169-517: Floristry is the production, commerce, and trade in flowers . It encompasses flower care and handling, floral design and arrangement , merchandising, production, display and flower delivery . Wholesale florists sell bulk flowers and related supplies to professionals in the trade. Retail florists offer fresh flowers and related products and services to consumers. The first flower shop in the United States opened prior to 1851. Floristry concerns
338-526: A diploid (two copies of each chromosome ) cell. Whereas in fertilization only plasmogamy, or the fusion of the whole sex cells, results, in Angiosperms (flowering plants) a process known as double fertilization, which involves both karyogamy and plasmogamy, occurs. In double fertilization the second sperm cell subsequently also enters the synergid and fuses with the two polar nuclei of the central cell. Since all three nuclei are haploid , they result in
507-411: A filament , or stalk. The anther contains microsporocytes which become pollen , the male gametophyte , after undergoing meiosis . Although they exhibit the widest variation among floral organs, the androecium is usually confined just to one whorl and to two whorls only in rare cases. Stamens range in number, size, shape, orientation, and in their point of connection to the flower. In general, there
676-411: A broad base, stomata and chlorophyll and may have stipules . Sepals are often waxy and tough, and grow quickly to protect the flower as it develops. They may be deciduous , but will more commonly grow on to assist in fruit dispersal. If the calyx is fused it is called gamosepalous. The petals , or corolla, are almost or completely fiberless leaf-like structures that form the innermost whorl of
845-518: A ceremonial county, or be a district tier within a shire county , be a royal or metropolitan borough , have borough or city status , or be a unitary authority . At the community level, much of England is divided into civil parishes with their own councils ; in Greater London only one such parish, Queen's Park , exists as of 2014 after they were abolished in 1965 until legislation allowed their recreation in 2007. From 1994 until
1014-404: A different flower of the same plant, but others have mechanisms to prevent self-pollination and rely on cross-pollination , when pollen is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species. Self-pollination happens in flowers where the stamen and carpel mature at the same time, and are positioned so that the pollen can land on
1183-418: A different plant of the same species. Because the genetic make-up of the sperm contained within the pollen from the other plant is different, their combination will result in a new, genetically distinct, plant, through the process of sexual reproduction . Since each new plant is genetically distinct, the different plants show variation in their physiological and structural adaptations and so the population as
1352-512: A geographical frame of reference. Of these, 38 developed gradually since the Middle Ages ; these were reformed to 51 in 1974 and to their current number in 1996. Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff ; these posts are used to represent the British monarch locally. Some counties, such as Herefordshire , are only divided further into civil parishes. The royal county of Berkshire and
1521-432: A large endosperm nucleus which is triploid . Following the formation of zygote it begins to grow through nuclear and cellular divisions, called mitosis , eventually becoming a small group of cells. One section of it becomes the embryo , while the other becomes the suspensor; a structure which forces the embryo into the endosperm and is later undetectable. Two small primordia also form at this time, that later become
1690-427: A lot of different kinds of greens are used in a natural way. The "Dutch Garden" style arrangement—started in the early 1980s—is a very good example of a Dutch style arrangement. Stones, bark and mosses are used in these designs. Australian floral style is a harmonious blend of nature's raw beauty and artistic expression. Drawing inspiration from the country's diverse landscapes and native flora, this style encapsulates
1859-1340: A mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits. Many flowers rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination, while others have elaborate designs to ensure pollination and prevent self-pollination . Flowers use animals including: insects ( entomophily ), birds ( ornithophily ), bats ( chiropterophily ), lizards, and even snails and slugs ( malacophilae ). Plants cannot move from one location to another, thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations. Most commonly, flowers are insect-pollinated, known as entomophilous ; literally "insect-loving" in Greek. To attract these insects flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious nectar . Some flowers have glands called elaiophores , which produce oils rather than nectar. Birds and bees have color vision , enabling them to seek out colorful flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides , that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible only under ultraviolet light, which
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#17327726019452028-458: A noticeable scent. Because of this, plants typically have many thousands of tiny flowers which have comparatively large, feathery stigmas; to increase the chance of pollen being received. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers is usually large, sticky, and rich in protein (to act as a "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is typically small-grained, very light, smooth, and of little nutritional value to insects . In order for
2197-473: A number of roles in personal relationships. They're sent to express love, celebrate special occasions, offer condolences, and more. During the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020-2021, floristry became an even more important means of communicating with loved ones from a distance. As The New York Times noted, "in lieu of saying it in person, we're all saying it with flowers." This has led to an increase in profit for
2366-470: A plant can interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in levels of plant hormones and seasonable temperature and photoperiod changes. Many perennial and most biennial plants require vernalization to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals is through the transmission of a complex signal known as florigen , which involves a variety of genes , including Constans, Flowering Locus C, and Flowering Locus T. Florigen
2535-660: A profound and permanent effect on the English language. Subsequently, the House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II , adding England to the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including Aquitaine . They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs being Richard I , Edward I , Edward III and Henry V . The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including
2704-796: A separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union brought into effect a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland that created the Kingdom of Great Britain . England is the origin of the English language , the English legal system (which served as the basis for the common law systems of many other countries), association football , and the Anglican branch of Christianity; its parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into
2873-445: A significant portion of a florist's business. Cut flowers are widely sold in supermarkets and petrol stations. These outlets offer a limited selection, usually in the form of mixed bouquets and roses by the dozen. Flowers purchased at these outlets are generally less expensive than the flowers purchased at a florist shop. Professional florists may offer a greater selection, higher flower quality, or more skillfully arranged flowers. In
3042-404: A sonar-reflecting petal above its flowers, which helps the bat find them, and one species, the cactus Espostoa frutescens , has flowers that are surrounded by an area of sound-absorbent and woolly hairs called the cephalium, which absorbs the bat's ultrasound instead. Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to
3211-450: A struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence. In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex. Later in that century escalating attacks by the Danes culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Wessex under Alfred
3380-407: A third in 1944. Knuth named his two groups 'Hyphydrogamy' and the more common 'Ephydrogamy'. In hyphydrogamy pollination occurs below the surface of the water and so the pollen grains are typically negatively buoyant . For marine plants that exhibit this method, the stigmas are usually stiff, while freshwater species have small and feathery stigmas. In ephydrogamy pollination occurs on the surface of
3549-557: A variety of floral designs such as wreaths , bouquets , corsages , boutonnières /'buttonholes', permanent arrangements, and other more complicated arrangements are also important. Education, both formal and informal, is another significant segment of the floristry industry. Established floristry designers and artists impart their craft to students interested in floral design as hobby or career. Courses are generally available through community colleges, private post-secondary vocational schools, and professional florist trade associations. In
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#17327726019453718-435: A whole is better prepared for an adverse occurrence in the environment. Cross-pollination, therefore, increases the survival of the species and is usually preferred by flowers for this reason. The principal adaptive function of flowers is the promotion of cross-pollination or outcrossing, a process that allows the masking of deleterious mutations in the genome of progeny. The masking effect of outcrossing sexual reproduction
3887-416: Is a loss of B gene function, mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the first whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation. In the third whorl, the lack of the B function but the presence of the C function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl. The principal purpose of a flower is the reproduction of the individual and
4056-422: Is a much rarer method, occurring in only around 2% of abiotically pollinated flowers. Common examples of this include Calitriche autumnalis , Vallisneria spiralis and some sea-grasses . One characteristic which most species in this group share is a lack of an exine , or protective layer, around the pollen grain. Paul Knuth identified two types of hydrophilous pollination in 1906 and Ernst Schwarzenbach added
4225-417: Is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols, presenting substantial information about the flower in a compact form. It can represent a taxon , usually giving ranges of the numbers of different organs, or particular species. Floral formulae have been developed in the early 19th century and their use has declined since. Prenner et al. (2010) devised an extension of
4394-467: Is also applied to England in a more poetic capacity, though its original meaning is the island of Britain as a whole. The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor , dating to about 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago. Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during
4563-404: Is an example of coevolution , as the flower and pollinator have developed together over a long period to match each other's needs. This close relationship compounds the negative effects of extinction , however, since the extinction of either member in such a relationship would almost certainly mean the extinction of the other member as well. Flowers that use abiotic, or non-living, vectors use
4732-427: Is because it is directly connected to the method of seed dispersal; that being the purpose of fruit - to encourage or enable the seed's dispersal and protect the seed while doing so. Following the pollination of a flower, fertilization, and finally the development of a seed and fruit, a mechanism is typically used to disperse the fruit away from the plant. In Angiosperms (flowering plants) seeds are dispersed away from
4901-492: Is damp relatively frequently and is changeable. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on the English coast , while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October. Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year. Important influences on the climate of England are its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean , its northern latitude and
5070-489: Is dependent on what flower varieties are readily available, and the culture of the nation. Today, florists in Japan also sell pre-arranged or done-while-you-wait ikebana . Ikebana is a style of floral design that originated in Japan. Best known for its simplicity of line and form, ikebana is a design style primarily practiced for personal enjoyment. It has three parts of alignment: heaven, man, and earth. English Garden style
5239-622: Is from the Middle English flour , which referred to both the ground grain and the reproductive structure in plants, before splitting off in the 17th century. It comes originally from the Latin name of the Italian goddess of flowers, Flora . The early word for flower in English was blossom , though it now refers to flowers only of fruit trees . The morphology of a flower, or its form and structure, can be considered in two parts:
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5408-641: Is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom , although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments. There has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by the North East in a 2004 referendum , this has not been carried out. In 2024, an England-only intergovernmental body, known as
5577-669: Is high moorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers. They contain two national parks , the Yorkshire Dales and the Peak District . In the West Country , Dartmoor and Exmoor of the Southwest Peninsula include upland moorland supported by granite. The English Lowlands are in the central and southern regions of the country, consisting of green rolling hills, including
5746-541: Is highly reduced or absent). The stem or stalk subtending a flower, or an inflorescence of flowers, is called a peduncle . If a peduncle supports more than one flower, the stems connecting each flower to the main axis are called pedicels . The apex of a flowering stem forms a terminal swelling which is called the torus or receptacle. In the majority of species, individual flowers have both carpels and stamens. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect, bisexual, or hermaphrodite . In some species of plants,
5915-494: Is known as "genetic complementation". This beneficial effect of outcrossing on progeny is also recognized as hybrid vigour or heterosis. Once outcrossing is established due to the benefits of genetic complementation, subsequent switching to inbreeding becomes disadvantageous because it allows the expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, usually referred to as inbreeding depression. Charles Darwin in his 1889 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in
6084-780: Is known as the lost colony after it was found abandoned on the return of the late-arriving supply ship. With the East India Company , England also competed with the Dutch and French in the East. During the Elizabethan period, England was at war with Spain. An armada sailed from Spain in 1588 as part of a wider plan to invade England and re-establish a Catholic monarchy. The plan was thwarted by bad coordination, stormy weather and successful harrying attacks by an English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham . This failure did not end
6253-623: Is mostly found in the north and west, including Dartmoor , the Lake District , the Pennines , and the Shropshire Hills . The country's capital is London , the metropolitan area of which has a population of 14.2 million as of 2021, representing the United Kingdom's largest metropolitan area. England's population of 56.3 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom, largely concentrated around London,
6422-408: Is only one type of stamen, but there are plant species where the flowers have two types; a "normal" one and one with anthers that produce sterile pollen meant to attract pollinators. The gynoecium , or the carpels , is the female part of the flower found on the innermost whorl. Each carpel consists of a stigma , which receives pollen, a style , which acts as a stalk, and an ovary , which contains
6591-458: Is part of the United Kingdom, a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system . There has not been a government of England since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707 , putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union , joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain . Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England . Today England
6760-443: Is preferred because it allows for genetic variation , which contributes to the survival of the species. Many flowers depend on external factors for pollination, such as the wind, water, animals, and especially insects . Larger animals such as birds, bats, and even some pygmy possums , however, can also be employed. To accomplish this, flowers have specific designs which encourage the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of
6929-429: Is produced in the leaves in reproductively favorable conditions and acts in buds and growing tips to induce several different physiological and morphological changes. The first step of the transition is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change the cellular differentiation of leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into
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7098-624: Is reflected morphologically in the presence of more pulp , an aril , and sometimes an elaiosome (primarily for ants), which are other fleshy structures. England – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the United Kingdom (green) England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom . It is located on the island of Great Britain , of which it covers about 62%, and more than 100 smaller adjacent islands . It has land borders with Scotland to
7267-513: Is seasonal and is heavily influenced by the following holidays and events: Christmas , Valentine's Day , Administrative Professionals' Day , Mothers' Day , All Souls Day , Advent , Easter , weddings and funerals . These occasions make up the largest part of the business, with the sale of house plants and home decor being a smaller, but more constant, part. Flowers for personal enjoyment as well as those selected to celebrate birthdays , anniversaries , thank-yous and get well wishes are also
7436-472: Is similar to that of other areas in the British Isles with a wide range of vertebrate and invertebrate life in a diverse range of habitats. National nature reserves in England are designated by Natural England as key places for wildlife and natural features in England. They were established to protect the most significant areas of habitat and of geological formations. NNRs are managed on behalf of
7605-412: Is traditionally an English form of floral design. Stems are placed in a radial fashion and feature abundant use of seasonal flowers and foliages. These designs are often done as low, tufted mounds, or taller vase arrangements that are all-sided (360°), and incorporate garden flowers like roses , gardenia , camellia , delphinium and peonies . The flowers are usually arranged with minimal space between
7774-418: Is typically another part. In some families, such as the grasses , the petals are greatly reduced; in many species, the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified petal-like stamens; the double flowers of peonies and roses are mostly petaloid stamens. Many flowers have symmetry. When the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point and symmetrical halves are produced,
7943-402: Is usually a symbol of purity and innocence in countries with a European heritage. Early Victorians, among others, developed an entire, comprehensive language of flowers sometimes referenced in the floral industry today. Due to the rich and nuanced significance of different flowers and the myriad design possibilities using floral materials, it is hardly surprising that floral arrangements play
8112-574: Is visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent , though not all flower scents are appealing to humans; several flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals. These are often called carrion flowers , including plants in the genus Rafflesia , and the titan arum . Flowers pollinated by night visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and so most such flowers are white. Some plants pollinated by bats have
8281-519: The 1535–1542 acts . There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters, Mary I and Elizabeth I . The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism . The Elizabethan era is the epoch in the Tudor age of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I ("the Virgin Queen"). Historians often depict it as
8450-643: The Age of Discovery . Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England . In contrast with much of European Protestantism , the roots of the split were more political than theological. He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with
8619-583: The Angeln region of what is now the German state of Schleswig-Holstein . The earliest recorded use of the term, as " Engla londe ", is in the late-ninth-century translation into Old English of Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People . The term was then used to mean "the land inhabited by the English", and it included English people in what is now south-east Scotland but was then part of
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#17327726019458788-590: The Battle of Trafalgar confirmed the naval supremacy Britain had established during the course of the eighteenth century. The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness and a united national British people , shared with the English, Scots and Welsh. London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era , and trade within the British Empire – as well as
8957-536: The Battle of Watling Street . The author of one study of Roman Britain suggested that from 43 AD to 84 AD, the Roman invaders killed somewhere between 100,000 and 250,000 people from a population of perhaps 2,000,000. This era saw a Greco-Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law , Roman architecture , aqueducts , sewers , many agricultural items and silk. In the 3rd century, Emperor Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (now York ), where Constantine
9126-676: The British Isles , but also from the Commonwealth , particularly the Indian subcontinent . Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the service industry . As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a common market initiative called the European Economic Community which became the European Union . Since the late 20th century the administration of
9295-610: The Cotswold Hills , Chiltern Hills , North and South Downs ; where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the cliffs of Dover . This also includes relatively flat plains such as the Salisbury Plain , Somerset Levels , South Coast Plain and The Fens . England has a temperate maritime climate : it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0 °C (32 °F) in winter and not much higher than 32 °C (90 °F) in summer. The weather
9464-744: The Court of Appeal , the High Court of Justice for civil cases, and the Crown Court for criminal cases. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales . It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords . A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in
9633-583: The Courts of England and Wales continued, under the Treaty of Union , as a separate legal system from the one used in Scotland . The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent – stare decisis – to the facts before them. The court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of
9802-736: The French Revolution , under George III and William Pitt the Younger . The regency of George IV is noted for its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture. During the Napoleonic Wars , Napoleon planned to invade from the south-east ; however, this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British: at sea by Horatio Nelson , and on land by Arthur Wellesley . The major victory at
9971-672: The Labour Party , 116 from the Conservative Party , 65 from the Liberal Democrats , five for Reform UK and four for the Green Party of England and Wales . The English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis of common law legal systems used in most Commonwealth countries and the United States (except Louisiana ). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of
10140-556: The Latin word Anglii is used. The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. How and why a term derived from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others, such as the Saxons , came to be used for the entire country is not known, but it seems this is related to
10309-722: The Mayoral Council for England , was established to bring together ministers from the UK Government , the Mayor of London and the leaders of combined authorities . In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster , there are 543 members of parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total. England is represented by 347 MPs from
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#173277260194510478-546: The Ministry of Justice , manages most prisons, housing 81,309 prisoners in England and Wales as of September 2022 . The subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division , controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of local government . Outside the London region, England's highest tier is the 48 ceremonial counties . These are used primarily as
10647-687: The Severn is the longest river flowing through England. It empties into the Bristol Channel and is notable for its Severn Bore (a tidal bore ), which can reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height. However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is 215 miles (346 km) in length. There are many lakes in England ; the largest is Windermere , within the aptly named Lake District . Most of England's landscape consists of low hills and plains, with upland and mountainous terrain in
10816-883: The South East , and conurbations in the Midlands , the North West , the North East , and Yorkshire , which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century. The name "England" is derived from the Old English name Englaland , which means "land of the Angles ". The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages . They came from
10985-716: The State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch. With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. In 1666 the Great Fire of London gutted the city of London, but it was rebuilt shortly afterward with many significant buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren . By
11154-451: The Stuart dynasty England expanded in trade, finance and prosperity. The Royal Navy developed Europe's largest merchant fleet. After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed, the two countries joined in political union , to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate. Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from
11323-433: The Trinovantes . The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius , subsequently conquering much of Britain , and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia province . The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus . Later, an uprising led by Boudica , Queen of the Iceni , ended with Boudica's suicide following her defeat at
11492-419: The Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years. After the last ice age only large mammals such as mammoths , bison and woolly rhinoceros remained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula . The sea level
11661-414: The calyx , corolla , androecium , and gynoecium . Together the calyx and corolla make up the non-reproductive part of the flower called the perianth , and in some cases may not be differentiated. If this is the case, then they are described as tepals . The sepals , collectively called the calyx, are modified leaves that occur on the outermost whorl of the flower. They are leaf-like, in that they have
11830-470: The canal age in Britain . In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway – the Stockton and Darlington Railway – opened to the public. During the Industrial Revolution , many workers moved from England's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at Birmingham and Manchester , with the latter the world's first industrial city. England maintained relative stability throughout
11999-444: The cotyledon , which is used as an energy store. Plants which grow out one of these primordia are called monocotyledons , while those that grow out two are dicotyledons . The next stage is called the Torpedo stage and involves the growth of several key structures, including: the radicle (embryotic root), the epicotyl (embryotic stem), and the hypocotyl , (the root/shoot junction). In the final step vascular tissue develops around
12168-586: The cultivation of flowers as well as their arrangement and sale. Much of the raw material supplied for the floristry trade comes from the cut flowers industry. Florist shops, along with online stores , are the main flower-only outlets, but supermarkets , garden supply stores, and filling stations also sell flowers. Floral design or floral arts is the art of creating flower arrangements in vases, bowls, baskets, or other containers, or making bouquets and compositions from cut flowers, foliages , herbs , ornamental grasses , and other plant materials. Often
12337-551: The decline of the Roman Empire , Britain was left exposed by the end of Roman rule in Britain and the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars. Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished. This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities, polity, practices and theology. Local "congregations" were centred in
12506-439: The gizzard of animals or even to germinate better after passing through them. They can be eaten by birds ( ornithochory) , bats ( chiropterochory) , rodents , primates, ants ( myrmecochory ), non-bird sauropsids ( saurochory) , mammals in general (mammaliochory) , and even fish . Typically their fruit are fleshy, have a high nutritional value, and may have chemical attractants as an additional "reward" for dispersers. This
12675-616: The golden age in English history that represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of great art, drama, poetry, music and literature. England during this period had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government. Competing with Spain , the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorer Walter Raleigh in Virginia and named Roanoke . The Roanoke colony failed and
12844-548: The jet engine led to wider air travel . Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of the National Health Service in 1948, providing publicly funded health care to all permanent residents free at the point of need. Combined, these prompted the reform of local government in England in the mid-20th century. Since the 20th century, there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of
13013-518: The wind or, much less commonly, water , to move pollen from one flower to the next. In wind-dispersed ( anemophilous ) species, the tiny pollen grains are carried, sometimes many thousands of kilometers, by the wind to other flowers. Common examples include the grasses , birch trees , along with many other species in the order Fagales , ragweeds , and many sedges . They do not need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to grow large, showy, or colorful flowers, and do not have nectaries, nor
13182-642: The 32 London Boroughs and the 25 Wards of the City of London . Geographically, England includes the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly . It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom: to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. England is closer than any other part of mainland Britain to
13351-575: The 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as a Dark Age . Details of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain are consequently subject to considerable disagreement; the emerging consensus is that it occurred on a large scale in the south and east but was less substantial to the north and west, where Celtic languages continued to be spoken even in areas under Anglo-Saxon control. Roman-dominated Christianity had, in general, been replaced in
13520-594: The American floral industry; over 80% of respondents to a survey conducted by the Society of American Florists said their holiday sales had increased in 2020 compared with 2019. There are usually three major sources of fresh flowers for retail florists: local growers, local wholesalers and flower auctions. The majority of these are supplied by specialist horticultural and cut flower suppliers. Internationally there are hundreds of wholesale flower markets and auctions,
13689-734: The Dutch clock system and are mainly located in Canada: Toronto , Montreal , and Vancouver . In the Netherlands gardeners started to sell flower arrangements from around 1850. In 1851 Butz Flowers opened its doors in New Castle, Pennsylvania, and is still operating today as one of the oldest floristry shops in the United States. Soon after, around 1900, the first flower shops started to open in The Netherlands. At that time
13858-676: The English kingdom of Northumbria . The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that the Domesday Book of 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a few years later the Chronicle stated that King Malcolm III went "out of Scotlande into Lothian in Englaland", thus using it in the more ancient sense. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus , Germania , in which
14027-591: The European continent. It is separated from France ( Hauts-de-France ) by a 21-mile (34 km) sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near Folkestone . England also has shores on the Irish Sea , North Sea and Atlantic Ocean. The ports of London, Liverpool , and Newcastle lie on the tidal rivers Thames , Mersey and Tyne respectively. At 220 miles (350 km),
14196-509: The Great was left as the only surviving English kingdom, and under his successors, it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of the Danelaw . This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished under Æthelstan in 927 and definitively established after further conflicts by Eadred in 953. A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with
14365-595: The Netherlands, the first horticultural college was founded in 1896 in Naaldwijk ; the second horticultural college was founded in 1897 in Aalsmeer . In 1926, the first national professional qualification examinations in floristry were held in the Netherlands. The horticultural college in Aalsmeer celebrated its 75th anniversary in 1972 and in 1997 its 100th anniversary. Since 1926 is the horticultural college in Aalsmeer
14534-602: The North, and the successful Norman Conquest in October 1066, accomplished by an army led by Duke William of Normandy invading at Hastings late September 1066. The Normans themselves originated from Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy, whose speech had
14703-682: The Pope. During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and the House of Valois claimed to be legitimate claimants to the House of Capet and of France; the two powers clashed in the Hundred Years' War . The Black Death epidemic hit England ; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England's inhabitants . Between 1453 and 1487, a civil war known as the War of the Roses waged between
14872-1015: The Royal Society and other English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth in British overseas trade protected by the Royal Navy paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire . Domestically it drove the Industrial Revolution , a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development. The opening of Northwest England's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in
15041-432: The United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom. Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism. There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum . England
15210-607: The United Kingdom as part of the Allies . Two decades later, in World War II , the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies . Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids during the Blitz . Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation , and there was a speeding-up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport and Frank Whittle 's development of
15379-444: The United States, the number of florists has dropped since a peak of over 27,000 in 1992 to fewer than 20,000 in 2007. The World Wide Web has contributed to this decline by making alternatives more accessible. Floral wire services play an intermediary by gathering orders to be fulfilled by local florists. Floral wire services take a percentage of customers order value for orders provided through their websites and additional fees for
15548-470: The Vegetable Kingdom at the beginning of chapter XII noted, "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." Self-pollination is the pollination of the carpel of a flower by pollen from either
15717-490: The apical meristem, which becomes a whorl of sepals. In the second whorl, both A and B genes are expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is based upon studies of aberrant flowers and mutations in Arabidopsis thaliana and the snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus . For example, when there
15886-577: The area, the Beaker culture people made bronze , and later iron from iron ores. The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs , advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields ), as well as the production of more effective weapons. During the Iron Age , Celtic culture , deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures , arrived from Central Europe. Brythonic
16055-767: The auspices of James VI and I the Authorised King James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611. It was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century. Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, the English Civil War was fought between the supporters of Parliament and those of King Charles I , known colloquially as Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively. This
16224-489: The blooms and foliage is used to accent the flowers as these are the main feature. Modern/European Style floristry involves contemporary, linear designs that highlight unique forms of both individual floral materials and of the designs themselves. Arrangements generally feature negative space and incorporate asymmetric placement of materials. The style stands in direct contrast to traditional radial arrangements such as English Garden. Modern designs are identified by their play on
16393-582: The bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant. Other flowers use mimicry or pseudocopulation to attract pollinators. Many orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees or wasps in color, shape, and scent. Males move from one flower to the next in search of a mate, pollinating the flowers. Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of insect and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This close relationship
16562-517: The collective cluster of flowers is called an inflorescence . Some inflorescences are composed of many small flowers arranged in a formation that resembles a single flower. A common example of this is most members of the very large composite ( Asteraceae ) group. A single daisy or sunflower , for example, is not a flower but a flower head —an inflorescence composed of numerous flowers (or florets). An inflorescence may include specialized stems and modified leaves known as bracts . A floral formula
16731-585: The conquered territories by Anglo-Saxon paganism , but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by Augustine from 597. Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic-dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at the Council of Whitby (664), which was ostensibly about tonsures (clerical haircuts) and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice. During
16900-541: The conquest of this united kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013 and again by his son Cnut in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-lived North Sea Empire that also included Denmark and Norway . However, the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042. A dispute over the succession to Edward led to an unsuccessful Norwegian Invasion in September 1066 close to York in
17069-489: The corporate and social event world, as flowers play a large part in the decor of special events and meetings. Centerpieces, entryways, reception tables, bridal bouquets, wedding chuppahs , and stage sets are only a few examples of how flowers are used in the business and social event settings. Flowers are also traditionally used in ecclesiastical settings and their arrangement is often done by skilled church volunteers. Many nations have their own style of floral arranging. This
17238-454: The course of the fifth and sixth centuries, initially in the eastern part of the country. Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon , but subsequently resumed, overrunning the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under Brittonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of
17407-553: The cultural meaning of the flower color strongly affects their choice and use. Colors convey different meanings to different groups so that, for example, various colors may be associated with luck or death or love . A flower such as a red rose might communicate love in some cultures, whereas in others, it might be considered indecent or simply puzzling. The vastly divergent attitudes to the color white can also lead to miscommunication and sometimes give offense. White, for example, represents death in many Asian cultures, whereas white
17576-883: The custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain Angli Saxones or English Saxons to distinguish them from continental Saxons (Eald-Seaxe) of Old Saxony in Germany. In Scottish Gaelic , the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England ( Sasunn ); similarly, the Welsh name for the English language is Saesneg . A romantic name for England is Loegria , related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr , and made popular by its use in Arthurian legend . Albion
17745-619: The developing flower. These petals attract pollinators, and reproductive organs that produce gametophytes , which in flowering plants produce gametes . The male gametophytes, which produce sperm, are enclosed within pollen grains produced in the anthers . The female gametophytes are contained within the ovules produced in the ovary . Most flowering plants depend on animals, such as bees, moths, and butterflies, to transfer their pollen between different flowers, and have evolved to attract these pollinators by various strategies, including brightly colored, conspicuous petals, attractive scents, and
17914-637: The early 2010s England was divided for a few purposes into regions; a 1998 referendum for the London Region created the London Assembly two years later. A failed 2004 North East England devolution referendum cancelled further regional assembly devolution with the regional structure outside London abolished. Ceremonially and administratively, the region is divided between the City of London and Greater London ; these are further divided into
18083-470: The essence of the land Down Under. With a focus on native flowers like banksias, eucalyptus, and Waratahs, Australian floral arrangements exude a distinctive rustic charm. The style often showcases a fusion of textures, colours, and shapes, mirroring the dynamic contrasts found in the Australian environment. Whether it's a coastal-inspired arrangement echoing the tranquil shores or a bold creation capturing
18252-484: The existing model to broaden the descriptive capability of the formula. The format of floral formulae differs in different parts of the world, yet they convey the same information. The structure of a flower can also be expressed by the means of floral diagrams . The use of schematic diagrams can replace long descriptions or complicated drawings as a tool for understanding both floral structure and evolution. Such diagrams may show important features of flowers, including
18421-476: The first privately owned floristry school; Boerma Instituut International Floral Design School in Aalsmeer. The floristry diploma was recognized by the Dutch government until 1996. When the borders of Europe opened, the diploma was no longer needed but professional training for Dutch and international students is still organised by the Boerma Instituut. The floristry business has a significant market in
18590-413: The flower is said to be actinomorphic or regular. This is an example of radial symmetry . When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves, the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic . If, in rare cases, they have no symmetry at all they are called asymmetric. Flowers may be directly attached to the plant at their base ( sessile —the supporting stalk or stem
18759-437: The flower shops also had small greenhouses from which they sold their flowers. Generally, a florist's shop will contain a large array of flowers, sometimes displayed on the street, or will have a large plate glass window to display the flowers. To keep them fresh, the flowers will be refrigerated and kept in water, generally in glass or plastic vases or other containers. Most shops have a refrigerator/chiller cabinet/cooler near
18928-497: The flower's stigma. This pollination does not require an investment from the plant to provide nectar and pollen as food for pollinators. Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization ( parthenocarpy ). After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds . Flowers have long been appreciated for their beauty and pleasant scents, and also hold cultural significance as religious, ritual, or symbolic objects, or sources of medicine and food. Flower
19097-511: The flowers are imperfect or unisexual: having only either male (stamen) or female (carpel) parts. If unisexual male and female flowers appear on the same plant, the species is called monoecious . However, if an individual plant is either female or male, the species is called dioecious . Many flowers have nectaries , which are glands that produce a sugary fluid used to attract pollinators. They are not considered as an organ on their own. In those species that have more than one flower on an axis,
19266-424: The following two broad groups of pollination methods: Flowers that use biotic vectors attract and use insects , bats , birds , or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or
19435-404: The front of the shop/store with large glass doors so that customers can easily view the contents. Some shops also have another cooler out of the customers' view where they keep extra stock and arrangements for customers' orders. Most stores have a separate work room in which the design florist or designers can work on orders with more privacy. The flowers sold in florist shops typically represent
19604-451: The gametophytes also develop inside the spores, i.e., they are endosporic. Since the flowers are the reproductive organs of the plant, they mediate the joining of the sperm, contained within pollen, to the ovules — contained in the ovary. Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anthers to the stigma. Normally pollen is moved from one plant to another, known as cross-pollination , but many plants can self-pollinate. Cross-pollination
19773-538: The hierarchy, which must follow its directions. The Secretary of State for Justice is the minister responsible to Parliament for the judiciary , the court system and prisons and probation in England. Crime increased between 1981 and 1995 but fell by 42% in the period 1995–2006. The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it one of the highest incarceration rates in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000. His Majesty's Prison Service , reporting to
19942-982: The largest of which is located in Aalsmeer, the Netherlands: the Bloemenveiling Aalsmeer . Other major markets include the fledgling Dubai Flower Centre and the Ota Flower Market in Tokyo , Japan . Within North America, Miami is considered to be the main distribution point for imported fresh flowers. Many local wholesalers purchase fresh flower stock from importers in Miami to resell to local florists in their areas. Wholesale flower districts are present in many North American cities such as New York, Boston, and Los Angeles, San Francisco and Carlsbad, California. Flower auctions are run using
20111-453: The metropolitan counties have different types of status to other ceremonial counties. The second tier is made up of combined authorities and the 27 county-tier shire counties . In 1974, all ceremonial counties were two-tier; and with the metropolitan county tier phased out, the 1996 reform separated the ceremonial county and the administrative county tier. England is also divided into local government districts. The district can align to
20280-707: The mid-to-late 17th century, two political factions had emerged – the Tories and Whigs . Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II , some of them, along with the Whigs, during the Revolution of 1688 invited the Dutch Prince William of Orange to defeat James and become the king. Some English people, especially in the north, were Jacobites and continued to support James and his sons. Under
20449-569: The monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains, as peers, rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman-dominated church. Roman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north-western continental Europe, chiefly the Saxons, Angles , Jutes and Frisians who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province. These groups then began to settle in increasing numbers over
20618-549: The nation, many by Natural England themselves, but also by non-governmental organisations, including the members of The Wildlife Trusts partnership, the National Trust , and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds . There are 221 NNRs in England covering 110,000 hectares (1,100 square kilometres). Often they contain rare species or nationally important populations of plants and animals. . The Environment Agency
20787-588: The north and Wales to the west, and is otherwise surrounded by the North Sea to the east, the English Channel to the south, the Celtic Sea to the south-west, and the Irish Sea to the west. Continental Europe lies to the south-east, and Ireland to the west. At the 2021 census , the population was 56,490,048. London is both the largest city and the capital . The area now called England
20956-613: The north and west of the country. The northern uplands include the Pennines , a chain of uplands dividing east and west, the Lake District mountains in Cumbria, and the Cheviot Hills , straddling the border between England and Scotland. The highest point in England, at 978 metres (3,209 ft), is Scafell Pike in the Lake District. The Shropshire Hills are near Wales while Dartmoor and Exmoor are two upland areas in
21125-400: The ovary. After penetrating the center-most part of the ovary it enters the egg apparatus and into one synergid . At this point the end of the pollen tube bursts and releases the two sperm cells, one of which makes its way to an egg, while also losing its cell membrane and much of its protoplasm . The sperm's nucleus then fuses with the egg's nucleus, resulting in the formation of a zygote ,
21294-504: The ovule is fertilized by pollen from the same flower or plant, occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many dandelions . Some flowers are self-pollinated and have flowers that never open or are self-pollinated before the flowers open; these flowers are called cleistogamous ; many species in the genus Viola exhibit this, for example. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-pollination and hence, self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on
21463-524: The ovules. Carpels may occur in one to several whorls, and when fused are often described as a pistil . Inside the ovary, the ovules are attached to the placenta by structures called funiculi . Although this arrangement is considered "typical", plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. The four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions or look like what
21632-534: The perianth. They are often delicate and thin and are usually colored, shaped, or scented to encourage pollination. Although similar to leaves in shape, they are more comparable to stamens in that they form almost simultaneously with one another, but their subsequent growth is delayed. If the corolla is fused together it is called sympetalous. The androecium , or stamens, is the whorl of pollen-producing male parts. Stamens consist typically of an anther , made up of four pollen sacs arranged in two thecae , connected to
21801-451: The plant so as to not force competition between the mother and the daughter plants, as well as to enable the colonization of new areas. They are often divided into two categories, though many plants fall in between or in one or more of these: In allochory, plants use an external vector , or carrier, to transport their seeds away from them. These can be either biotic (living), such as by birds and ants, or abiotic (non-living), such as by
21970-400: The process of pollination. Fertilization , also called Synagmy, occurs following pollination, which is the movement of pollen from the stamen to the carpel. It encompasses both plasmogamy , the fusion of the protoplasts , and karyogamy , the fusion of the nuclei . When pollen lands on the stigma of the flower it begins creating a pollen tube which runs down through the style and into
22139-453: The production of nectar , a food source for pollinators. In this way, many flowering plants have co-evolved with pollinators to be mutually dependent on services they provide to one another—in the plant's case, a means of reproduction; in the pollinator's case, a source of food. When pollen from the anther of a flower is deposited on the stigma , this is called pollination. Some flowers may self-pollinate , producing seed using pollen from
22308-600: The relative positions of the various organs, including the presence of fusion and symmetry, as well as structural details. A flower develops on a modified shoot or axis from a determinate apical meristem ( determinate meaning the axis grows to a set size). It has compressed internodes, bearing structures that in classical plant morphology are interpreted as highly modified leaves . Detailed developmental studies, however, have shown that stamens are often initiated more or less like modified stems (caulomes) that in some cases may even resemble branchlets . Taking into account
22477-420: The reproductive organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels . Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event
22646-490: The same flower or another flower on the same plant, leading to the creation of a genetic clone through asexual reproduction . This increases the reliability of producing seeds, the rate at which they can be produced, and lowers the amount energy needed. But, most importantly, it limits genetic variation . In addition, self-pollination causes inbreeding depression , due largely to the expression of recessive deleterious mutations . The extreme case of self-fertilization, when
22815-412: The same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-incompatible. In Clianthus puniceus , self-pollination is used strategically as an "insurance policy". When a pollinator, in this case a bird, visits C. puniceus , it rubs off
22984-769: The same species. The period during which this process can take place (when the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis , hence the study of pollination biology is called anthecology . Flowering plants usually face evolutionary pressure to optimize the transfer of their pollen , and this is typically reflected in the morphology of the flowers and the behavior of the plants. Pollen may be transferred between plants via several 'vectors,' or methods. Around 80% of flowering plants make use of biotic or living vectors. Others use abiotic, or non-living, vectors and some plants make use of multiple vectors, but most are highly specialized. Though some fit between or outside of these groups, most flowers can be divided between
23153-482: The seed. The ovary, inside which the seed is forming from the ovule, grows into a fruit . All the other main floral parts die during this development, including: the style, stigma, sepals, stamens, and petals. The fruit contains three structures: the exocarp , or outer layer, the mesocarp , or the fleshy part, and the endocarp , or innermost layer, while the fruit wall is called the pericarp . The size, shape, toughness, and thickness varies among different fruit. This
23322-450: The settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms including Northumbria , Mercia , Wessex , East Anglia , Essex , Kent and Sussex . Over the following centuries, this process of political consolidation continued. The 7th century saw
23491-477: The signing of Magna Carta , an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen. Catholic monasticism flourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century and the Lordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by
23660-636: The south-west of the country. The approximate dividing line between terrain types is often indicated by the Tees–Exe line . The Pennines, known as the "backbone of England", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago. Their geological composition includes, among others, sandstone and limestone , and also coal. There are karst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire . The Pennine landscape
23829-583: The space used between each bloom, which is often dramatic, and the play on the use of color and different textures, which can be quite experimental. Modern/European Style designs often incorporate unique, exotic or tropical flowers such as bird of paradise , orchids , Anthurium , and Protea of the Caribbean and other exotic locals, but may also employ more common blossoms, such as Roses, Gerberas and lilies. Contemporary/Dutch Style designs also involve contemporary and linear designs. The Dutch designs use
23998-439: The species. All flowering plants are heterosporous , that is, every individual plant produces two types of spores . Microspores are produced by meiosis inside anthers and megaspores are produced inside ovules that are within an ovary. Anthers typically consist of four microsporangia and an ovule is an integumented megasporangium. Both types of spores develop into gametophytes inside sporangia. As with all heterosporous plants,
24167-492: The standing of the British military and navy – was prestigious. Technologically, this era saw many innovations that proved key to the United Kingdom's power and prosperity. Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage . Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for
24336-428: The stigmatic covering and allows for pollen from the bird to enter the stigma. If no pollinators visit, however, then the stigmatic covering falls off naturally to allow for the flower's own anthers to pollinate the flower through self-pollination. Pollen is a large contributor to asthma and other respiratory allergies which combined affect between 10 and 50% of people worldwide. This number appears to be growing, as
24505-429: The substance can soak up water and increase the longevity of arranged flowers. Floral foam is non-biodegradable, non-recyclable and toxic for both humans and animals. Flowers A flower , also known as a bloom or blossom , is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae ). Flowers consist of a combination of vegetative organs – sepals that enclose and protect
24674-463: The temperature increases due to climate change mean that plants are producing more pollen , which is also more allergenic. Pollen is difficult to avoid, however, because of its small size and prevalence in the natural environment. Most of the pollen which causes allergies is that produced by wind-dispersed pollinators such as the grasses , birch trees , oak trees, and ragweeds ; the allergens in pollen are proteins which are thought to be necessary in
24843-569: The terms "floral design" and "floristry" are considered synonymous. Florists are people who work with flowers and plants, generally at the retail level. Floristry differs from floristics , the study of distribution and relationships of plant species over geographic areas. Floristry also differs from horticulture , which more broadly relates to the cultivation of flowers and plants so they will remain fresh as long as possible, and would be desirable for purchase, which also involves knowledge of customers' requirements and expectations. The ability to create
25012-491: The threat: Spain launched two further armadas, in 1596 and 1597 , but both were driven back by storms. The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when the King of Scots , James VI , a kingdom which had been a long-time rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I, thereby creating a personal union . He styled himself King of Great Britain , although this had no basis in English law. Under
25181-446: The transmission of orders to local florists. Few companies ship flowers direct to the consumer. ProFlowers , Interflora , Teleflora , FTD typically function as order gatherers and will work with local florists to have the order delivered. Floral foam is a foam used by florists to fixate flower stems for storage and delivery. It usually consists of phenol-formaldehyde plastic. Due to an additional treatment with detergents ,
25350-473: The two branches of the royal family, the Yorkists and Lancastrians . Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors , a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed. During the Tudor period , England began to develop naval skills , and exploration intensified in
25519-516: The varieties abundantly available in the season but also include blossoms flown in from around the world. Basic varieties in temperate latitudes include roses , tulips , irises , orchids and lilies . Fashion sometimes plays a role in floristry; what is considered the flower that everyone needs to have today can change very quickly. Some shops also stock gift baskets, fruits , and chocolates as well as flowers, whereas some shops will purchase these things only when needed for an order. Floral business
25688-428: The vegetative part, consisting of non-reproductive structures such as petals ; and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower is made up of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk or axis, called a receptacle . Each of these parts or floral organs is arranged in a spiral called a whorl . The four main whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are
25857-510: The vibrant hues of the outback, Australian floral style is a unique and captivating representation of the country's natural riches. Typically, a florist will organize flowers by season and holiday. Flowers have various different meanings in different cultures. The holidays and events for which flowers are used vary. Poppies are used to remember fallen soldiers only in Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries. People often prefer flowers that are associated with their ethnic group or country and
26026-428: The warming of the sea by the Gulf Stream . Rainfall is higher in the west, and parts of the Lake District receive more rain than anywhere else in the country. Since weather records began, the highest temperature recorded was 40.3 °C (104.5 °F) on 19 July 2022 at Coningsby , Lincolnshire , while the lowest was −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond , Shropshire. The fauna of England
26195-619: The water and so the pollen has a low density to enable floating, though many also use rafts, and are hydrophobic . Marine flowers have floating thread-like stigmas and may have adaptations for the tide, while freshwater species create indentations in the water. The third category, set out by Schwarzenbach, is those flowers which transport pollen above the water through conveyance. This ranges from floating plants, ( Lemnoideae ), to staminate flowers ( Vallisneria ). Most species in this group have dry, spherical pollen which sometimes forms into larger masses, and female flowers which form depressions in
26364-401: The water; the method of transport varies. Flowers can be pollinated by two mechanisms; cross-pollination and self-pollination. No mechanism is indisputably better than the other as they each have their advantages and disadvantages. Plants use one or both of these mechanisms depending on their habitat and ecological niche . Cross-pollination is the pollination of the carpel by pollen from
26533-480: The whole diversity in the development of the androecium of flowering plants, we find a continuum between modified leaves (phyllomes), modified stems (caulomes), and modified branchlets (shoots). The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that is favorable for fertilization and the formation of seeds , hence ensuring maximal reproductive success. To meet these needs
26702-460: The wind or water. Many plants use biotic vectors to disperse their seeds away from them. This method falls under the umbrella term zoochory , while endozoochory , also known as fruigivory, refers specifically to plants adapted to grow fruit in order to attract animals to eat them. Once eaten they go through typically go through animal's digestive system and are dispersed away from the plant. Some seeds are specially adapted either to last in
26871-419: The wind to effectively pick up and transport the pollen, the flowers typically have anthers loosely attached to the end of long thin filaments, or pollen forms around a catkin which moves in the wind. Rarer forms of this involve individual flowers being moveable by the wind ( pendulous ), or even less commonly; the anthers exploding to release the pollen into the wind. Pollination through water ( hydrophily )
27040-425: The world's first industrialised nation. England is home to the two oldest universities in the English-speaking world: the University of Oxford , founded in 1096, and the University of Cambridge , founded in 1209. Both universities are ranked among the most prestigious in the world. England's terrain chiefly consists of low hills and plains , especially in the centre and south . Upland and mountainous terrain
27209-453: Was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted Wars of the Three Kingdoms , involving Scotland and Ireland . The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced by the Commonwealth . Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653; a period of personal rule followed. After Cromwell's death and the resignation of his son Richard as Lord Protector, Charles II
27378-399: Was called the Rijks Middelbare Tuinbouw School (RTMS). The first professional floristry education started at the RMTS in 1968. The first professor in floristry at the horticultural college in Aalsmeer was Mr. Theo Boerma. In 1972 Theo Boerma started teaching professional evening courses for the floristry diploma: vakdiploma Bloemist-Winkelier. In 1980 Theo Boerma and his wife José Boerma founded
27547-416: Was dependent on some environmental cue. The ABC model is a simple model that describes the genes responsible for the development of flowers. Three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the primordia organ within the floral apical meristem . These gene functions are called A, B, and C. Genes are expressed in only the outer and lower most section of
27716-401: Was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689. Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament. Also since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at
27885-428: Was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Paleolithic . It takes its name from the Angles , a Germanic tribe who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in the 10th century and has had extensive cultural and legal impact on the wider world since the Age of Discovery , which began during the 15th century. The Kingdom of England , which included Wales after 1535, ceased to be
28054-399: Was invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called the Restoration . With the reopening of theatres, fine arts, literature and performing arts flourished throughout the Restoration of the "Merry Monarch" Charles II. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This
28223-572: Was lower than the present day and Britain was connected by land bridge to Ireland and Eurasia . As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later. The Beaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores. It was during this time that major Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge (phase III) and Avebury were constructed. By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in
28392-568: Was subsequently proclaimed emperor a century later. There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier. According to Bede , missionaries were sent from Rome by Eleutherius at the request of the chieftain Lucius of Britain in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church. There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through Joseph of Arimathea , while others claim through Lucius of Britain. By 410, during
28561-401: Was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according to Ptolemy 's Geographia there were around 20 tribes in the area. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to invade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a client king from
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