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85-491: The syllable xiang in the Fragrant Hills' Chinese name Xiangshan refers to incense, not fragrance per se . This name is perhaps derived from the name of the highest peak Xianglu Feng (香炉峰, lit.   ' Incense-burner Peak ' ). The bronze-cast incense burner (with remote roots in ritual bronzes ) being a common article found in temples. Indeed, incense was also often used as a metonym for temples. The park

170-417: A base. Over time, vessels became less flamboyant. By the mid-10th century BC (middle Western Zhou), the taotie had been replaced by pairs of long-tailed birds facing each other. Vessels shrank, and their profile became simpler. New types were the hú vase, zhōng bell and xǔ vessel. Guǐ vessels of this period tend to have covers. New types of vessel began to be introduced during

255-412: A clay-lined container and stamp it with the desired finish. In both methods, mould parts are fired and then reassembled. Clay castings are then made, and parts removed. The resulting clay casting looks like a finished product, is allowed to dry, and then filed flat to form a core. This establishes the casting space, which determines the thickness of the finished product. The parts are then reassembled around

340-475: A duke was allowed to use 7 dings and 6 guis, a baron could use 5 dings and 3 guis, a nobleman was allowed to use 3 dings and 2 guis. Turning to actual archaeological finds, the tomb of Fu Hao , an unusually powerful Shang queen, contained her set of ritual vessels, numbering over two hundred, which are also far larger than the twenty-four vessels in the tomb of a contemporary nobleman. Her higher status would have been clear not only to her contemporaries, but also, it

425-504: A family were supposed to participate. Details of these ritual ceremonies are preserved through early literary records. On the death of the owner of a ritual bronze, it would often be placed in his tomb, so that he could continue to pay his respects in the afterlife; other examples were cast specifically as grave goods. Indeed, many surviving examples have been excavated from graves. The bronzes were likely not used for normal eating and drinking; they represent larger, more elaborate versions of

510-407: A fibrous matrix as nephrite is.) It only occurs in metamorphic rocks. Both nephrite and jadeite were used from prehistoric periods for hardstone carving . Jadeite has about the same hardness (between 6.0 and 7.0 Mohs hardness ) as quartz, while nephrite is slightly softer (6.0 to 6.5) and so can be worked with quartz or garnet sand, and polished with bamboo or even ground jade. However nephrite

595-518: A kosmochlor-rich jade rock. Mines at Tawmaw and Hweka are mostly exhausted. From 1964 to 1981, mining was exclusively an enterprise of the Myanmar government. In 1981, 1985, and 1995, the Gemstone laws were modified to allow increasing private enterprise. In addition to this region, there are also notable mines in the neighboring Sagaing District, near the towns of Nasibon and Natmaw and Hkamti. Sagaing

680-414: A low density of lines, contrasting with a high density of thinner lines representing the ground. The ground areas were eventually filled with fine spirals known as léiwén 雷文 . The motifs now had a clear shape, and the imaginary taotie and dragon were joined by images of birds and animals from nature. Style V built on Style IV, raising the motif in high relief to further emphasize the contrast with

765-504: A sacrificial meaning, symbolizing the heavenly power of the ruler. The strong religious associations of bronze objects brought up a great number of vessel types and shapes which became regarded as classic and totemic and were copied, often in other media such as Chinese porcelain , throughout subsequent periods of Chinese art. The ritual books of old China minutely describe who was allowed to use what kinds of sacrificial vessels and how much. The king of Zhou used 9 dings and 8 gui vessels,

850-451: A similar range of meanings when appearing as a radical as parts of other characters. Jade in Japan was used for jade bracelets. It was a symbol of wealth and power. Leaders also used jade in rituals. It is the national stone of Japan. Examples of use in Japan can be traced back to the early Jomon period about 7,000 years ago. XRF analysis results have revealed that all jade used in Japan since

935-524: A special significance, comparable with that of gold and diamonds in the West. Jade was used for the finest objects and cult figures, and for grave furnishings for high-ranking members of the imperial family. Due to that significance and the rising middle class in China, in 2010 the finest jade when found in nuggets of "mutton fat" jade – so-named for its marbled white consistency – could sell for $ 3,000 an ounce,

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1020-472: A tenfold increase from a decade previously. The Chinese character 玉 (yù) is used to denote the several types of stone known in English as "jade" (e.g. 玉器, jadewares), such as jadeite (硬玉, 'hard jade', another name for 翡翠) and nephrite (軟玉, 'soft jade'). While still in use, the terms "hard jade" and "soft jade" resulted from a mistranslation by a Japanese geologist, and should be avoided. But because of

1105-683: Is a district in Myanmar proper, not a part of the ethic Kachin State. Carved nephrite jade was the main commodity trade during the historical Maritime Jade Road , an extensive trading network connecting multiple areas in Southeast Asia. The nephrite jade was mined in eastern Taiwan by the animist Taiwanese indigenous peoples and processed mostly in the Philippines by the animist indigenous Filipinos. Some were also processed in Vietnam , while

1190-460: Is also noted for its craftsman tradition of using large amounts of green serpentine or false jade obtained primarily from Afghanistan in order to fashion jewellery and ornamental items such as sword hilts and dagger handles. The Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad has a wide range of jade hilted daggers, mostly owned by the former Sultans of Hyderabad. Today, it is estimated that Myanmar

1275-407: Is called actinolite (the silky fibrous mineral form is one form of asbestos ). The higher the iron content, the greener the colour. Tremolite occurs in metamorphosed dolomitic limestones, and actinolite in metamorphic greenschists/glaucophane schists. Jadeite is a sodium- and aluminium-rich pyroxene . The more precious kind of jade, this is a microcrystalline interlocking growth of crystals (not

1360-441: Is closely connected with such jewellery production as Fabergé , whose workshops combined the green stone with gold, diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a strong belief among many Siberians , which stemmed from tradition, that jade was part of a class of sacred objects that had life. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a strong belief among many Mongolians , which came from ancient tradition, that jade

1445-845: Is considered a taonga , or treasure, and therefore protected under the Treaty of Waitangi , and the exploitation of it is restricted and closely monitored. It is found only in the South Island of New Zealand, known as Te Wai Pounamu in Māori —"The [land of] Greenstone Water", or Te Wahi Pounamu —"The Place of Greenstone". Pounamu taonga increase in mana (prestige) as they pass from one generation to another. The most prized taonga are those with known histories going back many generations. These are believed to have their own mana and were often given as gifts to seal important agreements. Tools, weapons and ornaments were made of it; in particular adzes ,

1530-520: Is different from colour and texture quality. In other words, Type A jadeite is not enhanced but can have poor colour and texture. There are three main methods of enhancement, sometimes referred to as the ABC Treatment System: The jade trade in Myanmar consists of the mining , distribution, and manufacture of jadeite —a variety of jade—in the nation of Myanmar (Burma). The jadeite deposits found in Myanmar's northern regions are

1615-466: Is done from large boulders that contain bountiful deposits of jade. Jade is exposed using diamond-tipped core drills in order to extract samples. This is done to ensure that the jade meets requirements. Hydraulic spreaders are then inserted into cleavage points in the rock so that the jade can be broken away. Once the boulders are removed and the jade is accessible, it is broken down into more manageable 10-tonne pieces using water-cooled diamond saws. The jade

1700-502: Is found in small numbers of pit-houses and burials . The craft production of small comma -shaped and tubular "jades" using materials such as jade, microcline , jasper , etc., in southern Korea originates from the Middle Mumun Pottery Period ( c.  850 –550 BC). Comma-shaped jades are found on some of the gold crowns of Silla royalty ( c.  300 /400–668 AD) and sumptuous elite burials of

1785-459: Is further embellished by adding prefabricated ornate open worked handles, which are produced through a lost wax process and then attached. Lost wax was eventually introduced to China from the ancient Near East as far west as possible, and the process has an early and long history in the region, but exactly when and how it was introduced is unclear. The dewaxing process is more suitable for casting decorations with deep undercuts and openwork designs than

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1870-596: Is revered for its symbolism of purity, harmony, and protection in various cultures, especially in East Asia where it holds significant cultural and spiritual importance. Types B and C have been enhanced with resin and colourant respectively. The English word jade is derived (via French l'ejade and Latin ilia 'flanks, kidney area') from the Spanish term piedra de ijada (first recorded in 1565) or 'loin stone', from its reputed efficacy in curing ailments of

1955-538: Is the origin of upwards of 70% of the world's supply of high-quality jadeite. Most of the jadeite mined in Myanmar is not cut for use in Myanmar, instead being transported to other nations, primarily in Asia , for use in jewelry and other products. The jadeite deposits found in Kachinland , in Myanmar's northern regions is the highest quality jadeite in the world, considered precious by sources in China going as far back as

2040-698: Is then loaded onto trucks and transported to the proper storage facilities. Russia imported jade from China for a long time, but in the 1860s its own jade deposits were found in Siberia. Today, the main deposits of jade are located in Eastern Siberia, but jade is also extracted in the Polar Urals and in the Krasnoyarsk territory (Kantegirskoye and Kurtushibinskoye deposits). Russian raw jade reserves are estimated at 336 tons. Russian jade culture

2125-442: Is tougher and more resistant to breakage. Among the earliest known jade artifacts excavated from prehistoric sites are simple ornaments with bead, button, and tubular shapes. Additionally, jade was used for adze heads, knives , and other weapons , which can be delicately shaped. As metal-working technologies became available, the beauty of jade made it valuable for ornaments and decorative objects. The name Nephrite derives from

2210-600: The Kingdom of Khotan , on the southern leg of the Silk Road , yearly tribute payments consisting of the most precious white jade were made to the Chinese Imperial court and there worked into objets d'art by skilled artisans as jade had a status-value exceeding that of gold or silver . Jade became a favourite material for the crafting of Chinese scholars' objects, such as rests for calligraphy brushes, as well as

2295-626: The Korean Three Kingdoms . After the state of Silla united the Korean Peninsula in 668, the widespread popularisation of death rituals related to Buddhism resulted in the decline of the use of jade in burials as prestige mortuary goods. The Jain temple of Kolanpak in the Nalgonda district , Telangana , India is home to a 5-foot (1.5 m) high sculpture of Mahavira that is carved entirely out of jade. India

2380-612: The Late Shang site of Yinxu (in modern Anyang ), the only site that had been excavated by that time. When subsequent excavations at various sites yielded vessels with archaeological context, his sequence was confirmed. However, the timescale was longer than he had envisaged, beginning in the Erlitou period and reaching his Style V early in the Late Shang period. In Loehr's Style I, vessels were decorated with lines carved into

2465-693: The Qing dynasty during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor , whose massive collection is recorded in the catalogues known as the Xiqing gujian and the Xiqing jijian ( 西清繼鑑 ). Within those two catalogues, the bronzeware is categorized according to use: The most highly prized are generally the sacrificial and wine vessels, which form the majority of most collections. Often these vessels are elaborately decorated with taotie designs. The taotie pattern

2550-724: The loins and kidneys . Nephrite is derived from lapis nephriticus , a Latin translation of the Spanish piedra de ijada . During Neolithic times, the key known sources of nephrite jade in China for utilitarian and ceremonial jade items were the now-depleted deposits in the Ningshao area in the Yangtze River Delta ( Liangzhu culture 3400–2250 BC) and in an area of the Liaoning province and Inner Mongolia ( Hongshan culture 4700–2200 BC). Dushan Jade (a rock composed largely of anorthite feldspar and zoisite)

2635-410: The pyroxene group of minerals). Nephrite is typically green, although may be yellow, white or black. Jadeite varies from white or near-colorless, through various shades of green (including an emerald green, termed 'imperial'), to lavender , yellow, orange, brown and black. Rarely it may be blue. Both of these names refer to their use as gemstones, and each has a mineralogically more specific name. Both

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2720-411: The taotie . Loehr identified this style as the first because he found it used on the crudest vessels. This style accounts for all the decorated bronzes found at Erlitou and some from the succeeding Erligang period . In Style II, the thickness of the raised lines is varied. This could have been achieved either by painting the pattern on the mould and carving out the ink-covered areas, or by painting on

2805-907: The ' mere ' (short club), and the hei-tiki (neck pendant). Nephrite jewellery of Maori design is widely popular with locals and tourists, although some of the jade used for these is now imported from British Columbia and elsewhere. Pounamu taonga include tools such as toki (adzes), whao (chisels), whao whakakōka (gouges), ripi pounamu (knives), scrapers , awls, hammer stones, and drill points. Hunting tools include matau (fishing hooks) and lures, spear points, and kākā poria (leg rings for fastening captive birds); weapons such as mere (short handled clubs); and ornaments such as pendants ( hei-tiki , hei matau and pekapeka), ear pendants (kuru and kapeu), and cloak pins. Functional pounamu tools were widely worn for both practical and ornamental reasons, and continued to be worn as purely ornamental pendants (hei kakï) even after they were no longer used as tools. Jade

2890-692: The 10th century. Jadeite in Myanmar is primarily found in the "Jade Tract" located in Lonkin Township in Kachin State in northern Myanmar which encompasses the alluvial region of the Uyu River between the 25th and 26th parallels. Present-day extraction of jade in this region occurs at the Phakant-gyi, Maw Sisa, Tin Tin, and Khansee mines. Khansee is also the only mine that produces maw sit sit,

2975-524: The Bronze Age to the Han Dynasty, the main technique used in ancient China to cast ritual vessels, weapons and other utensils was the piece-mould casting. In the piece-mould process, a section mould can be formed in two ways. First, a clay mould is formed around the model of the object to be cast and then removed in sections. In the second approach, no model is required. Instead, create a mould inside

3060-657: The Bronze Age, first in the South and then in the Shanghe region of the Central Plains. The importance of casting in the manufacture of personal ornaments is that it is used to create the connecting bronze chains. The earliest archaeological evidence of lost wax casting in China was found in the 6th century BC, at the cemetery of Chu in Xichuan , Henan province. Bronze Jin, cast using traditional piece-mould techniques,

3145-459: The Greek word meaning "kidney". This is because in ancient times it was believed that wearing this kind of jade around the waist could cure kidney disease. Nephrite can be found in a creamy white form (known in China as "mutton fat" jade) as well as in a variety of light green colours, whereas jadeite shows more colour variations, including blue, brown, red, black, dark green, lavender and white. Of

3230-775: The Imperial art collections. The Chinese Bronze Age began in the Xia dynasty ( c.  2070  – c.  1600 BC ), and bronze ritual containers form the bulk of collections of Chinese antiquities, reaching its zenith during the Shang dynasty ( c.  1600  – c.  1046 BC ) and the early part of the Zhou dynasty (1045–256 BC). The majority of surviving Chinese ancient bronze artefacts are ritual forms rather than their equivalents made for practical use, either as tools or weapons. Weapons like daggers and axes had

3315-538: The Jomon period is from Itoigawa . The jade culture that blossomed in ancient Japan respected green ones, and jade of other colors was not used. There is a theory that the reason why the meaning is that it was believed that the color of green enables the reproduction of fertility, the life, and the soul of the earth. The use of jade and other greenstone was a long-term tradition in Korea ( c.  850 BC – AD 668). Jade

3400-726: The Western Chinese province of Xinjiang but other parts of China as well, such as Lantian, Shaanxi . There, white and greenish nephrite jade is found in small quarries and as pebbles and boulders in the rivers flowing from the Kuen-Lun mountain range eastward into the Takla-Makan desert area. The river jade collection is concentrated in the Yarkand , the White Jade ( Yurungkash ) and Black Jade ( Karakash ) Rivers. From

3485-521: The Yangtze valley. The style became fully developed in the period between the Erligang culture and the Late Shang. Late Style III objects introduced undulating relief to make the elaborate designs more readable. Style IV represents an abrupt switch to a new method to make the design intelligible. Instead of carving the whole design with uniform grooves of consistent density, motifs are represented with

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3570-503: The amphibole jade (nephrite) and pyroxene jade are mineral aggregates (rocks) rather than mineral species. Nephrite was deprecated by the International Mineralogical Association as a mineral species name in 1978 (replaced by tremolite ). The name "nephrite" is mineralogically correct for referring to the rock. Jadeite, is a legitimate mineral species, differing from the pyroxene jade rock. In China,

3655-528: The bridge, Study of Reading Heart (Jianxin Zhai) and Bright Temple (Zhao Miao). Study of Reading Heart was built in the Ming dynasty (1368 to 1644) and is a landscaped park inside Fragrant Hills Park. Bright Temple is a large Tibetan style lamasery complex built in 1780 as the residence for the sixth Panchen Lama during his visits to the Qianlong Emperor . Buildings in the complex have partially been burned down. Among

3740-409: The case of Shang period bronzes, various sites, from early to late Shang period, numerous samples of the bronze alloy are characterized by high radiogenic lead isotope content (derived from both uranium and thorium decay), unlike most known native Chinese lead ores. Potential sources of the ore include Qinling , middle to lower Yangtze area, and south-west China; the possibility that ore or metal

3825-455: The core, and the parts are cast. The clay moulds are then broken up, and the finished castings are removed and polished with abrasives to obtain a shiny finish. The number of parts the mould is cut into depends entirely on the shape and design of the object to be cast. Casting is an ancient Chinese casting technique used to attach prefabricated handles and other small accessories to larger bronze objects. This technique has been in use as early as

3910-416: The degree to which this was the intended meaning is sometimes disputed. In all of these patterns, the eyes are always the focus. The huge eyes leave an awesome impression on viewers even from a distance. The taotie pattern features rich variations from one bronze piece to another because one ceramic mould could only cast one bronze work in the early days of casting. The patterns are normally symmetrical around

3995-493: The early 9th century BC, initially in western Shaanxi, then quickly spreading to the central part of the province. These new types, which were grouped in large sets, possibly corresponding to a change in Zhou ritual practice. Animal decorations were replaced by geometric forms such as ribbing and bands of lozenge shapes. Conversely, legs and handles became larger and more elaborate, and were often topped with animal heads. For

4080-477: The feathers of the kingfisher bird. That definition was later expanded to include all other colors that the rock is found in. It quickly became almost as popular as nephrite and a favorite of Qing Dynasty's aristocracy, while scholars still had strong attachment to nephrite (white jade, or Hetian jade), which they deemed to be the symbol of a nobleman. In the history of the art of the Chinese empire, jade has had

4165-496: The first century of the Spring and Autumn period, designs largely followed those of the late Western Zhou. Over time, vessels became wider and shorter, and dragon decorations began to appear. Several innovations in the fabrication process were adopted around the middle of the period, contributing to revitalized designs with more intricate forms. The body and attachments of a vessel could be cast separately and welded together to complete

4250-513: The ground. Raised flanges were used to mark subdivisions of the design. The bronze vessels recovered from the tomb of Fu Hao, consort of the Late Shang king Wu Ding , are decorated in Style V. Some traditions from the Yangtze region feature high relief without léiwén , suggesting that they represent independent developments from Style III. Western Zhou vessels may be divided into early, middle and late periods based on their form, decoration and

4335-692: The highest peak, Incense Burner Peak. Another point of interest in the park is the Shuangqing Villa, once the residence of Mao Zedong and also an early site for the headquarters of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party . The Temple of Azure Clouds (Biyun Si) is located just outside the north gate of Fragrant Hills Park. Chinese ritual bronzes From c.  1650 BC , elaborately decorated bronze vessels were deposited as grave goods in

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4420-481: The introduction of intensive agriculture. In China such areas lacked ore deposits and required the import of metallurgical material. Typical Shang period bronzes contain over 2% lead, unlike contemporary coppers of the Eurasian Steppe . Pre-Shang bronzes do not contain the radiogenic lead isotopes. Scholars have sought to determine the source of the ores been based on lead content and trace isotope analysis. In

4505-418: The left and right. The motif was soon elaborated as a frontal view of a face with oval eyes and mouth, continuing on each side into a side view of a body. It reached its full development as a monster mask at around the time of king Wu Ding , early in the Late Shang period. The typical taotie pattern is usually interpreted as a full-face round-eyed animal face ("mask"), with sharp teeth and horns, although

4590-611: The material was highly symbolic, and it was often employed in the performance of ideological practices and rituals . Jade was first identified in Canada by Chinese settlers in 1886 in British Columbia. At this time jade was considered worthless because the settlers were searching for gold. Jade was not commercialized in Canada until the 1970s. The mining business Loex James Ltd., which was started by two Californians, began commercial mining of Canadian jade in 1972. Mining

4675-401: The model and carving the areas between. In addition to the taotie , a second motif used was a one-eyed animal seen in profile, usually identified as a dragon. The Erligang period is characterized by Style II, along with late Style I and early Style III. Style III began as a smooth development from Style II, with no clear separation. The patterns increased in complexity and spread over more of

4760-401: The mould, which the piece-mould process made accessible. This produced thin raised lines on the cast object. Because the design was carved on the pieces of the mould, it was naturally divided into sections. Subdivision of the design would persist through the later styles, even when carving the design on the model made it no longer a technical necessity. The principal motif used with this style was

4845-415: The moulding process, which complicates the removal of moulded parts from the model. Although lost-wax casting was never used to make large vessels, it became more and more popular between the late Eastern Zhou and Han dynasties. The lost-wax casting process for casting small parts was more economical than the mould-making process because the amount of metal used was easier to control. In the lost wax process,

4930-524: The mountain side. Every year, thousands of tourists ride the cable cars through the park in order see the hills in autumn colors. The grand opening of the annual Red Leaf Festival of Beijing takes place there. There is also the Fragrant Hills Hotel, designed by I. M. Pei , which is more traditional than most of his designs. There are two main routes through the park. One route goes through the north area, with Spectacles Lake (Yanjing Lake) and

5015-450: The mouthpieces of some opium pipes , due to the belief that breathing through jade would bestow longevity upon smokers who used such a pipe. Jadeite, with its bright emerald-green, lavender, pink, orange , yellow, red, black, white, near-colorless and brown colors was imported from Burma to China in quantity only after about 1800. The vivid white to green variety became known as fei cui (翡翠) or kingfisher jade, due to its resemblance to

5100-579: The name jadeite has been replaced with fei cui , the traditional Chinese name for this gem that was in use long before Damour created the name in 1863. Jade is well known for its ornamental use in East Asian , South Asian , and Southeast Asian art . It is commonly used in Latin America , such as Mexico and Guatemala . The use of jade in Mesoamerica for symbolic and ideological ritual

5185-412: The object to be cast is first modeled. Wax, which is easy to shape and carve and which melts away under the proper conditions, has been the most commonly used material for this purpose since antiquity. The wax model is then coated with clay to form the mould. The first coat of clay is usually carefully brushed to prevent trapping of air bubbles; subsequent coats may be rougher. Then, the clay is fired and

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5270-634: The park. During the Boxer Rebellion , activities by troops of the Eight-Nation Alliance led to further damage to the park. Since 1949, the government of China has been engaged in continuous restoration and development in the area. The Fragrant Hills park is recognized as one of the major tourist attractions in Beijing. When autumn arrives, the natural scenery in the park turns spectacular, with fiery red smoke tree leaves covering

5355-416: The peoples of Brunei , Cambodia , Indonesia , Malaysia , Singapore , and Thailand also participated in the massive animist-led nephrite jade trading network, where other commodities were also traded. Participants in the network at the time had a majority animist population. The maritime road is one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world. It

5440-490: The principal sources of modern gem jadeite. In the area of Mogaung in the Myitkyina District of Upper Burma, jadeite formed a layer in the dark-green serpentine, and has been quarried and exported for well over a hundred years. Canada provides the major share of modern lapidary nephrite. Jade may be enhanced (sometimes called "stabilized"). Some merchants will refer to these as grades, but degree of enhancement

5525-493: The production of bronze was probably controlled by the ruler, who gave unformed metal to his nobility as a sign of favour. The technology of bronze production was described in the Kao Gong Ji , compiled some time between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC. Bronzes ( 青铜器 ; 青銅器 ; qīng tóng qì ; ch'ing t'ong ch'i ) are some of the most important pieces of ancient Chinese art , warranting an entire separate catalogue in

5610-593: The same common lead deposit. A recent compositional analysis has proposed that the metals used to manufacture the Chinese ritual bronzes derived from mining progressively deeper ores in deposits close to where many of these bronzes were unearthed, and calls into question interpretations of social, cultural and technological change during the Chinese Bronze Age predicated on the acquisition of metals from disparate regions. The bronzes typically contain between 5% and 30% tin and between 2% and 3% lead . From

5695-418: The shape. Reusable pattern blocks made production faster and cheaper. Jade Jade is an umbrella term for two different types of decorative rocks used for jewelry or ornaments . Jade is often referred to by either of two different silicate mineral names: nephrite (a silicate of calcium and magnesium in the amphibole group of minerals), or jadeite (a silicate of sodium and aluminum in

5780-430: The surviving treasures are a majestic glazed-tiled archway in front of the complex, a terrace and a glazed-tiled pagoda. Bells hung on the eaves of the pagoda chime in breeze. The second route leads through the south area of the park. Main attractions along the route include Tranquility Green Lake (Jingcui Lake), Shuangqing Villa, Fragrant Temple, and Incense Burner Peak. This route is more difficult because it leads across

5865-545: The tombs of royalty and nobility during the Chinese Bronze Age . Documented excavations have found over 200 pieces in a single royal tomb. They were produced for an individual or social group to use in making ritual offerings of food and drink to his or their ancestors and other deities or spirits. Such ceremonies generally took place in family temples or ceremonial halls over tombs. These ceremonies can be seen as ritual banquets in which both living and dead members of

5950-431: The two, jadeite is rarer, documented in fewer than 12 places worldwide. Translucent emerald-green jadeite is the most prized variety, both historically and today. As "quetzal" jade, bright green jadeite from Guatemala was treasured by Mesoamerican cultures, and as "kingfisher" jade, vivid green rocks from Burma became the preferred stone of post-1800 Chinese imperial scholars and rulers. Burma ( Myanmar ) and Guatemala are

6035-593: The types of vessels preferred. The most common vessels throughout the period were the guǐ basin and dǐng cauldron. They were also the vessels most likely to carry long inscriptions. Vessels of the early Western Zhou were elaborations of Late Shang designs, featuring high-relief decor, often with pronounced flanges, and made extensive use of the taotie motif. Jué , jiǎ and gū wine vessels continued to be produced, but would largely disappear in later periods. Yǒu and zūn were usually cast in matching sets. The earliest guǐ were elevated on

6120-540: The types of vessels used for this, and made in precious materials. Many of the shapes also survive in pottery, and pottery versions continued to be made in an antiquarian spirit until modern times. Apart from table vessels, weapons and some other objects were made in special ritual forms. Another class of ritual objects are those, also including weapons, made in jade , which was probably the most highly valued of all, and which had been long used for ritual tools and weapons, since c.  4500 BC . At least initially,

6205-447: The value added culturally to jades throughout Chinese history, the word has also come to refer more generally to precious or ornamental stones, and is very common in more symbolic usage as in phrases like 拋磚引玉/抛砖引玉 (lit. "casting a brick (i.e. the speaker's own words) to draw a jade (i.e. pearls of wisdom from the other party)"), 玉容 (a beautiful face; "jade countenance"), and 玉立 (slim and graceful; "jade standing upright"). The character has

6290-523: The vertical axis, and the lower jaw area is missing. The most obvious difference between taotie patterns are the "horns", if that is what indeed they are. Some have shapes interpreted as ox horns, some sheep horns, and some have tiger's ears. Beginning in the 1930s and culminating in 1953, the art historian Max Loehr identified a developmental sequence of five decorative styles found on pre-Zhou bronze vessels. The vessels Loehr worked with were unprovenanced, but he assumed that they had all originated from

6375-426: The vessel's surface. Many new designs and variations of relief were introduced. As the designs became more elaborate, they were carried out exclusively on the model. Unlike the raised surfaces, the sunken lines are all of the same width, suggesting that they were carved on the model with a particular tool. It was at this time that Central Plains bronze techniques spread over a wide area, and new regional styles emerged in

6460-478: The wax melts (thus "lost wax"). Molten metal is then poured into the clay mould to replace the burnt wax model. After the metal cools, the fired-clay model is opened to reveal the finished product. The resulting cast object is a metal replica of the original wax model. The appreciation, creation and collection of Chinese bronzes as pieces of art and not as ritual items began in the Song dynasty and reached its zenith in

6545-579: Was a popular bronze-ware decorative design in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, named by scholars of the Song dynasty (960–1279) after a monster on Zhou ding vessels with a head but no body mentioned in Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals (239 BC). The earliest form of the taotie on bronzeware, dating from early in the Erligang period , consists of a pair of eyes with some subsidiary lines stretching to

6630-599: Was a rare and valued material in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica . The only source from which the various indigenous cultures , such as the Olmec and Maya , could obtain jade was located in the Motagua River valley in Guatemala . Jade was largely an elite good, and was usually carved in various ways, whether serving as a medium upon which hieroglyphs were inscribed, or shaped into symbolic figurines . Generally,

6715-627: Was being mined as early as 6000 BC. In the Yin Ruins of the Shang Dynasty (1600 to 1050 BC) in Anyang, Dushan Jade ornaments were unearthed in the tomb of the Shang kings. Jade was considered to be the "imperial gem" and was used to create many utilitarian and ceremonial objects, from indoor decorative items to jade burial suits . From the earliest Chinese dynasties to the present, the jade deposits most used were not only those of Khotan in

6800-451: Was believed, to her ancestors and other spirits. Many of the pieces were cast with inscriptions using the posthumous form of her name, indicating they were made especially for burial in the tomb. The origin of the ores or metals used for Shang and other early Chinese bronze is a current (2018) topic of research. As with other early civilisations (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus), Shang settlement was centered on river valleys, and driven in part by

6885-659: Was built in 1186, during the rule of the Jin dynasty , and was expanded during the Yuan and Ming dynasties . In 1745, the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty ordered the addition of several new halls, pavilions and gardens to the park, renaming it the "Garden of Tranquility and Pleasure". In 1860, British and French forces burnt the Old Summer Palace during the Second Opium War , which caused extensive damage to

6970-490: Was imported from Africa in this period has been proposed, based on potential isotopic matches, but challenged and rejected by other researchers. The pattern of metal circulation revealed by the existence of highly radiogenic lead remains controversial, partly because radiogenic lead sources may not be as rare in China as initially thought but also because different lead isotope signatures do not necessarily signify different geographical locations, but pockets of radiogenic lead in

7055-690: Was in existence for at least 3,000 years, where its peak production was from 2000 BCE to 500 CE, older than the Silk Road in mainland Eurasia. It began to wane during its final centuries from 500 CE until 1000 CE. The entire period of the network was a golden age for the diverse animist societies of the region. Nephrite jade in New Zealand is known as pounamu in the Māori language (often called "greenstone" in New Zealand English ), and plays an important role in Māori culture . It

7140-629: Was influenced by its rarity and value among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures , such as the Olmecs , the Maya , and other ancient civilizations of the Valley of Mexico . Jade is classified into three main types: Type A, Type B, and Type C. Type A jade refers to natural, untreated jadeite jade, prized for its purity and vibrant colors. It is the most valuable and sought-after type, often characterized by its vivid green hues and high translucency. Type A jade

7225-523: Was part of a class of sacred objects that had life. It was not until 1863 that French mineralogist Alexis Damour determined that what was referred to as "jade" could in fact be one of two different minerals , either nephrite or jadeite . Nephrite consists of a microcrystalline interlocking fibrous matrix of the calcium, magnesium-iron rich amphibole mineral series tremolite (calcium-magnesium)-ferroactinolite (calcium-magnesium-iron). The middle member of this series with an intermediate composition

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