in an even, rectangular grid pattern. The main landmarks are: Notable residents and historical figures include: This Sicilian location article

236-578: A capital of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire and metropolis of the whole Sicilian Church. Constans II was assassinated when his plans to permanently replace the Byzantine capital of Constantinople with Syracuse became suspected. The city was besieged by the Aghlabids for almost a year in 827–828, but Byzantine reinforcements prevented its fall. It remained the center of Byzantine resistance to

354-537: A certain Tawagalawa , a possible Hittite rendering of the Greek name Eteocles , as brother of the king of Ahhiyawa. In c. 1250 BC, the first wave of destruction apparently occurred in various centres of mainland Greece for reasons that cannot be identified by archaeologists. In Boeotia , Thebes was burned to the ground, around that year or slightly later. Nearby Orchomenos was not destroyed at this time but

472-624: A force of 300 hoplites and a general to Cyrus the Younger 's Army of the Ten Thousand . Then in the early 4th century BC, the tyrant Dionysius the Elder was again at war against Carthage and, although losing Gela and Camarina, kept that power from capturing the whole of Sicily. After the end of the conflict Dionysius built a massive fortress on Ortygia and 22 km-long walls around all of Syracuse. Another period of expansion saw

590-734: A fresco at Akrotiri , on Thera island, which possibly displays many warriors in boar's tusk helmets , a feature typical of Mycenaean warfare. In the early 15th century BC, commerce intensified with Mycenaean pottery reaching the western coast of Asia Minor , including Miletus and Troy , Cyprus , Lebanon , Palestine and Egypt . Early Mycenaean civilization from the Shaft Grave period generally showcases heavy influence from Minoan Crete in regards to e.g. art, infrastructure and symbols, while also maintaining some Helladic elements as well as some innovations, and some West Asian influences. A difference between Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations

708-634: A more sophisticated sociopolitical culture of their own. The most prominent site was Mycenae , after which the culture of this era is named. Other centers of power that emerged included Pylos , Tiryns , and Midea in the Peloponnese , Orchomenos , Thebes , and Athens in Central Greece , and Iolcos in Thessaly . Mycenaean settlements also appeared in Epirus , Macedonia , on islands in

826-413: A name also attested by Epicharmus . The settlement of Syracuse was a planned event , as a strong central leader, Arkhias the aristocrat, laid out how property would be divided up for the settlers, as well as plans for how the streets of the settlement should be arranged, and how wide they should be. The nucleus of the ancient city was the small island of Ortygia . The settlers found the land fertile and

944-445: A person, Enkhelyawon , at Pylos, who appears titleless in the written record but whom modern scholars regard as probably a king. A number of local officials positioned by the wanax appear to be in charge of the districts, such as ko-re-te ( koreter , '"governor"), po-ro-ko-re-te ( prokoreter , "deputy") and the da-mo-ko-ro ( damokoros , "one who takes care of a damos"), the latter probably being appointed to take charge of

1062-566: A political reconstruction of Bronze Age Greece. Excavations at Miletus, southwest Asia Minor , indicate the existence of a Mycenaean settlement there already from c.  1450 BC , replacing the previous Minoan installations. This site became a sizable and prosperous Mycenaean center until the 12th century BC. Apart from the archaeological evidence, this is also attested in Hittite records, which indicate that Miletos (Milawata in Hittite)

1180-488: A relatively flourishing cultural and artistic life: several Arab poets, including Ibn Hamdis , the most important Sicilian Arab poet of the 12th century, flourished in the city. In 1038, the Byzantine general George Maniakes reconquered the city, sending the relics of St. Lucy to Constantinople . The eponymous castle on the cape of Ortygia bears his name, although it was built under the Hohenstaufen rule. In 1085,

1298-523: A straight entry passage lined with stone. Starting in the 15th century BC, the Mycenaeans began to spread their influence throughout the Aegean and Western Anatolia. By c.  1450 BC , the palace of Knossos was ruled by a Mycenaean elite who formed a hybrid Minoan-Mycenaean culture. Mycenaeans also colonized several other Aegean islands, reaching as far as Rhodes . Thus the Mycenaeans became

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1416-541: A trade embargo imposed on Assyria. In general, in the second half of 13th century BC, trade was in decline in the Eastern Mediterranean, most probably due to the unstable political environment there. None of the defence measures appear to have prevented the final destruction and collapse of the Mycenaean states. A second destruction struck Mycenae in c. 1190 BC or shortly thereafter. This event marked

1534-516: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Syracuse, Italy Syracuse ( / ˈ s aɪ r ə k juː s , - k juː z / SY -rə-kewss, -⁠kewz ; Italian : Siracusa [siraˈkuːza] ; Sicilian : Saragusa [saɾaˈuːsa] ) is a historic city on the Italian island of Sicily , the capital of the Italian province of Syracuse . The city

1652-510: Is a population flight to the suburbs, and northern Italy . The current birth rate of Syracuse is 9.75 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births. As of 2006 , 97.9% of the population was of Italian descent. The largest immigrant group came from other European nations (particularly those from Poland, and the United Kingdom): 0.6%, North Africa (mostly Tunisian ): 0.5%, and South Asia: 0.4%. Since 2005,

1770-453: Is complexity and monumentality; Mycenaean craftmanship and architecture are more simplified versions of Minoan ones, but are more monumental in size. Later phases of the Mycenaean civilization showcase more sophistication, eventually coming to surpass Minoan Crete after a few centuries. At the end of the Shaft Grave era, a new and more imposing type of elite burial emerged, the tholos : large circular burial chambers with high vaulted roofs and

1888-622: Is generally accepted as a Hittite term for Mycenaean Greece ( Achaeans in Homeric Greek), but a precise geographical definition of the term cannot be drawn from the texts. During this time, the kings of Ahhiyawa were evidently capable of dealing with their Hittite counterparts both on a diplomatic and military level. Moreover, Ahhiyawa achieved considerable political influence in parts of Western Anatolia, typically by encouraging anti-Hittite uprisings and collaborating with local vassal rulers. In c.  1400 BC , Hittite records mention

2006-524: Is no satisfactory explanation for the collapse of the Mycenaean palace systems. The two most common theories are population movement and internal conflict. The first attributes the destruction of Mycenaean sites to invaders. The hypothesis of a Dorian invasion , known as such in Ancient Greek tradition , that led to the end of Mycenaean Greece, is supported by sporadic archaeological evidence such as new types of burials, in particular cist graves, and

2124-489: Is not able to solve the issue and that the majority of Hellenists believed Mycenaeans spoke a non-Indo-European Minoan language before Linear B was deciphered in 1952. Notwithstanding the above academic disputes, the mainstream consensus among modern Mycenologists is that Mycenaean civilization began around 1750 BC, earlier than the Shaft Graves, originating and evolving from the local socio-cultural landscape of

2242-527: Is notable for its rich Greek and Roman history, culture , amphitheatres , architecture, and as the birthplace and home of the pre-eminent mathematician and engineer Archimedes . This 2,700-year-old city played a key role in ancient times, when it was one of the major powers of the Mediterranean world. Syracuse is located in the southeast corner of the island of Sicily, next to the Gulf of Syracuse beside

2360-879: Is the azure shirts, hence the nickname Azzurri . Siracusa play at the Stadio Nicola De Simone with an approximate capacity between 5,000 and 6,000. Mycenaean Greece Mycenaean Greece (or the Mycenaean civilization ) was the last phase of the Bronze Age in ancient Greece , spanning the period from approximately 1750 to 1050 BC. It represents the first advanced and distinctively Greek civilization in mainland Greece with its palatial states, urban organization, works of art, and writing system. The Mycenaeans were mainland Greek peoples who were likely stimulated by their contact with insular Minoan Crete and other Mediterranean cultures to develop

2478-469: The oecist (colonizer) Archias . There are many attested variants of the name of the city including Συράκουσαι Syrakousai , Συράκοσαι Syrakosai and Συρακώ Syrakō . One observation cited for the origin of the name is that the Phoenicians called it Sour-ha-Koussim, which means "Stone of the seagulls" from which would come the name of Syracuse. However, this etymology does not account for

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2596-532: The Aegean Sea , on the south-west coast of Asia Minor , and on Cyprus , while Mycenaean-influenced settlements appeared in the Levant and Italy . The Mycenaean Greeks introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering, architecture and military infrastructure , while trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the Mycenaean economy. Their syllabic script , Linear B , offers

2714-550: The Dorian invasion or activities connected to the " Sea Peoples ". Additional theories such as natural disasters and climatic changes have also been suggested. The Mycenaean period became the historical setting of much ancient Greek literature and mythology , including the Trojan Epic Cycle . The Bronze Age in mainland Greece is generally termed as the " Helladic period " by modern archaeologists, after Hellas ,

2832-615: The Early and Middle Bronze Age in mainland Greece with influences from Minoan Crete . Towards the end of the Middle Bronze Age ( c.  1700 /1675 BC), a significant increase in the population and the number of settlements occurred. A number of centers of power emerged in southern mainland Greece dominated by a warrior elite society; while the typical dwellings of that era were an early type of megaron buildings, some more complex structures are classified as forerunners of

2950-488: The Ionian Sea . It is situated in a drastic rise of land with 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) depths being close to the city offshore although the city itself is generally not so hilly in comparison. The city was founded by Ancient Greek Corinthians and Teneans and became a very powerful city-state . Syracuse was allied with Sparta and Corinth and exerted influence over the entirety of Magna Graecia , of which it

3068-525: The Levantine coast. Nevertheless, other regions on the edge of the Mycenaean world prospered, such as the Ionian islands , the northwestern Peloponnese, parts of Attica and a number of Aegean islands. The acropolis of Athens , oddly, appears to have avoided destruction. Athens and the eastern coast of Attica were still occupied in the 12th century BC, and were not destroyed or abandoned; this points to

3186-517: The Normans entered Syracuse, one of the last Arab strongholds, after a summer-long siege by Roger I of Sicily and his son Jordan of Hauteville , who was given the city as count. New quarters were built, and the cathedral was restored, as well as other churches. In 1194, Emperor Henry VI occupied the Sicilian kingdom, including Syracuse. After a short period of Genoese rule (1205–1220) under

3304-453: The Pylos archive, which is the best preserved one in the Mycenaean world, is generally taken as a representative one. The state was ruled by a king, the wanax (ϝάναξ), whose role was religious and perhaps also military and judicial. The wanax oversaw virtually all aspects of palatial life, from religious feasting and offerings to the distribution of goods, craftsmen and troops. Under him

3422-597: The Roman siege of 214–212 BC. Literary figures included Theocritus and others. Hiero's successor, the young Hieronymus (ruled from 215 BC), broke the alliance with the Romans after their defeat at the Battle of Cannae and accepted Carthage 's support. The Romans, led by consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus , besieged the city in 214 BC. The city held out for three years, but fell in 212 BC. The successes of

3540-537: The Sicilian revolution of 1848 . After the Unification of Italy of 1865, Syracuse regained its status of provincial capital. In the late 19th century, the walls (including Porta Ligny ) were demolished and a bridge connecting the mainland to Ortygia island was built. In the following year a railway link was constructed. Allied bombings in 1943 caused heavy destruction during World War II . Operation Husky ,

3658-643: The World Meteorological Organization as the official record highest temperature in Europe . Guido Guidi, lieutenant colonel of the Italian Meteorological Service , however, had stated the highest temperature registered in the organizations' stations during the heatwave was 44.4 °C (111.9 °F), at Naval Air Station Sigonella . Guidi underlines that the reported data by SAIS "is produced directly by

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3776-467: The collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean, to be followed by the Greek Dark Ages , a recordless transitional period leading to Archaic Greece where significant shifts occurred from palace-centralized to decentralized forms of socio-economic organization (including the extensive use of iron ). Various theories have been proposed for the end of this civilization, among them

3894-544: The ethnonym Danaoi ( Greek : Δαναοί ), the name of the mythical dynasty that ruled in the region of Argos, also used as an ethnonym for the Greek people by Homer. In the official records of another Bronze Age empire, that of the Hittites in Anatolia , various references from c.  1400 BC to 1220 BC mention a country named Ahhiyawa . Recent scholarship, based on textual evidence, new interpretations of

4012-519: The ethnonyms Achaeans , Danaans , and Argives to refer to the besiegers, and these names appear to have passed down from the time they were in use to the time when Homer applied them as collective terms in his Iliad . There is an isolated reference to a-ka-wi-ja-de in the Linear B records in Knossos , Crete dated to c.  1400 BC , which presumably refers to a Mycenaean (Achaean) state on

4130-456: The native tribes to be reasonably well-disposed to their presence. The city grew and prospered, and for some time stood as the most powerful Greek city anywhere in the Mediterranean . Colonies were founded at Akrai (664 BC), Kasmenai (643 BC), Akrillai (7th century BC), Helorus (7th century BC) and Kamarina (598 BC). The descendants of the first colonists, called Gamoroi , held power until they were expelled by

4248-499: The African force led by Hamilcar . A temple dedicated to Athena (on the site of today's Cathedral), was erected in the city to commemorate the event. Syracuse grew considerably during this time. Its walls encircled 120 hectares (300 acres) in the fifth century, but as early as the 470s BC the inhabitants started building outside the walls. The complete population of its territory approximately numbered 250,000 in 415 BC and

4366-652: The Ahhiyawans. These Ekwesh were mentioned as a group of the Sea People . Scholars have proposed different theories on the origins of the Mycenaeans. According to one theory, Mycenaean civilization reflected the exogenous imposition of archaic Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppe onto the pre-Mycenaean local population. An issue with this theory, however, is the very tenuous material and cultural relationship between Aegean and northern steppe populations during

4484-586: The Aragonese and expelled the Angevins in 1298, receiving from the Spanish sovereigns great privileges in reward. The preeminence of baronial families is also shown by the construction of the palaces of Abela , Chiaramonte , Nava, Montalto. The city was struck by two ruinous earthquakes in 1542 and 1693 , and a plague in 1729. The 17th century destruction changed the appearance of Syracuse forever, as well as

4602-621: The Bronze Age. Another theory proposes that Mycenaean culture in Greece dates back to circa 3000 BC with Indo-European migrants entering a mainly-depopulated area; other hypotheses argue for a date as early as the seventh millennium BC (with the spread of agriculture ) and as late as 1600 BC (with the spread of chariot technology ). In a 2017 genetic study conducted by Lazaridis et al., "the Minoans and Mycenaeans were genetically similar, [but]

4720-547: The Greek mainland. Egyptian records mention a T(D)-n-j or Danaya ( Tanaju ) land for the first time c.  1437 BC , during the reign of Pharaoh Thutmoses III (r. 1479–1425 BC). This land is geographically defined in an inscription from the reign of Amenhotep III (r. c.  1390 –1352 BC), where a number of Danaya cities are mentioned, which cover the largest part of southern mainland Greece. Among them, cities such as Mycenae, Nauplion, and Thebes have been identified with certainty. Danaya has been equated with

4838-464: The Greek name for Greece . This period is divided into three subperiods: The Early Helladic (EH) period ( c.  3200 –2000 BC) was a time of prosperity with the use of metals and a growth in technology, economy and social organization. The Middle Helladic (MH) period ( c.  2000 –1700/1675 BC ) faced a slower pace of development, as well as the evolution of megaron -type dwellings and cist grave burials. The last phase of Middle Helladic,

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4956-520: The Greek peninsula after the end of this cultural period. Lastly, the decipherment marked the advent of an Indo-European language in the Aegean region in contrast to unrelated prior languages spoken in adjoining areas. Various collective terms for the inhabitants of Mycenaean Greece were used by Homer in his 8th-century BC epic the Iliad in reference to the Trojan War . Homer interchangeably used

5074-618: The Hittite inscriptions, and recent surveys of archaeological evidence about Mycenaean–Anatolian contacts during this period, concludes that the term Ahhiyawa must have been used in reference to the Mycenaean world (land of the Achaeans), or at least to a part of it. This term may have also had broader connotations in some texts, possibly referring to all regions settled by Mycenaeans or regions under direct Mycenaean political control. Another similar ethnonym, Ekwesh , in twelfth century BC Egyptian inscriptions has been commonly identified with

5192-625: The Middle East, based on the considerable greater quantities of Mycenaean goods found there. On the other hand, trade with the Hittite lands in central Anatolia appears to have been limited. Trade with Troy is also well attested, while Mycenaean trade routes expanded further to the Bosphorus and the shores of the Black Sea . Mycenaean swords have been found as far away as Georgia in

5310-552: The Middle Helladic III ( c.  1750 –1675 BC), along with the Late Helladic (LH) period ( c.  1700 /1675–1050 BC) roughly coincide with Mycenaean Greece. The Late Helladic period is further divided into LHI and LHII, both of which coincide with the middle phase of Mycenaean Greece ( c.  1700 /1675–1420 BC), and LHIII ( c.  1420 –1050 BC), the period of expansion, and decline of

5428-558: The Mycenaean Linear B script, a writing system adapted for the use of the ( Indo-European ) Greek language of the Late Bronze Age , demonstrated the continuity of Greek speech from the second millennium BC into the eighth century BC when a new Phoenician-derived alphabetic script emerged. Moreover, it revealed that the bearers of Mycenaean culture were ethnically connected with the populations that resided in

5546-495: The Mycenaean acropolis. It appears that after this first wave of destruction a short-lived revival of Mycenaean culture followed. Mycenaean Greece continues to be mentioned in international affairs, particularly in Hittite records. In c.  1220 BC , the king of Ahhiyawa is again reported to have been involved in an anti-Hittite uprising in western Anatolia. Another contemporary Hittite account reports that Ahhiyawan ships should avoid Assyrian -controlled harbors, as part of

5664-683: The Mycenaean civilization. The transition period from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Greece is known as Sub-Mycenaean ( c.  1050 –1000 BC). Based on recent research, Alex Knodell (2021) considers the beginning of Mycenaean occupation in Peloponnese in Middle Helladic III ( c.  1750 –1675 BC), and divides the whole Mycenaean time into three cultural periods: Early Mycenaean ( c.  1750 –1400 BC), Palatial Bronze Age ( c.  1400 –1200 BC), and Postpalatial Bronze Age ( c.  1200 –1050 BC). The decipherment of

5782-471: The Mycenaean palatial states were newcomers or populations that already resided in Mycenaean Greece. Recent archaeological findings tend to favor the latter scenario. Additional theories, concerning natural factors , such as climate change, droughts, or earthquakes have also been proposed. Another theory considers the decline of the Mycenaean civilization as a manifestation of a common pattern for

5900-478: The Mycenaeans differed from Minoans in deriving additional ancestry from an ultimate source related to the hunter–gatherers of eastern Europe and Siberia, introduced via a proximal source related to the inhabitants of either the Eurasian steppe or Armenia." However, Lazaridis et al. admit that their research "does not settle th[e] debate" on Mycenaean origins. Historian Bernard Sergent notes that archaeology alone

6018-592: The Near East, Apulia in Italy and Spain . From that time period ( c.  1400 BC ), the palace of Knossos has yielded the earliest records of the Greek Linear B script, based on the previous Linear A of the Minoans. The use of the new script spread in mainland Greece and offers valuable insight into the administrative network of the palatial centers. However, the unearthed records are too fragmentary for

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6136-532: The Syracusians in repelling the Roman siege had made them overconfident. In 212 BC, the Romans received information that the city's inhabitants were to participate in the annual festival to their goddess Artemis . A small party of Roman soldiers approached the city under the cover of night and managed to scale the walls to get into the outer city and with reinforcements soon took control, killing Archimedes in

6254-593: The acropolis of Mycenae, in particular the Grave Circles A and B , signified the elevation of a native Greek-speaking royal dynasty whose economic power depended on long-distance sea trade. During this period, the Mycenaean centers witnessed increased contact with the outside world, especially with the Cyclades and the Minoan centers on the island of Crete . Mycenaean presence appears to be also depicted in

6372-689: The activity of the Sea Peoples in the Eastern Mediterranean. They caused widespread destruction in Anatolia and the Levant and were finally defeated by Pharaoh Ramesses III in c. 1175 BC. One of the ethnic groups that comprised these people were the Eqwesh , a name that appears to be linked with the Ahhiyawa of the Hittite inscriptions. Alternative scenarios propose that the fall of Mycenaean Greece

6490-643: The age of Christian persecutions massive catacombs were carved, whose size is second only to those of Rome. After a period of Vandal rule, 469–477, Syracuse and the island was recovered for Italian rule under Odoacer (476–491) and Theodoric the Great (491–526), and then by Belisarius for the Byzantine Empire (31 December 535). From 663 to 668 Syracuse was the seat of the Greek-speaking Emperor Constans II , as well as

6608-589: The city is Saint Lucy ; she was born in Syracuse and her feast day, Saint Lucy's Day , is celebrated on 13 December. Syracuse and its surrounding area have been inhabited since ancient times, as shown by the findings in the villages of Stentinello, Ognina, Plemmirio, Matrensa, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos , which already had a relationship with Mycenaean Greece . Syracuse was founded in 734 or 733 BC in Sicily by Greek settlers from Corinth and Tenea , led by

6726-429: The city with a small fleet. He scored a moral success, bringing the war to the Carthaginians' native African soil, inflicting heavy losses to the enemy. The defenders of Syracuse destroyed the Carthaginian army which besieged them. However, Agathocles was eventually defeated in Africa as well. The war ended with another treaty of peace which did not prevent the Carthaginians from interfering in the politics of Syracuse after

6844-416: The coast of southern Anatolia, displays the established trade routes that supplied the Mycenaeans with all the raw materials and items that the economy of Mycenaean Greece needed, such as copper and tin for the production of bronze products. A chief export of the Mycenaeans was olive oil , which was a multi-purpose product. Cyprus appears to be the principal intermediary station between Mycenaean Greece and

6962-428: The codename for the Allied invasion of Sicily , was launched on the night between 9–10 July 1943 with British forces attacking the southeast of the island. The plan was for the British 5th Infantry Division , part of General Sir Bernard Montgomery 's Eighth Army , to capture Syracuse on the first day of the invasion. This part of the operation went completely according to plan, and British forces captured Syracuse on

7080-489: The commune. A council of elders was chaired, the ke-ro-si-ja (cf. γερουσία, gerousía ). The basileus , who in later Greek society was the name of the king, refers to communal officials. In general, Mycenaean society appears to have been divided into two groups of free men: the king's entourage, who conducted administrative duties at the palace, and the people, da-mo . These last were watched over by royal agents and were obliged to perform duties for and pay taxes to

7198-406: The continent. In the Adriatic , to facilitate trade, Dionysius the Elder founded Ancona , Adria and Issa . Apart from his battle deeds, Dionysius was famous as a patron of art, and Plato himself visited Syracuse several times, where Dionysius, offended by Plato's daring to disagree with the king, imprisoned the philosopher and sold him into slavery (according to some sources). His successor

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7316-442: The death of Agathocles (289 BC). They laid siege to Syracuse for the fourth and last time in 278 BC. They retreated at the arrival of king Pyrrhus of Epirus , whom Syracuse had asked for help. After a brief period under the rule of Epirus, Hiero II seized power in 275 BC. Hiero inaugurated a period of 50 years of peace and prosperity, in which Syracuse became one of the most renowned capitals of Antiquity. He issued

7434-564: The decline of many ancient civilizations: the Minoan, the Harappan and the Western Roman Empire; the reason for the decline is migration due to overpopulation. The period following the end of Mycenaean Greece, c. 1100–800 BC, is generally termed the " Greek Dark Ages ". Mycenaean palatial states, or centrally organized palace-operating polities, are recorded in ancient Greek literature and mythology (e.g., Iliad , Catalogue of Ships ) and confirmed by discoveries made by modern archaeologists such as Heinrich Schliemann . Each Mycenaean kingdom

7552-428: The destruction of Naxos , Catania and Lentini ; then Syracuse entered again in war against Carthage (397 BC). After various changes of fortune, the Carthaginians managed to besiege Syracuse itself, but were eventually pushed back by a pestilence. A treaty in 392 BC allowed Syracuse to enlarge further its possessions, founding the cities of Adranon , Tyndarion and Tauromenos , and conquering Rhegion on

7670-556: The dominant center was probably located in Thebes or in Mycenae, with the latter state being the most probable center of power. The Neolithic agrarian village (6000 BC) constituted the foundation of Bronze Age political culture in Greece. The vast majority of the preserved Linear B records deal with administrative issues and give the impression that Mycenaean palatial administration was highly systematized, featuring thoroughly consistent language, terminology, tax calculations, and distribution logistics. Considering this sense of uniformity,

7788-419: The dominant power of the region, marking the beginning of the Mycenaean 'Koine' era (from Greek : Κοινή , common), a highly uniform culture that spread in mainland Greece and the Aegean. From the early 14th century BC, Mycenaean trade began to take advantage of the new commercial opportunities in the Mediterranean after the Minoan collapse. The trade routes were expanded further, reaching Cyprus , Amman in

7906-405: The drainage system of the Kopais basin in Boeotia, the building of a large dam outside Tiryns, and the drainage of the swamp in the Nemea valley. Also noticeable is the construction of harbors, such as the harbor of Pylos, that were capable of accommodating large Bronze Age era vessels like the one found at Uluburun . The Mycenaean economy also featured large-scale manufacturing as testified by

8024-609: The eastern Black Sea coast. Commercial interaction was also intense with the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean. Mycenaean products, especially pottery, were exported to southern Italy , Sicily and the Aeolian Islands . Mycenaean products also penetrated further into Sardinia , as well as southern Spain . Sporadic objects of Mycenaean manufacture were found in various distant locations, like in Central Europe, such as in Bavaria , Germany , where an amber object inscribed with Linear B symbols has been unearthed. Mycenaean bronze double axes and other objects dating from

8142-409: The end of Mycenae as a major power. The site was then reoccupied, but on a smaller scale. A recent study suggests that neither of the palaces at Tiryns or Midea were destroyed by an earthquake, and further studies have shown that upwards of fifty arrowheads were found scattered in the destruction debris at Midea perhaps indicating that the destruction was caused by an assault. The palace of Pylos , in

8260-409: The entire Val di Noto , whose cities were rebuilt along the typical lines of Sicilian Baroque , considered one of the most typical expressions of the architecture of Southern Italy. The spread of cholera in 1837 led to a revolt against the Bourbon government. The punishment was the move of the province capital seat to Noto , but the unrest had not been totally choked, as the Siracusani took part in

8378-489: The entire city of Syracuse, along with the Necropolis of Pantalica which falls within the province of Syracuse , has been listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. This programme aims to catalogue, name, and conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity . The deciding committee which evaluates potential candidates described their reasons for choosing Syracuse because "monuments and archeological sites situated in Syracuse are

8496-492: The existence of new decentralized coastal and maritime networks there. It is attested by the cemetery of Perati that lasted a century and showed imports from Cyclades , Dodecanese , Crete, Cyprus, Egypt and Syria, as well as by the Late Helladic IIIC ( c.  1210 –1040 BC) cemetery of Drivlia at Porto Rafti ; located 2 km west of Perati. This indicates that Attica participated in long-distance trade, and

8614-491: The extent of workshop complexes that have been discovered, the largest known to date being the recent ceramic and hydraulic installations found in Euonymeia , next to Athens, that produced tableware, textiles, sails, and ropes for export and shipbuilding . The most famous project of the Mycenaean era was the network of roads in the Peloponnese . This appears to have facilitated the speedy deployment of troops—for example,

8732-415: The finest example of outstanding architectural creation spanning several cultural aspects; Greek , Roman and Baroque ", following on that Ancient Syracuse was "directly linked to events, ideas and literary works of outstanding universal significance". Syracuse is home to association football club A.S.D. Città di Siracusa , the latest reincarnation of several clubs dating back to 1924. The common feature

8850-499: The first night of the operation. The port was then used as a base for the British Royal Navy . To the west of the city is a Commonwealth War Graves cemetery where about 1,000 men are buried. After the end of the war the northern quarters of Syracuse experienced a heavy, often chaotic, expansion, favoured by the quick process of industrialization. Syracuse today has about 125,000 inhabitants and numerous attractions for

8968-547: The first written records of the Greek language , and their religion already included several deities that can also be found in the Olympic pantheon . Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace -centered states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social, and economic systems . At the head of this society was the king, known as a wanax . Mycenaean Greece perished with

9086-462: The fortifications in various sites. In some cases, arrangements were also made for the creation of subterranean passages which led to underground cisterns. Tiryns, Midea and Athens expanded their defences with new cyclopean-style walls. The extension program in Mycenae almost doubled the fortified area of the citadel. To this phase of extension belongs the impressive Lion Gate , the main entrance into

9204-598: The gradual Muslim conquest of Sicily until it fell to the Aghlabids after another siege on 20/21 May 878. During the two centuries of Muslim rule, the capital of the Emirate of Sicily was moved from Syracuse to Palermo . The cathedral was converted into a mosque and the quarter on the Ortygia island was gradually rebuilt along Islamic styles. The city, nevertheless, maintained important trade relationships, and housed

9322-502: The head of this society was the king, known as wanax (Linear B: wa-na-ka) in Mycenaean Greek . All powers were vested in him, as the main landlord and spiritual and military leader. At the same time he was an entrepreneur and trader and was aided by a network of high officials. The presence of Ahhiyawa in western Anatolia is mentioned in various Hittite accounts from c.  1400 to c.  1220 BC . Ahhiyawa

9440-567: The island, and Timoleon tried to remedy this, defeating the Carthaginians in the Battle of the Crimissus (339 BC). After Timoleon's death the struggle among the city's parties restarted and ended with the rise of another tyrant, Agathocles , who seized power with a coup in 317 BC. He resumed the war against Carthage, with alternate fortunes. He was besieged in Syracuse by the Carthaginians in 311 BC, but he escaped from

9558-781: The kingdom would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860. In the modern day, the city is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site along with the Necropolis of Pantalica . In the central area, the city itself has a population of around 125,000 people. Syracuse is mentioned in the Bible in the Acts of the Apostles book at 28:12 as Paul stayed there. The patron saint of

9676-623: The last measurable snowfall in the city occurred in December 2014. Frosts are very rare, with the last one also happening in December 2014 when the temperature dropped to the all-time record low of 0 °C. A temperature of 48.8 °C (119.8 °F) was registered in Floridia , near Syracuse by the Sicilian Agrometeorological Information Service (SAIS) on 11 August 2021, and is recognized by

9794-573: The later palaces. In a number of sites, defensive walls were also erected. Meanwhile, new types of burials and more imposing ones have been unearthed, which display a great variety of luxurious objects. Among the various burial types, the shaft grave became the most common form of elite burial, a feature that gave the name to the early period of Mycenaean Greece. Among the Mycenaean elite, deceased men were usually laid to rest in gold masks and funerary armor, and women in gold crowns and clothes gleaming with gold ornaments. The royal shaft graves next to

9912-457: The latter being the northernmost Mycenaean center. Knossos in Crete also became a Mycenaean center, where the former Minoan complex underwent a number of adjustments, including the addition of a throne room . These centers were based on a rigid network of bureaucracy where administrative competencies were classified into various sections and offices according to specialization of work and trades. At

10030-402: The lower class of the city assisted by Cyllyrians, identified as enslaved natives similar in status to the helots of Sparta. The former, however, returned to power in 485 BC, thanks to the help of Gelo , ruler of Gela . Gelo himself became the despot of the city, and moved many inhabitants of Gela, Kamarina and Megara to Syracuse, building the new quarters of Tyche and Neapolis outside

10148-468: The military activities of an Ahhiyawan warlord, Attarsiya , possibly related to the mythic character of Atreus . Attarsiya attacked Hittite vassals in western Anatolia including Madduwatta . Later, in c. 1315 BC, an anti-Hittite rebellion headed by Arzawa , a Hittite vassal state, received support from Ahhiyawa. Meanwhile, Ahhiyawa appears to be in control of a number of islands in the Aegean, an impression also supported by archaeological evidence. During

10266-460: The name variant Συρακώ Syrakō . Another possible origin of the city's name was given by Vibius Sequester citing first Stephanus Byzantius in that there was a Syracusian marsh ( λίμνη ) called Syrako and secondly Marcian's Periegesis wherein Archias gave the city the name of a nearby marsh; hence one gets Syrako (and thereby Syrakousai and other variants) for the name of Syracuse,

10384-793: The notorious admiral and pirate Alamanno da Costa , which favoured a rise of trades, royal authority was re-asserted in the city by Frederick II . He began the construction of the Castello Maniace , the Bishops' Palace and the Bellomo Palace. Frederick's death brought a period of unrest and feudal anarchy. In the War of the Sicilian Vespers between the Angevin and Aragonese dynasties for control of Sicily, Syracuse sided with

10502-450: The palace, but the production of ceramics was only indirectly monitored. Regional transactions between the palaces are also recorded on a few occasions. The palatial centers organized their workforce and resources for the construction of large scale projects in the fields of agriculture and industry. The magnitude of some projects indicates that this was the result of combined efforts from multiple palatial centers. Most notable of them are

10620-464: The palace. Among those who could be found in the palace were well-to-do high officials, who probably lived in the vast residences found in proximity to Mycenaean palaces, but also others, tied by their work to the palace and not necessarily better off than the members of the da-mo , such as craftsmen, farmers, and perhaps merchants. Occupying a lower rung of the social ladder were the slaves, do-e-ro , ( cf. δοῦλος , doúlos ). These are recorded in

10738-399: The population compared to pensioners who number 16.9 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.1 percent (minors) and 19.9 percent (pensioners). The average age of Syracuse resident is 40 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Syracuse declined by 0.5 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.6 percent. The reason for decline

10856-526: The population size of the city itself was probably similar to Athens. Gelo was succeeded by his brother Hiero , who fought against the Etruscans at Cumae in 474 BC. His rule was eulogized by poets like Simonides of Ceos , Bacchylides and Pindar , who visited his court. A democratic regime was introduced by Thrasybulos (467 BC). The city continued to expand in Sicily , fighting against

10974-473: The process, but the main fortress remained firm. After an eight-month siege and with parleys in progress, an Iberian captain named Moeriscus is believed to have let the Romans in near the Fountains of Arethusa. On the agreed signal, during a diversionary attack, he opened the gate. After setting guards on the houses of the pro-Roman faction, Marcellus gave Syracuse to plunder. Though declining slowly through

11092-507: The rations given to the dependent personnel. The Mycenaean palaces maintained extensive control of the nondomestic areas of production through careful control and acquisition and distribution in the palace industries, and the tallying of produced goods. For instance, the Knossos tablets record c. 80,000–100,000 sheep grazing in central Crete , and the quantity of the expected wool from these sheep and their offspring, as well as how this wool

11210-661: The rebellious Siculi , and on the Tyrrhenian Sea , making expeditions up to Corsica and Elba . In the late 5th century BC, Syracuse found itself at war with Athens , which sought more resources to fight the Peloponnesian War . The Syracusans enlisted the aid of a general from Sparta , Athens' foe in the war, to defeat the Athenians, destroy their ships, and leave them to starve on the island (see Sicilian Expedition ). In 401 BC, Syracuse contributed

11328-446: The reconstruction of the political landscape in Mycenaean Greece and they do not support nor deny the existence of a larger Mycenaean state. On the other hand, contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a "Great King". Alternatively, based on archaeological data, some sort of confederation among a number of palatial states appears to be possible. If some kind of united political entity existed,

11446-436: The region of Wilusa , and later invaded the island of Lesbos , which then passed into Ahhiyawan control. Scholars have speculated that the mythic tradition of the Trojan War could have a historical basis in the political turmoil of this era. As a result of this instability, the Hittite king initiated correspondence in order to convince his Ahhiyawan counterpart to restore peace in the region. The Hittite record mentions

11564-420: The reign of the Hittite king Hattusili III (c. 1267–1237 BC), the king of Ahhiyawa is recognized as a "Great King" and of equal status with the other contemporary great Bronze Age rulers: the kings of Egypt , Babylonia and Assyria . At that time, another anti-Hittite movement, led by Piyama-Radu , broke out and was supported by the king of Ahhiyawa. Piyama-Radu caused major unrest which may have extended to

11682-786: The remnants of a Mycenaean road, along with what appears to have been a Mycenaean defensive wall on the Isthmus of Corinth . The Mycenaean era saw the zenith of infrastructure engineering in Greece, and this appears not to have been limited to the Argive plain. Trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the economy of Mycenaean Greece. The Mycenaean palaces imported raw materials, such as metals, ivory and glass, and exported processed commodities and objects made from these materials, in addition to local products: oil, perfume, wine, wool and pottery. International trade of that time

11800-411: The so-called Lex Hieronica , which was later adopted by the Romans for their administration of Sicily; he also had the theatre enlarged and a new immense altar , the "Hiero's Ara", built. Under his rule lived the most famous Syracusan, the mathematician and natural philosopher Archimedes . Among his many inventions were various military engines including the claw of Archimedes , later used to resist

11918-469: The southwestern Peloponnese, was destroyed in c. 1180 BC. The Linear B archives found there, preserved by the heat of the fire that destroyed the palace, mention hasty defence preparations due to an imminent attack without giving any detail about the attacking force. As a result of this turmoil, specific regions in mainland Greece witnessed a dramatic population decrease, especially Boeotia, Argolis and Messenia . Mycenaean refugees migrated to Cyprus and

12036-471: The state of nearby Orchomenos. Moreover, the palace of Mycenae appeared to have ruled over a territory two to three times the size of the other palatial states in Bronze Age Greece. Its territory would have also included adjacent centers, including Tiryns and Nauplion , which could plausibly be ruled by a member of Mycenae's ruling dynasty. The unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for

12154-417: The stations and is not subject to any control and validation procedure, neither automatic nor manual. It can therefore report errors due to sensor malfunctions as well as maintenance interventions". In 2016, there were 122,051 people residing in Syracuse, located in the province of Syracuse, Sicily , of whom 48.7% were male and 51.3% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 18.9 percent of

12272-475: The texts as working either for the palace or for specific deities. The Mycenaean economy, given its pre-monetary nature, was a palace economy , focusing on the redistribution of goods, commodities and labor by a central administration. The preserved Linear B records in Pylos and Knossos indicate that the palaces were closely monitoring a variety of industries and commodities, the organization of land management and

12390-517: The use of a new dialect of Greek, the Doric one. It appears that the Dorians moved southward gradually over a number of years and devastated the territory, until they managed to establish themselves in the Mycenaean centers. A new type of ceramic also appeared, called "Barbarian Ware" because it was attributed to invaders from the north. On the other hand, the collapse of Mycenaean Greece coincides with

12508-457: The visitor interested in historical sites (such as the Ear of Dionysius ). A process of recovering and restoring the historical centre has been ongoing since the 1990s. Nearby places of note include Catania , Noto , Modica and Ragusa . Syracuse experiences a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa ) with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. Snow is infrequent;

12626-509: The walls. His program of new constructions included a new theatre, designed by Damocopos , which gave the city a flourishing cultural life: this in turn attracted personalities as Aeschylus , Ario of Methymna and Eumelos of Corinth. The enlarged power of Syracuse made unavoidable the clash against the Carthaginians , who ruled western Sicily. In the Battle of Himera , Gelo, who had allied with Theron of Agrigento , decisively defeated

12744-615: The years, Syracuse maintained the status of capital of the Roman government of Sicily and seat of the praetor . It remained an important port for trade between the Eastern and the Western parts of the Empire. Christianity spread in the city through the efforts of Paul of Tarsus and Saint Marziano, the first bishop of the city, who made it one of the main centres of proselytism in the West. In

12862-614: Was Dionysius the Younger , who was however expelled by Dion in 356 BC. But the latter's despotic rule led in turn to his expulsion, and Dionysius reclaimed his throne in 347 BC. Dionysius was besieged in Syracuse by the Syracusan general Hicetas in 344 BC. The following year the Corinthian Timoleon installed a democratic regime in the city after he exiled Dionysius and defeated Hicetas. The long series of internal struggles had weakened Syracuse's power on

12980-411: Was a result of internal disturbances which led to internecine warfare among the Mycenaean states or civil unrest in a number of states, as a result of the strict hierarchical social system and the ideology of the wanax. In general, due to the obscure archaeological picture in 12th–11th century BC Greece, there is a continuing controversy among scholars over whether the impoverished societies that succeeded

13098-522: Was abandoned, while the Boeotian fortifications of Gla displays evidence for a targeted destruction as only the four gates and the monumental building, called the Melathron, were burned before the site was abandoned. In the Peloponnese, a number of buildings surrounding the citadel of Mycenae were attacked and burned. These incidents appear to have prompted the massive strengthening and expansion of

13216-465: Was allocated. The archives of Pylos display a specialized workforce, where each worker belonged to a precise category and was assigned to a specific task in the stages of production, notably in textiles. Nevertheless, palatial control over resources appears to have been highly selective in spatial terms and in terms of how different industries were managed. Thus, sectors like the production of perfumed oil and bronze materials were directly monitored from

13334-479: Was also incorporated in a mainland-looking network. The site of Mycenae experienced a gradual loss of political and economic status, while Tiryns , also in the Argolid region, expanded its settlement and became the largest local center during the post-palatial period, in Late Helladic IIIC, c. 1200–1050 BC. The reasons for the end of the Mycenaean culture have been hotly debated among scholars. At present, there

13452-418: Was governed from the palace, which exercised control over most, if not all, industries within its realm. The palatial territory was divided into several sub-regions, each headed by its provincial center. Each province was further divided in smaller districts, the damoi . A number of palaces and fortifications appear to be part of a wider kingdom. For instance, Gla , located in the region of Boeotia, belonged to

13570-482: Was not only conducted by palatial emissaries but also by independent merchants. Based on archaeological findings in the Middle East, in particular physical artifacts, textual references, inscriptions and wall paintings, it appears that Mycenaean Greeks achieved strong commercial and cultural interaction with most of the Bronze Age people living in this region: Canaanites , Kassites , Mitanni , Assyrians , and Egyptians . The 14th century BC Uluburun shipwreck , off

13688-421: Was the lāwāgetas ("the leader of the people"), whose role appears mainly religious. His activities possibly overlap with the wanax and is usually seen as the second-in-command. Both wanax and lāwāgetas were at the head of a military aristocracy known as the eqeta ("companions" or "followers"). The land possessed by the wanax is usually the témenos (te-me-no). There is also at least one instance of

13806-859: Was the most important base for Mycenaean activity in Asia Minor. Mycenaean presence also reached the adjacent sites of Iasus and Ephesus . Meanwhile, imposing palaces were built in the main Mycenaean centers of the mainland. The earliest palace structures were megaron-type buildings, such as the Menelaion in Sparta , Lakonia . Palaces proper are datable from c.  1400 BC , when Cyclopean fortifications were erected at Mycenae and nearby Tiryns . Additional palaces were built in Midea and Pylos in Peloponnese , Athens , Eleusis , Thebes and Orchomenos in Central Greece and Iolcos , in Thessaly ,

13924-563: Was the most important city. Described by Cicero as "the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all", it equaled Athens in size during the fifth century BC. It later became part of the Roman Republic and the Byzantine Empire . Under Emperor Constans II , it served as the capital of the Byzantine Empire (663–669). Palermo later overtook it in importance, as the capital of the Kingdom of Sicily . Eventually

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