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117-559: Fremantle Prison , sometimes referred to as Fremantle Gaol or Fremantle Jail , is a former Australian prison and World Heritage Site in Fremantle , Western Australia. The site includes the prison cellblocks, gatehouse, perimeter walls, cottages, and tunnels. It was initially used for convicts transported from Britain , but was transferred to the colonial government in 1886 for use for locally-sentenced prisoners. Royal Commissions were held in 1898 and 1911, and instigated some reform to

234-456: A chain gang undertaking hard labour, typically on roads near Fremantle. Outside work, mostly on public infrastructure, continued beyond the convict era, but gradually declined due to discipline concerns, the rise of trade unions that saw such work as "a threat to free labour", and an increasing emphasis on work as rehabilitation rather than punishment. By 1911 outside work had all but ceased, but could not adequately be replaced by employment within

351-811: A classification board was set up in 1963 to assess prisoners. a place for rehabilitation and re-education ... where people can retain their identity and, if necessary, create a new identity The appointment of Colin Campbell as comptroller general in 1966 fostered substantial changes within Fremantle Prison itself. One of his first changes was to clear the classification committee's backlog of prisoners awaiting assessment. Campbell also established an officer training school, as well as an assessment centre to evaluate new prisoners. Work release and community service programs were also introduced, along with training programs, social workers and welfare officers. Within

468-630: A confining layer, often made up of clay. The confining layer might offer some protection from surface contamination. If the distinction between confined and unconfined is not clear geologically (i.e., if it is not known if a clear confining layer exists, or if the geology is more complex, e.g., a fractured bedrock aquifer), the value of storativity returned from an aquifer test can be used to determine it (although aquifer tests in unconfined aquifers should be interpreted differently than confined ones). Confined aquifers have very low storativity values (much less than 0.01, and as little as 10 ), which means that

585-439: A formal, distant, relationship. The prison officer's role in the 20th century did not change much, with the job still entailing a boredom-inducing daily routine focused on security. Officer training became a priority under Campbell's administration, from the late 1960s. Training courses were set up for staff inductions and promotions, and seminars were started for senior officers. The most significant change in this period, however,

702-421: A land grant of about 36 acres (15 ha) from limestone quarried on-site. A 15-foot (4.6 m) tall boundary wall encloses the prison grounds, with a gatehouse in the centre of the western wall, facing The Terrace. Other roads bounding the site are Knutsford Street to the north, Hampton Road to the east, and Fothergill Street to the south. Cottages, which housed prison workers and officials, are located outside

819-511: A large expansion of the prison system, the problem of overcrowding remained throughout the 20th century, as did Western Australia's high incarceration rate relative to the rest of Australia. The nature of prisoners changed, with three times the proportion of 16- to 19-year-olds in 1984 compared to 1898, and a growing over-representation of Aboriginal prisoners to nearly half the incarcerated population. Sentences also increased in length, such that in 1984 more than 80% of inmates were serving more than

936-409: A locally-run prison, Fremantle's population was generally short-sentenced white prisoners in the 1890s, with very few Aboriginal prisoners. By the late 20th century, most prisoners were serving longer sentences, a higher proportion of them were violent, and Aboriginal people were present in large numbers. Prison life at Fremantle was extremely regulated. Meals were an important part of the day, eaten in

1053-431: A meal, locked in their cells until 12:20 pm, followed by some time in the yards. At 1:00 there was another parade, and another session of work which lasted to 4:15. Another meal was collected, and prisoners were locked away in their cells overnight. The lights stayed on until 9:30 pm. On the weekends the routine featured no work, and included a film played for the prisoners. Prisoners ate meals in their cells, from

1170-403: A million cubic kilometers of "low salinity" water that could be economically processed into potable water . The reserves formed when ocean levels were lower and rainwater made its way into the ground in land areas that were not submerged until the ice age ended 20,000 years ago. The volume is estimated to be 100 times the amount of water extracted from other aquifers since 1900. An aquitard

1287-468: A new metropolitan maximum security prison at Casuarina . There were divergent views in the community over the site's future, whether it should be preserved or redeveloped. The ultimate decision was for conservation of the prison, but allowing for the buildings to be adapted for reuse by the community. The Fremantle Prison Trust was established in 1992 to advise the Minister for Works on the management of

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1404-735: A number of challenges such as overdrafting (extracting groundwater beyond the equilibrium yield of the aquifer), groundwater-related subsidence of land, and the salinization or pollution of the groundwater. Aquifers occur from near-surface to deeper than 9,000 metres (30,000 ft). Those closer to the surface are not only more likely to be used for water supply and irrigation, but are also more likely to be replenished by local rainfall. Although aquifers are sometimes characterized as "underground rivers or lakes," they are actually porous rock saturated with water. Many desert areas have limestone hills or mountains within them or close to them that can be exploited as groundwater resources. Part of

1521-408: A paint shop, mat maker, shoe maker, book binder and tailor shop. In 1993 the four northern workshops were adapted for use as TAFE art workshops. In the 1850s, shafts were sunk into the limestone bedrock to provide the prison with fresh water from an aquifer , and a tank was installed in 1874 to offer the town of Fremantle an alternative water supply. Prisoners worked a pump to fill the tank, which

1638-542: A permanent convict establishment, and ultimately settled on the current site, on a hill overlooking Fremantle. The design for Fremantle Prison was based on the Pentonville Prison in Britain, but with diagonal cell blocks replaced with a four-storey linear structure, which would be the longest, tallest prison cell block in the southern hemisphere. Construction began in 1851, and work rapidly progressed following

1755-476: A prominent part of the diet in 1991. As well as being used to build the prison itself, convict labour, with convicts in chain gangs , was used for other public works in the Fremantle and surrounding Perth area, including The Causeway , Perth Town Hall and Stirling Highway . The work undertaken by a convict depended on their behaviour and demeanour. Upon arrival to Western Australia, convicts were kept within

1872-442: A rock unit of low porosity is highly fractured, it can also make a good aquifer (via fissure flow), provided the rock has a hydraulic conductivity sufficient to facilitate movement of water. Challenges for using groundwater include: overdrafting (extracting groundwater beyond the equilibrium yield of the aquifer), groundwater-related subsidence of land, groundwater becoming saline, groundwater pollution . Aquifer depletion

1989-420: A short time span), time in irons , and a lengthening of a prisoner's sentence by a visiting magistrate. The cat o' nine tails , which had been used since the early days of the prison, was abolished during the post-1911 Royal Commission reforms. Other reforms in this period saw the number of punishments inflicted decrease from 184 in 1913 to 57 in 1914, and 35 in 1915. List of Australian prisons This

2106-487: A total of 6,182 prisoners. From those 6,182 prisoners, 5,762 were males (93%) and 420 were females (7%). Those numbers also include 480 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander prisoners, making them 8% of the total number of prisoners in Victoria. In 2015, the average male prisoner in Victoria was: In 2015, the average female prisoner in Victoria was: At 30 June 2015, the total operational capacity for Victorian prisons

2223-440: A two-dimensional slice of the aquifer) appear to be layers of alternating coarse and fine materials. Coarse materials, because of the high energy needed to move them, tend to be found nearer the source (mountain fronts or rivers), whereas the fine-grained material will make it farther from the source (to the flatter parts of the basin or overbank areas—sometimes called the pressure area). Since there are less fine-grained deposits near

2340-504: A water pump, and oakum picking. Even with these extra activities, by 1899, 60 to 70 men were employed at the pump, each doing only a few minutes work per hour, and occupied the rest of the time with recreation such as draughts . New workshops built in 1901 allowed prisoners to work in bootmaking and tailoring, and from 1904, printing. Only a small fraction of prisoners were allocated to the workshops – 35 out of an average of 279 prisoners in 1902. In 1908, there were still few men employed in

2457-416: A well in a fracture trace or intersection of fracture traces increases the likelihood to encounter good water production. Voids in karst aquifers can be large enough to cause destructive collapse or subsidence of the ground surface that can initiate a catastrophic release of contaminants. Groundwater flow rate in karst aquifers is much more rapid than in porous aquifers as shown in the accompanying image to

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2574-499: A year. In the 1970s and 1980s, there was an increasing number of people committed for violent crimes, but still a minority of the population. Both staff and prisoners, however, perceived a notable increase in violence during these years, coinciding with the rise of illegal drugs in prison, and of sentences for drug-related offences. In the Convict Establishment of 1855, the day began with the wakeup bell at 4:30 am, and

2691-656: Is a list of operational and former Australian prisons for adult males and females and youth detention centres for juveniles . Prisons listed as "museum" are former prisons that are now open for public inspection and tours. Throughout the European history of Australia, particularly since its formation as a penal colony , Australia has had many establishments for rehabilitation and incarceration. Altogether, there have been more than 180+ rehabilitation centres, youth correctional centres and prisons in Australia. A new prison

2808-587: Is a problem in some areas, especially in northern Africa , where one example is the Great Manmade River project of Libya . However, new methods of groundwater management such as artificial recharge and injection of surface waters during seasonal wet periods has extended the life of many freshwater aquifers, especially in the United States. The Great Artesian Basin situated in Australia

2925-554: Is a zone within the Earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another. An aquitard can sometimes, if completely impermeable, be called an aquiclude or aquifuge . Aquitards are composed of layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic conductivity . Groundwater can be found at nearly every point in the Earth's shallow subsurface to some degree, although aquifers do not necessarily contain fresh water . The Earth's crust can be divided into two regions:

3042-1019: Is arguably the largest groundwater aquifer in the world (over 1.7 million km or 0.66 million sq mi). It plays a large part in water supplies for Queensland, and some remote parts of South Australia. Discontinuous sand bodies at the base of the McMurray Formation in the Athabasca Oil Sands region of northeastern Alberta , Canada, are commonly referred to as the Basal Water Sand (BWS) aquifers . Saturated with water, they are confined beneath impermeable bitumen -saturated sands that are exploited to recover bitumen for synthetic crude oil production. Where they are deep-lying and recharge occurs from underlying Devonian formations they are saline, and where they are shallow and recharged by surface water they are non-saline. The BWS typically pose problems for

3159-501: Is considered to be a high rate for porous aquifers, as illustrated by the water slowly seeping from sandstone in the accompanying image to the left. Porosity is important, but, alone , it does not determine a rock's ability to act as an aquifer. Areas of the Deccan Traps (a basaltic lava) in west central India are good examples of rock formations with high porosity but low permeability, which makes them poor aquifers. Similarly,

3276-471: Is flanked on either end by large dormitory wards, called the Association Rooms. Here, as many as 80 men slept in hammocks, either as a reward for good behaviour or because they would soon receive their ticket of leave . In contrast, the cramped cells measured just seven by four feet (2.1 by 1.2 m). Although each cell initially had a basin connected to running water, the installation was before

3393-421: Is held in place by surface adhesive forces and it rises above the water table (the zero- gauge-pressure isobar ) by capillary action to saturate a small zone above the phreatic surface (the capillary fringe ) at less than atmospheric pressure. This is termed tension saturation and is not the same as saturation on a water-content basis. Water content in a capillary fringe decreases with increasing distance from

3510-419: Is the level to which water will rise in a large-diameter pipe (e.g., a well) that goes down into the aquifer and is open to the atmosphere. Aquifers are typically saturated regions of the subsurface that produce an economically feasible quantity of water to a well or spring (e.g., sand and gravel or fractured bedrock often make good aquifer materials). An aquitard is a zone within the Earth that restricts

3627-427: The saturated zone or phreatic zone (e.g., aquifers, aquitards, etc.), where all available spaces are filled with water, and the unsaturated zone (also called the vadose zone ), where there are still pockets of air that contain some water, but can be filled with more water. Saturated means the pressure head of the water is greater than atmospheric pressure (it has a gauge pressure > 0). The definition of

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3744-834: The Atlas Mountains in North Africa, the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges between Syria and Lebanon, the Jebel Akhdar in Oman, parts of the Sierra Nevada and neighboring ranges in the United States' Southwest , have shallow aquifers that are exploited for their water. Overexploitation can lead to the exceeding of the practical sustained yield; i.e., more water is taken out than can be replenished. Along

3861-615: The Guarani people , it covers 1,200,000 km (460,000 sq mi), with a volume of about 40,000 km (9,600 cu mi), a thickness of between 50 and 800 m (160 and 2,620 ft) and a maximum depth of about 1,800 m (5,900 ft). The Ogallala Aquifer of the central United States is one of the world's great aquifers, but in places it is being rapidly depleted by growing municipal use, and continuing agricultural use. This huge aquifer, which underlies portions of eight states, contains primarily fossil water from

3978-661: The depositional sedimentary environment and later natural cementation of the sand grains. The environment where a sand body was deposited controls the orientation of the sand grains, the horizontal and vertical variations, and the distribution of shale layers. Even thin shale layers are important barriers to groundwater flow. All these factors affect the porosity and permeability of sandy aquifers. Sandy deposits formed in shallow marine environments and in windblown sand dune environments have moderate to high permeability while sandy deposits formed in river environments have low to moderate permeability. Rainfall and snowmelt enter

4095-467: The 1960s, lagging behind those which occurred elsewhere in Australia and the world after World War II. Seven new prisons were opened between 1960 and 1971, and in 1970, female prisoners and staff were moved from Fremantle to the new Bandyup Women's Prison. New legislation regarding probation, parole, and convicted drunkards was also introduced, which provided alternatives to imprisonment. With these new arrangements, and more variety in prisons and prison types,

4212-430: The 1970s. Number 18, the southernmost house on The Terrace, and number 8, the northernmost of the initial buildings, both featured two sitting rooms, three bedrooms, and two dressing rooms, as well as a kitchen, water closet and shed, but with mirrored layouts. Number 18 was expanded with additions built in the 1890s. The gatehouse and associated entry complex was constructed between 1854 and 1855 using convict labour. It

4329-459: The Act should have resulted in significant prison reform, this did not eventuate. The legislation left much of the changes to executive regulation, at the discretion of the governor, and was described by the media as a feeble document. New Division, completed in 1907 and occupied in 1908, resulted from the 1899 Commissioners' report recommending a modified version of the separate system. The new division

4446-473: The Australian Army appropriated the division, to keep their prisoners separate from the main population. In 1994 the building was retrofitted to cater for offices, small business premises, and meeting rooms. The north-western complex was originally a service area with a cookhouse, bakehouse and laundry, built in the 1850s. A place for women prisoners was needed following the closure of Perth Gaol and

4563-875: The Corrective Services NSW and from the State Records archives. 2016 n/a Prisons in South Australia are managed by the South Australian, Department for Correctional Services apart from the Mount Gambier Prison and Adelaide Remand Centre which are managed by GSL Group. Adult Prisons and correctional facilities in Victoria are managed by Corrections Victoria . Two prisons are privatised and managed by G4S Australia Pty. Limited and GEO Group Australia Pty. Limited . Youth Justice custodial centres are managed by

4680-754: The Department of Justice and Community Safety. Victorian Prisons are mostly located in regional Victoria. The prison system is relatively modern with the closure of the last of the "old" gaols in 2005. Bendigo and Won Wron were the last to be closed. Beechworth Prison was closed in 2004 and replaced with the Beechworth Correctional Centre the following year. New prisons are being built or planned at Ararat and Ravenhall. Many prisons have had recent expansions in terms of bed numbers. At 30 June 2015 there were 4,769 sentenced prisoners and 1,413 unsentenced prisoners in Victoria, thus making

4797-669: The United States accelerated in the late 1940s and continued at an almost steady linear rate through the end of the century. In addition to widely recognized environmental consequences, groundwater depletion also adversely impacts the long-term sustainability of groundwater supplies to help meet the Nation’s water needs." An example of a significant and sustainable carbonate aquifer is the Edwards Aquifer in central Texas . This carbonate aquifer has historically been providing high quality water for nearly 2 million people, and even today,

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4914-411: The advent of S-bends ; the smells coming up the pipes led to their removal by the 1860s. Following a Royal Commission , the cells were enlarged by removing a dividing wall from between two cells. Electric lighting was installed in the 1920s, but there were never any toilets – buckets were used for the duration of the prison's operation. Since the prison's closure, six cells have been restored to represent

5031-421: The aquifer is storing water using the mechanisms of aquifer matrix expansion and the compressibility of water, which typically are both quite small quantities. Unconfined aquifers have storativities (typically called specific yield ) greater than 0.01 (1% of bulk volume); they release water from storage by the mechanism of actually draining the pores of the aquifer, releasing relatively large amounts of water (up to

5148-491: The arrival of the Royal Engineers later that year. They trained convicts to work with limestone, which was quarried on-site. The first priority was the construction of accommodation for Henderson and the prison warders, to relieve the expense of paying for private lodging. The prison walls were constructed between 1853 and 1855, while the gatehouse and associated entry complex was built in 1854 and 1855. Construction of

5265-471: The authorities there negotiated with the colonial government to relinquish jurisdiction over them, as well as the prison complex – demolition was considered too expensive. Early negotiations had broken down, but were restarted in August 1883. After one and a half years, a compromise was reached, and the transfer was finalised on 31 March 1886. Once the prison came under the control of the colonial government, it

5382-487: The cells throughout the operational life of the prison. Convict or prisoner labour was used on public infrastructure works until around 1911; subsequently, only work inside the prison was allowed, though there was never enough to fully occupy the inmates. Punishments varied over the years, with flogging and time in irons eventually replaced by lengthening of sentences and deprivation of visitors or entertainment. More than 40 hangings were carried out at Fremantle Prison, which

5499-440: The changes of the 1980s were effective throughout most of Western Australia's prison system, the culture of Fremantle Prison was resistant to change. Growing prisoner discontent eventually culminated in the 1988 prison riot , investigated by an official enquiry later that year. The state government made the decision to decommission Fremantle Prison in 1983, but it remained in operation until 30 November 1991. Prisoners were moved to

5616-445: The chaplain, but taken over by the superintendent in 1878 and later used by the prison administration. An adjoining single-storey at number 12, finished in 1854, was the home of the gatekeeper, located on the north side of the gatehouse. Number 16 The Terrace, south of the gatehouse, is a double-storey house that accommodated first the superintendent, and later the resident magistrate. It remained in use as housing for prison officers until

5733-409: The coastlines of certain countries, such as Libya and Israel, increased water usage associated with population growth has caused a lowering of the water table and the subsequent contamination of the groundwater with saltwater from the sea. In 2013 large freshwater aquifers were discovered under continental shelves off Australia, China, North America and South Africa. They contain an estimated half

5850-492: The colonial government in 1886, the role of the comptroller was replaced by that of the sheriff , responsible for all of the prisons in the colony. The position of comptroller general was recreated, with duties split off from the sheriff's office, in early 1911. In 1971, the Prisons Department was renamed the Department of Corrections, restructured, and the position of comptroller general was replaced with director of

5967-614: The colonially-run Fremantle Prison saw little change, and no new regulations. A similar routine, but with fewer working hours, is described in the 1930s: The following routine is observed by those who go to Fremantle Jail:— 6.15 am., warning bell; prisoners rise and fold beds. 6.30. officers muster and unlock cells. 7.0. [ sic ] breakfast, which lasts 15 minutes, after which men assemble in their respective exercise yards. 7.55, parade for work. 11.45, parade for dinner, after which men are in yard until 1 pm, parade for work; 4.45 parade for tea. 5.30. muster; all cells, etc., locked for

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6084-408: The colony agreed to accept some convicts from Britain. The arrival of the first convict ship Scindian on 2 June 1850 was unexpected, as a sailing ship that had been sent ahead had been blown off-course. The colony's Round House jail was full, so the 75 convicts had to be left on the ship until a temporary prison was built. Comptroller General of Convicts Edward Henderson looked for a place to build

6201-421: The commissioning of Barton's Mill Prison in 1942. Prison outstations were established as part of the reforms in the 20th century, and to reduce the overcrowding at Fremantle. Pardelup Prison Farm opened in 1927, near Mount Barker, while Barton's Mill, though planned to be a temporary measure, remained open as a prison after World War II. Significant reform to Western Australia's prison system did not begin until

6318-487: The complexity of karst aquifers. These conventional investigation methods need to be supplemented with dye traces , measurement of spring discharges, and analysis of water chemistry. U.S. Geological Survey dye tracing has determined that conventional groundwater models that assume a uniform distribution of porosity are not applicable for karst aquifers. Linear alignment of surface features such as straight stream segments and sinkholes develop along fracture traces . Locating

6435-526: The compound Kh and Kv values are different (see hydraulic transmissivity and hydraulic resistance ). When calculating flow to drains or flow to wells in an aquifer, the anisotropy is to be taken into account lest the resulting design of the drainage system may be faulty. To properly manage an aquifer its properties must be understood. Many properties must be known to predict how an aquifer will respond to rainfall, drought, pumping, and contamination . Considerations include where and how much water enters

6552-514: The convict granted a ticket-of-leave, allowing private employment in a specified district of the colony, and eventually a Conditional Pardon, allowing most freedoms, except for returning to England. A Certificate of Freedom would only be granted at the end of a sentence. Misbehaviour would result in demotion through these levels of work, including returning to convict status within the prison. Re-offenders and captured escapees, after corporal punishment and time in solitary confinement, would be placed on

6669-415: The department. While the comptroller, sheriff, or director was responsible for the overall convict or prison system, largely centred around Fremantle Prison, the responsibility of the prison itself lay with the superintendent. On convict ships, the convicts were guarded by pensioner guards , who were soldiers awarded pensions for their service in areas such as China, Crimea, and Afghanistan. Some remained in

6786-439: The drainable porosity of the aquifer material, or the minimum volumetric water content ). In isotropic aquifers or aquifer layers the hydraulic conductivity (K) is equal for flow in all directions, while in anisotropic conditions it differs, notably in horizontal (Kh) and vertical (Kv) sense. Semi-confined aquifers with one or more aquitards work as an anisotropic system, even when the separate layers are isotropic, because

6903-418: The early years of the prison through to its closure in 1991. Bread from the prison bakehouse was included in every meal in the convict era. It was served with black tea for breakfast, and with either tea or cocoa in the evening. The main meal, called dinner, was in the middle of the day, and also featured soup, meat, and vegetables. By the 1890s food was still very limited in variety, with few vegetables. Porridge

7020-431: The facility. Its report was ignored by the state government, which was more concerned with building infrastructure such as roads and schools than the plight of its prisoners. However, there was a rapid change in prison policy, with the appointment of a superintendent, Hugh Hann, who had recent English and colonial experience, and the election of a Labor government with members interested in penal reform. One immediate result

7137-401: The first three months of their sentence. A panopticon in the exercise yard was initially used to facilitate this concept during the prisoners' hour of exercise each day. The system was not successful, and considered a dated prisoner management strategy, leading to its removal within five years. New Division was the first building to have electricity, with underground wiring. During World War II,

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7254-557: The fissures. The enlarged fissures allow a larger quantity of water to enter which leads to a progressive enlargement of openings. Abundant small openings store a large quantity of water. The larger openings form a conduit system that drains the aquifer to springs. Characterization of karst aquifers requires field exploration to locate sinkholes, swallets , sinking streams , and springs in addition to studying geologic maps . Conventional hydrogeologic methods such as aquifer tests and potentiometric mapping are insufficient to characterize

7371-478: The flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another. A completely impermeable aquitard is called an aquiclude or aquifuge . Aquitards contain layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic conductivity . In mountainous areas (or near rivers in mountainous areas), the main aquifers are typically unconsolidated alluvium , composed of mostly horizontal layers of materials deposited by water processes (rivers and streams), which in cross-section (looking at

7488-554: The former workshops are located in the south-eastern corner, as well as to the north of the gatehouse. A system of tunnels, constructed to provide fresh water from an aquifer , runs under the eastern edge of the site. North of the gatehouse, located at 2, 4, and 6 The Terrace, are cottages built in Victorian style, in contrast to the Georgian style of the other houses. Number 10 is a double-storey house, initially built in 1853 for

7605-480: The gatehouse has remained a significant feature and landmark; since the closure of the prison, it has housed a café and office areas. Restoration was carried out in 2005, preserving the original stone facade and removing non-original rendering. Little-changed since its construction in the 1850s by convicts, the Main Cell Block was designed to hold up to 1000 prisoners. The central, four-storey high cell block

7722-529: The groundwater continued to be used for the prison's gardens. In 1989, diesel leaking from nearby tanks was found to have contaminated the water; however, the pollution was largely cleared by 1996 through bioremediation . The tunnels were opened to tourists in mid-2005. While the Swan River Colony was established as a "free settlement" (unlike the penal colonies on the east coast), by the 1840s demand for cheap labour overcame an early reluctance, and

7839-526: The groundwater from rainfall and snowmelt, how fast and in what direction the groundwater travels, and how much water leaves the ground as springs. Computer models can be used to test how accurately the understanding of the aquifer properties matches the actual aquifer performance. Environmental regulations require sites with potential sources of contamination to demonstrate that the hydrology has been characterized . Porous aquifers typically occur in sand and sandstone . Porous aquifer properties depend on

7956-610: The groundwater where the aquifer is near the surface. Groundwater flow directions can be determined from potentiometric surface maps of water levels in wells and springs. Aquifer tests and well tests can be used with Darcy's law flow equations to determine the ability of a porous aquifer to convey water. Analyzing this type of information over an area gives an indication how much water can be pumped without overdrafting and how contamination will travel. In porous aquifers groundwater flows as slow seepage in pores between sand grains. A groundwater flow rate of 1 foot per day (0.3 m/d)

8073-428: The hospital was a crucial component of Fremantle Prison. Public works during the convict era relied on convict labour, which could only be provided if the convicts were healthy. From 1886 to 1903, medical services were relocated to the main cell block, with the former building used to keep invalids and female prisoners. The hospital was refurbished and reopened in 1904. It subsequently remained in continuous operation until

8190-491: The left. For example, in the Barton Springs Edwards aquifer, dye traces measured the karst groundwater flow rates from 0.5 to 7 miles per day (0.8 to 11.3 km/d). The rapid groundwater flow rates make karst aquifers much more sensitive to groundwater contamination than porous aquifers. In the extreme case, groundwater may exist in underground rivers (e.g., caves underlying karst topography . If

8307-411: The local economy. During the initial years of transportation, convicts were generally young, from a rural background, and of good character, having only committed minor offences – potential future colonists, after their sentence had been served. By the 1860s the majority were older, more serious offenders from urban areas, including political prisoners considered to be "difficult and dangerous". Following

8424-462: The micro-porous (Upper Cretaceous ) Chalk Group of south east England, although having a reasonably high porosity, has a low grain-to-grain permeability, with its good water-yielding characteristics mostly due to micro-fracturing and fissuring. Karst aquifers typically develop in limestone . Surface water containing natural carbonic acid moves down into small fissures in limestone. This carbonic acid gradually dissolves limestone thereby enlarging

8541-457: The midst of Campbell's reforms, the Prisons Department was renamed the Department of Corrections in 1971, restructured, and the position of comptroller general was replaced with director of the department. In 1972 a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate mistreatment of and discrimination against Aboriginal prisoners. Its 1973 report found that there was not "any appreciable discrimination", however, racial stereotypes are present throughout

8658-417: The military, but many opted to stay in the colony as settlers, having brought their wives and children with them. The pensioner guards were expected to help deal with any incidents of unrest at the prison. Fremantle Prison's officers were known as warders until the early 20th century. They lived in specially built terrace houses within walking distance of the prison, and their lives were just as regimented as

8775-716: The new maximum-security Casuarina Prison . The prison was administered by a comptroller general , sheriff, or director, responsible for the entire convict or prison system in Western Australia, and a superintendent in charge of the prison itself. Prison officers, known as warders in the 19th century, worked under stringent conditions until they achieved representation through the Western Australian Prison Officers' Union . Convicts were initially of good character as potential future colonists, but less desirable convicts were eventually sent. As

8892-442: The night. 7.55. warning bell; prisoners to bed. 8.0, [ sic ] lights out except as provided for in reformatory regulations. Not much had changed by the 1960s. The day began with a waking bell at 6:45 am. After a prisoner count, they moved into the yard until 7:30, when they collected breakfast and headed back to their cells. The 8:00 bell signalled a parade, and then the start of work, which lasted until 11:15. They ate

9009-409: The officers and prisoners assembled in the parade ground at 5:25 am. Prisoners were sent to work before and after breakfast (in their cells), before assembling for muster at midday. This was followed by dinner in the exercise yard or the work site, and more work throughout the afternoon, until supper at 6:00 pm in the cells. Night officers took over at 7:15 pm. The transfer of the Convict Establishment to

9126-446: The philosophy of the prison system – the causes of crime, as well as the types of punishments and their justifications – and in light of this, the practicality of various reform proposals. Within a year of the enquiry, almost 100 cells had been enlarged by knocking down the inner wall between two cells, and a classification system was introduced. Internal walls were constructed in the main block, creating four separate divisions. Following

9243-416: The phreatic surface. The capillary head depends on soil pore size. In sandy soils with larger pores, the head will be less than in clay soils with very small pores. The normal capillary rise in a clayey soil is less than 1.8 m (6 ft) but can range between 0.3 and 10 m (1 and 33 ft). The capillary rise of water in a small- diameter tube involves the same physical process. The water table

9360-447: The prison for a period of observation. If found to have a reasonable disposition, the convict would be sent to work, in a gang under the control of a warder. Typical activities included "quarrying, filling swamps, burning lime, constructing public buildings, roads and jetties" around Fremantle and Perth. After some time, they might be sent to work on road or other projects away from these main settlements. Continued good behaviour could see

9477-417: The prison system, but significant changes did not begin until the 1960s. The government department in charge of the prison underwent several reorganisations in the 1970s and 1980s, but the culture of Fremantle Prison was resistant to change. Growing prisoner discontent culminated in a 1988 riot with guards taken hostage, and a fire that caused $ 1.8 million worth of damage. The prison closed in 1991, replaced by

9594-461: The prison walls; a lack of suitable work plagued the prison throughout its lifetime. Work in the 19th century consisted of cooking, washing clothes, cleaning the prison, tailoring, bootmaking, and printing. However, demand exceeded the availability of such work – increasingly so in the later years of the 19th century – so prisoners were also given activities with no practical value other than keeping them occupied. These included breaking stones, operating

9711-432: The prison was known as the Convict Establishment, and was used for prisoners transported from Britain. Longer term locally-sentenced prisoners were also held there from 1858, at a cost to the colonial government. In 1868, penal transportation to Western Australia ceased, and the number of convicts in the colony gradually declined, down to 83 in the mid-1880s. Due to the great expense of sending these convicts back to Britain,

9828-469: The prison's closure in 1991. The original workshop was a blacksmith's shop, one of the first buildings to be constructed on the prison site. Later known as the East Workshops, other workshops included carpenter's, plumber's and painter's, a printing office, and from the 1850s, a metal shop. The West Workshops were built at the start of the twentieth century, providing more work for prisoners through

9945-440: The prison's reservoir. Known as cranking, it was especially despised by the prisoners. Staff disliked giving the lashings – in 1851, out of a total of 400 lashings ordered, 150 were remitted as the superintendent could not find anyone to undertake the task. The role was so disliked that inducements were offered, including extra pay or improved lodgings. By the 1880s, punishments also included a restricted diet of bread and water (for

10062-479: The prison, which has also become a significant tourist attraction. The process of obtaining World Heritage listing as part of the Australian Convict Sites submission focused historical interpretation and conservation efforts on the prison's convict era (1850 – 1886), at the expense of its more recent history, including Aboriginal prisoners held there. Fremantle Prison was built on

10179-538: The prisoners. In the 1890s warders still had stringent living and working conditions, including ten- to twelve-hour working days. Due to a high turnover rate, many had little knowledge of either official policies or unofficial rules and traditions. The warder's role, previously unwritten, only became clearly defined in 1902. As well as guarding against escapes and enforcing discipline, they oversaw prisoner work and instructed inmates in trades. The warders were also supposed to be moral role models for prisoners, while maintaining

10296-402: The recovery of bitumen, whether by open-pit mining or by in situ methods such as steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), and in some areas they are targets for waste-water injection. The Guarani Aquifer , located beneath the surface of Argentina , Brazil , Paraguay , and Uruguay , is one of the world's largest aquifer systems and is an important source of fresh water . Named after

10413-417: The report, and the testimony of Aboriginal prisoners was considered unreliable. The report also made recommendations regarding various aspects of prison life, including additional, independent, trained welfare officers. William Kidston succeeded Campbell in 1977, and oversaw a shift in policy from "paternalistic rehabilitation" of prisoners to merely providing opportunities for rehabilitation. A new Prisons Act

10530-429: The same geologic unit may be confined in one area and unconfined in another. Unconfined aquifers are sometimes also called water table or phreatic aquifers, because their upper boundary is the water table or phreatic surface (see Biscayne Aquifer ). Typically (but not always) the shallowest aquifer at a given location is unconfined, meaning it does not have a confining layer (an aquitard or aquiclude) between it and

10647-708: The site. Various new uses were found for different parts of the prison, including wedding services in the chapels, the Coastal Business Centre in New Division, and the Fremantle Children's Literature Centre in the hospital; the prison also became a tourist attraction. A private company, the Fremantle Prison Guardians, organised the tourist operation for ten years under contract, until the end of 2001; subsequently,

10764-425: The source, this is a place where aquifers are often unconfined (sometimes called the forebay area), or in hydraulic communication with the land surface. An unconfined aquifer has no impermeable barrier immediately above it, such that the water level can rise in response to recharge. A confined aquifer has an overlying impermeable barrier that prevents the water level in the aquifer from rising any higher. An aquifer in

10881-417: The southern half of the Main Cell Block began in 1853 and was finished in 1855, with prisoners transferred from the temporary prison on 1 June 1855. Construction of the northern wing followed. The Crimean War saw the Royal Engineers recalled, leaving only one of their number, Henry Wray , to oversee the building's construction, which was completed by the end of 1859. During Western Australia's convict era ,

10998-533: The state government took control. A hostel providing short-stay accommodation in the Women's Prison opened in May 2015. Western Australia's first comptroller general of convicts, Edmund Henderson, administered the convict establishment for thirteen years. The primary responsibilities of the comptroller general were to "direct convict labour and be responsible for convict discipline". With the transfer of Fremantle Prison to

11115-420: The surface. The term "perched" refers to ground water accumulating above a low-permeability unit or strata, such as a clay layer. This term is generally used to refer to a small local area of ground water that occurs at an elevation higher than a regionally extensive aquifer. The difference between perched and unconfined aquifers is their size (perched is smaller). Confined aquifers are aquifers that are overlain by

11232-618: The time of the last glaciation . Annual recharge, in the more arid parts of the aquifer, is estimated to total only about 10 percent of annual withdrawals. According to a 2013 report by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the depletion between 2001 and 2008, inclusive, is about 32 percent of the cumulative depletion during the entire 20th century. In the United States, the biggest users of water from aquifers include agricultural irrigation and oil and coal extraction. "Cumulative total groundwater depletion in

11349-401: The transfer of Fremantle Prison to local control in 1886, it became Western Australia's primary prison. In the late 1880s and 1890s the number of inmates swelled dramatically. This increase predominantly comprised prisoners serving shorter sentences of under three months. The number of inmates in 1897 was 379, and Inspector of Prisons James Roe viewed the prison as "inconveniently full". Despite

11466-464: The transfer of prisoners to Fremantle. The buildings were converted to a prison, and a wall built around them, creating Western Australia's first separate prison for women. Population and crime growth led to them being extended in the 1890s and 1910s. The construction of Bandyup Women's Prison saw Fremantle's Women's Prison close in 1970, with the space used for education and assessment until the main prison's closure in 1991. Built between 1857 and 1859,

11583-477: The urgings of the prison Superintendent George and various official enquiries, new workshops were built to provide increased useful employment for prisoners. Five spaces were designed for tailors, bookbinders, shoemakers, mat makers and painters. New regulations for prison officers were published in the Government Gazette in 1902, and a new Prisons Act was passed in 1903. While in theory the passing of

11700-426: The varying living conditions at different times in the prison's history. The main block also houses the gallows , solitary confinement cells, and two chapels – Anglican and Catholic . Fremantle Prison's New Division building was constructed between 1904 and 1907, as a response to overcrowding. It also allowed prison administrators to implement the " separate system ", whereby prisoners were completely isolated for

11817-427: The wall either side of the gatehouse. Inside the walls, the parade ground is located east of the gatehouse. Beyond it is the Main Cell Block at the centre of the site, which contains two chapels. North of the main block is New Division, and west of that, in the north-western corner, is the former Women's Prison, previously the cookhouse, bakehouse and laundry. The hospital building stands in the north-eastern corner, while

11934-410: The water table is the surface where the pressure head is equal to atmospheric pressure (where gauge pressure = 0). Unsaturated conditions occur above the water table where the pressure head is negative (absolute pressure can never be negative, but gauge pressure can) and the water that incompletely fills the pores of the aquifer material is under suction . The water content in the unsaturated zone

12051-515: The work was nominal, as work was viewed as "a management option rather than [for] production", but security concerns and discipline restricted the rehabilitative value of the work, and limited much of the work to jobs non-existent outside of prison. In the convict era, particularly during Hampton's term as governor, misbehaving prisoners were punished with flogging , solitary confinement, and working in chain gangs at gunpoint. Particularly difficult prisoners were put to work hand pumping groundwater into

12168-512: The workshops, 20 in tailoring, 15 in bootmaking, and 12 in mat making, with only half of these working at a time, and little improvement by the 1911 Royal Commission. The 20th century saw little change in the work prisoners did. There were similar workshops, with the addition of metal work, and similar jobs around the prison complex, including in the laundry, in the kitchen, and cleaning the prison. In 1984, 90% of prisoners were reported to be employed, either full-time or part-time. The meaningfulness of

12285-467: Was 7,093 and had a utilisation rate of 90.5%. Prisons and correctional facilities in Western Australia are managed by the Department of Justice through public and private operators. Aquifer Groundwater from aquifers can be sustainably harvested by humans through the use of qanats leading to a well. This groundwater is a major source of fresh water for many regions, however can present

12402-517: Was Western Australia's only lawful place of execution between 1888 and 1984. Prominent escapees included Moondyne Joe , as well as John Boyle O'Reilly and six other Fenians in the 19th century, and Brenden Abbott in 1989. There have been various riots and other disturbances, with major riots causing damage in 1968 and 1988. Since 1991, Fremantle Prison has been conserved as a recognised heritage site, and various restoration works have been undertaken. New uses have been found for some buildings within

12519-413: Was connected to the jetties through gravity-fed pipes. In 1896, a town reservoir was constructed on Swanbourne Street, fed from the prison by a triple-expansion steam-driven pump that could take more than 4.5 megalitres (1,000,000 imperial gallons) per day from the prison tunnels. Prisoners, relieved of manual pumping, were employed to supply wood and stoke boilers. The tunnels were closed in 1910, though

12636-409: Was designed by Royal Engineer and Comptroller General Edmund Henderson , and constructed out of limestone. The gatehouse has two towers either side of a narrow gate, reminiscent of those found in 13th century English castles or walled cities. Iron that had been scavenged from shipwrecks was used to make the gate, while the clock at the top of the structure was imported from England. As the main entrance,

12753-446: Was given for breakfast, usually too fluid or overly solid, and the general standard of the prison's food was quite low, particularly in 1897 and 1898. However, the quality soon improved, as noted by the 1898 Royal Commission, which recommended decreasing rations to reduce costs. In the 1960s, food preparation was overseen by a qualified chef, who also trained prisoners. The diet consisted of quality food, but "without trimmings". Breakfast

12870-672: Was opened on 11 September 2008 at Hume , called the Alexander Maconochie Centre , named after Alexander Maconochie . The centre is designed as a multi role facility to replace the Belconnen Remand Centre and provide detention facilities so that prisoners who are currently held in New South Wales facilities may be held locally. Demolished in 2015–2016 The following list of operational and closed correctional facilities has been sourced from

12987-444: Was passed in 1981, which updated the 1903 Act with modern philosophies and practices. This act was, however, slanted towards prisoner management and safety, and the department was at the same time renamed the Prisons Department once more, to emphasise imprisonment as its primary responsibility. Ian Hill became Director of the Prisons Department in 1983, and reorganised the department several times, striving for increased efficiency. Whilst

13104-414: Was porridge, with a third of a pint of milk, a hot drink (tea, unless the prisoner bought coffee or cocoa), and either Vegemite , honey, or margarine, depending on the week. Lunch and dinner had more variation. Both meals consisted of a meat dish – corned beef, sausages, or mince pie – as well as mashed potato and cabbage, although there was occasionally a roast dinner . Meat, vegetables and bread were still

13221-564: Was renamed Fremantle Prison. All prisoners in Perth Gaol were transferred to Fremantle, and from 1887 female prisoners were also imprisoned there, in their own separate section. The Western Australian gold rushes of the 1890s resulted in strong economic growth, and a massive increase in population: doubling from almost 50,000 in 1891 to more than 100,000 by 1895, and to 184,000 by 1901. This influx included desperate, dishonest people, from elsewhere in Australia and overseas, and Fremantle Prison

13338-478: Was similar in design to Henderson's 1850s structure, but was constructed in an L-shape, was only three stories tall, and had electric lighting. It also differed in its use from the main cell block. Unlike occupants of the earlier building, prisoners remained continuously in their cells except when exercising in separate yards, watched panopticon-style by a warder in a central tower. In 1911 another Royal Commission investigation into Fremantle Prison recommended closing

13455-586: Was soon overcrowded. The 1890s also saw a growing public unease with the treatment of prisoners. In September 1898 a Royal Commission was established by the Governor of Western Australia to investigate the colony's penal system. The commission heard evidence from almost 240 witnesses, including a range of prisoners. Three reports were made between December 1898 and June 1899, dealing with the most recognisable and prominent issues including classification, sentencing, punishments, and diet. In particular, they considered

13572-405: Was that prison officers achieved representation through the Western Australian Prison Officers' Union . The strength of the union was based on the ability to almost cripple the prison system through strike action , first taken in 1975. Convicts were introduced into Western Australia for three main purposes: inexpensive labour, additional labour, and an injection of British government spending into

13689-589: Was the dismantling of the separate system at Fremantle Prison and the demolition of the separate exercise yards in 1912. Fremantle Prison was partially used as a military prison during both world wars – for the detention of military personnel, as well as an internment centre. From 1940 until 1946, it was one of more than 50 military prisons across Australia holding a combined total of more than 12,000 enemy aliens and prisoners of war . Fremantle accommodated up to 400 military prisoners and up to 160 civilian prisoners by October 1945. The World War II takeover necessitated

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