The French Coptic Orthodox Church (French: Métropole copte orthodoxe de France ) is a Coptic Orthodox jurisdiction centered in France .
100-694: Coptic immigration to France began as early as 1801 after the French Invasion of Egypt and there was significant immigration after the 1952 Revolution in Egypt. The church was canonically instituted by Pope Shenouda III on 2 July 1974 as the French Coptic Orthodox Eparchy. On 18 June 1994 Pope Shenouda raised the status of the eparchy to the French Coptic Orthodox Church, a newbody. The church
200-717: A Christian ethnoreligious group native to Northeast Africa who have primarily inhabited the area of modern Egypt and Sudan , and predominantly follow the Orthodox Church in Alexandria . They are the largest Christian denomination in Egypt and the Middle East , as well as in Sudan and Libya . Copts account for roughly 5–15 percent of the population of Egypt ; Copts in Sudan account for 1 percent of
300-431: A university degree in institutions of higher education . According to the scholar Andrea Rugh Copts tend to belong to the educated middle and upper-middle class , and according to scholar Lois Farag "The Copts still played the major role in managing Egypt's state finances. They held 20% of total state capital, 45% of government employment, and 45% of government salaries". According to scholar J. D. Pennington 45% of
400-438: A Coptic Orthodox priest to a government position, though the ruling Islamist party remained dominant. After the 2018 Sudanese revolution , one Copt ( Raja Nicola Issa Abdul-Masseh ) was appointed in 2019 to the 11-member Transitional Sovereignty Council , which was convened as part of plan to transition Sudan to democracy. However, a military coup in 2019 , led by Abdel Fattah al-Burhan and Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo , dissolved
500-421: A community. Education reform, in general, implies a continual effort to modify and improve the institution of education. Over time, as the needs and values of society change, attitudes towards public education change. As a social institution , education plays an integral role in the process of socialization . "Socialization is broadly composed of distinct inter- and intra-generational processes. Both involve
600-805: A coup d'état against King Farouk , which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. Nasser 's mainstream policy was pan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10 to 20 percent of the population. In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed. In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher educational attainment , relatively higher wealth index, and
700-549: A democracy or republic, etc. The idea that all children should be provided with a high level of education is a relatively recent idea, and has arisen largely in the context of Western democracy in the 20th century. The "beliefs" of school districts are optimistic that quite literally "all students will succeed", which in the context of high school graduation examination in the United States , all students in all groups, regardless of heritage or income will pass tests that in
800-657: A grammar school, yet choose rather to incur and pay the fine or penalty than maintain a grammar school." When John Adams drafted the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 , he included provisions for a comprehensive education law that guaranteed public education to "all" citizens. However, access to formal education in secondary schools and colleges was reserved for free, white males. During the 17th and 18th centuries, females received little or no formal education except for home learning or attending Dame Schools . Likewise, many educational institutions maintained
900-546: A local level at various points throughout history, the modern notion of education reform is tied with the spread of compulsory education . Economic growth and the spread of democracy raised the value of education and increased the importance of ensuring that all children and adults have access to free, high-quality, effective education. Modern education reforms are increasingly driven by a growing understanding of what works in education and how to go about successfully improving teaching and learning in schools. However, in some cases,
1000-464: A native Coptic minority, although many Copts in Sudan are descended from more recent Egyptian immigrants. Copts in Sudan live mostly in northern cities, including Al Obeid , Atbara , Dongola , Khartoum , Omdurman , Port Sudan , and Wad Medani . Many Sudanese Copts have advanced educations. They have occasionally faced forced conversion to Islam , resulting in their emigration and decrease in number. Modern immigration of Copts to Sudan peaked in
1100-513: A policy of refusing to admit Black applicants. The Virginia Code of 1819 outlawed teaching enslaved people to read or write. Soon after the American Revolution , early leaders, like Thomas Jefferson and John Adams , proposed the creation of a more "formal and unified system of publicly funded schools" to satiate the need to "build and maintain commerce, agriculture and shipping interests". Their concept of free public education
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#17327733645241200-487: A relatively higher educational attainment , a relatively higher wealth index , and a stronger representation in white-collar job types , but limited representation in military and security agencies. The majority of demographic, socio-economic, and health indicators are similar among Christians and Muslims . The English language adopted the word Copt in the 17th century from Neo-Latin Coptus, Cophtus , which derives from
1300-413: A result, most English-speaking countries developed mandatory publicly paid education explicitly to keep public education in "responsible" hands. These elites said that Lancaster schools might become dishonest, provide poor education, and were not accountable to established authorities. Lancaster's supporters responded that any child could cheat given the opportunity, and that the government was not paying for
1400-595: A robust state-supported common school system. John Dewey , an early 20th-century reformer, focused on improving society by advocating for a scientific, pragmatic, or democratic principle-based curriculum. Whereas Maria Montessori incorporated humanistic motivations to "meet the needs of the child". In historic Prussia , a motivation to foster national unity led to formal education concentrated on teaching national language literacy to young children, resulting in Kindergarten . The history of educational pedagogy in
1500-516: A schoolmaster to teach children reading, writing, and basic arithmetic. "In 1642 the General Court passed a law that required heads of households to teach all their dependents — apprentices and servants as well as their own children — to read English or face a fine. Parents could provide the instruction themselves or hire someone else to do it. Selectmen were to keep 'a vigilant eye over their brethren and neighbors,' young people whose education
1600-502: A stronger representation in white collar job types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims. Historically; many Copts were accountants , and in 1961 Coptic Christians owned 51% of the Egyptian banks . A Pew Center study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that around 26% of Egyptian Christians obtain
1700-408: A substantial public investment be made in education, Mann and his proponents developed a strong system of state supported common schools . . His crusading style attracted wide middle class support. Historian Ellwood P. Cubberley asserts: In 1852, Massachusetts passed a law making education mandatory. This model of free, accessible education spread throughout the country and in 1917 Mississippi
1800-399: A unified version of the national language, "Hochdeutsch". One significant reform was kindergarten whose purpose was to have the children participate in supervised activities taught by instructors who spoke the national language. The concept embraced the idea that children absorb new language skills more easily and quickly when they are young The current model of kindergarten is reflective of
1900-406: A variety of specific reasons, but generally most reforms aim at redressing some societal ills, such as poverty -, gender -, or class -based inequities, or perceived ineffectiveness. Current education trends in the United States represent multiple achievement gaps across ethnicities, income levels, and geographies. As McKinsey and Company reported in a 2009 analysis, "These educational gaps impose on
2000-524: A well-known example is the practice of teaching elementary physics and biology to students while preparing a meal. He was a harsh critic of "dead" knowledge disconnected from practical human life. Dewey criticized the rigidity and volume of humanistic education, and the emotional idealizations of education based on the child-study movement that had been inspired by Rousseau and those who followed him. Dewey understood that children are naturally active and curious and learn by doing. Dewey's understanding of logic
2100-468: Is presented in his work "Logic, the Theory of Inquiry" (1938). His educational philosophies were presented in "My Pedagogic Creed", The School and Society , The Child and Curriculum , and Democracy and Education (1916). Bertrand Russell criticized Dewey's conception of logic, saying "What he calls "logic" does not seem to me to be part of logic at all; I should call it part of psychology." Dewey left
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#17327733645242200-512: Is the desire to address socio-economic problems, which many people see as having significant roots in lack of education. Starting in the 20th century, people have attempted to argue that small improvements in education can have large returns in such areas as health, wealth and well-being. For example, in Kerala , India in the 1950s, increases in women's health were correlated with increases in female literacy rates. In Iran , increased primary education
2300-522: Is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever. Amen. The major contributions that the See of Alexandria has contributed to the establishment of early Christian theology and dogma are attested to by fact that the first three ecumenical councils in the history of Christianity were headed by Egyptian patriarchs. The Council of Nicaea (325 AD) was presided over by St. Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria , along with Saint Hosius of Córdoba . In addition,
2400-633: Is the variety of Greek spoken in Egypt from antiquity until the Islamic conquest of Egypt in the 7th century. Egyptian Greek adopted many loanwords from Egyptian language ; there was a great deal of intracommunity bilingualism in Egypt. The following is an example of Egyptian Greek language, used in the Coptic Church : ⲇⲟⲝⲁ ⲡⲁⲧⲣⲓ ⲕⲉ ⲩⲓⲱ: ⲕⲉ ⲁ̀ⲅⲓⲱ ⲡⲛⲉⲩⲙⲁⲧⲓ: ⲕⲉ ⲛⲩⲛ ⲕⲉ ⲁ̀ⲓ̀ ⲕⲉ ⲓⲥ ⲧⲟⲩⲥ ⲉⲱⲛⲁⲥ ⲧⲱⲛ ⲉ̀ⲱ̀ⲛⲱⲛ ⲁ̀ⲙⲏⲛ Δόξα Πατρὶ κὲ Υἱῷ κὲ Ἁγίῳ Πνεύματι, κὲ νῦν κὲ ἀῒ κὲ ἰς τοὺς ἐῶνας τῶν ἐώνων. Ἀμήν. Glory to
2500-610: The Arabic collective qubṭ / qibṭ قبط "the Copts" with nisba adjective qubṭī, qibṭī قبطى , plural aqbāṭ أقباط ; Also quftī, qiftī (where the Arabic / f / reflects the historical Coptic / p / ) an Arabisation of the Coptic word ⲁⲓⲅⲩⲡⲧⲓⲟⲛ aiguption ( Bohairic ) or ⲕⲩⲡⲧⲁⲓⲟⲛ kuptaion ( Sahidic ). The Coptic word in turn represents an adaptation of the Greek term for
2600-624: The Benedictine Order in the 6th century on the model of Saint Pachomius , although in a stricter form. Coptic Christians practice male circumcision as a rite of passage. The Faiyum mummy portraits reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and that of the Hellenized Middle East. By the time of Roman emperor Caracalla in the 2nd century AD, ethnic Egyptians could be distinguished from Egyptian Greeks only by their speech. Egyptian Greek
2700-630: The Church in Rome . The Church of Alexandria is therefore the oldest Christian church in Africa. The Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to Christian tradition. The Catechetical School of Alexandria was the oldest school of its kind in the world. Founded around 190 AD by the scholar Pantanaeus , the school became an important institution of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as Athenagoras , Clement , Didymus , and Origen ,
2800-716: The Copts' ethnic identity due to historic and current conflicts. Most Copts adhere to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria , an Oriental Orthodox Church . The smaller Coptic Catholic Church is an Eastern Catholic Church , in communion with the Holy See of Rome ; others belong to the Evangelical Church of Egypt . The Copts played a central role in the Arab Renaissance as well as
2900-646: The New Testament writings found in Oxyrhynchus , in Middle Egypt , which date around 200 AD. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into Coptic (then known as Egyptian ). By the beginning of the 3rd century AD, Christians constituted the majority of Egypt's population, and the Church of Alexandria was recognized as one of Christendom 's four apostolic sees, second in honor only to
3000-698: The Sudanese population , and Copts in Libya similarly account for 1 percent of the Libyan population . Originally referring to all Egyptians, the term Copt became synonymous with native Christians in light of Egypt's Islamization and Arabization after the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 639–646 AD. Copts have historically spoken the Coptic language , a direct descendant of the Demotic Egyptian that
3100-695: The University of Chicago in 1904 over issues relating to the Dewey School. Dewey's influence began to decline in the time after the Second World War and particularly in the Cold War era, as more conservative educational policies came to the fore. The form of educational progressivism which was most successful in having its policies implemented has been dubbed "administrative progressivism" by historians. This began to be implemented in
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3200-515: The kꜣ ("double" spirit) of Ptah " (compare Akkadian ḫi-ku-up-ta-aḫ ), the name of the temple complex of the god Ptah at Memphis (and a synecdoche for the city of Memphis and the region around it). The term Aigýptios in Greek came to designate the native Egyptian population in Roman Egypt (as distinct from Greeks, Romans, Jews, etc.). After the Muslim conquest of Egypt (639-646) it became restricted to those Egyptians adhering to
3300-813: The medical doctors , 60% of the pharmacists of Egypt were Christians. A number of Coptic business and land-owning families became very wealthy and influential such as the Egyptian Coptic Christian Sawiris family that owns the Orascom conglomerate , spanning telecommunications, construction, tourism, industries and technology. In 2008, Forbes estimated the family's net worth at $ 36 billion. According to scholars Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein argue that Copts have relatively higher educational attainment and relatively higher wealth index, due to Coptic Christianity emphasis on literacy and that Coptic Christianity encouraged
3400-499: The monitorial system , also known as "mutual instruction" or the "Bell–Lancaster method". Their contemporary, educationalist and writer Elizabeth Hamilton , suggested that in some important aspects the method had been "anticipated" by the Belfast schoolmaster David Manson . In the 1760s Manson had developed a peer-teaching and monitoring system within the context of what he called a "play school" that dispensed with "the discipline of
3500-555: The non-Chalcedonian Coptic Orthodox Church constitute the majority of the Egyptian Christian population. Mainly through emigration and partly through European, American, and other missionary work and conversions, the Egyptian Christian community now also includes other Christian denominations such as Protestants (known in Arabic as Evangelicals ), Roman Catholics and Eastern Rite Catholics , and other Orthodox congregations. The term Coptic remains exclusive however to
3600-587: The persecution of Coptic Christians included closing and demolishing churches, forced conversion to Islam , and heavy taxes for those who refused to convert. During the Ottoman period, Copts were classified alongside other Oriental Orthodox and Nestorian peoples under the Armenian millet . Under Muslim rule, Christians paid special taxes, had lower access to political power, and were exempt from military service. Their position improved dramatically under
3700-729: The 18th to the 19th century, Western classical education curriculums focused on concrete details like "Who?", "What?", "When?", "Where?". Unless carefully taught, large group instruction naturally neglects asking the theoretical "Why?" and "Which?" questions that can be discussed in smaller groups. Classical education in this period also did not teach local ( vernacular ) languages and culture. Instead, it taught high-status ancient languages (Greek and Latin) and their cultures. This produced odd social effects in which an intellectual class might be more loyal to ancient cultures and institutions than to their native vernacular languages and their actual governing authorities. Jean-Jacques Rousseau , father of
3800-490: The 1990s, the government focused its religious fervor on the south. Although experiencing discrimination, the Copts and other long-established Christian groups in the north had fewer restrictions than other types of Christians in the south . As of 2010, the Coptic Church in Sudan was officially registered with the government, and exempt from property tax. In 2005, the Sudanese government of National Unity (GNU) named
3900-687: The 9th century. Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained mainly Christian, but Coptic Christians lost their majority status after the 14th century, as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches there. From the Muslim conquest of Egypt onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslim regimes, such as the Umayyad Caliphate , Abbasid Caliphate , Fatimid Caliphate , Mamluk Sultanate , and Ottoman Empire ;
4000-547: The Child Study Movement, centered the child as an object of study. In Emile: Or, On Education , Rousseau's principal work on education lays out an educational program for a hypothetical newborn's education through adulthood. Rousseau provided a dual critique of the educational vision outlined in Plato's Republic and that of his society in contemporary Europe. He regarded the educational methods contributing to
4100-678: The Christian religion. The Coptic name for Egyptians , remənkhēmi ( Coptic : ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ ), is realized in Fayyumic Coptic as ⲗⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ lemenkēmi and as ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ remənkēme in the Sahidic dialect; cf. Egyptian rmṯ n kmt , Demotic rmṯ n kmỉ . The Arabic word qibṭ "Copt" has also been connected to the Greek name of the town of Kóptos ( Koinē Greek : Κόπτος , now Qifṭ ; Coptic Kebt and Keft ) in Upper Egypt . This association may have contributed to making "Copt"
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4200-783: The Egyptian Copts made to Christianity was the creation and organization of monasticism . Worldwide Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example. The most prominent figures of the monastic movement were Anthony the Great , Paul of Thebes , Macarius the Great , Shenouda the Archimandrite and Pachomius the Cenobite . By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout
4300-888: The Egyptian desert. Since then pilgrims have visited the Egyptian Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. St Basil the Great Archbishop of Caesarea Mazaca , and the founder and organiser of the monastic movement in Asia Minor , visited Egypt around 357 AD and his monastic rules are followed by the Eastern Orthodox Churches . Saint Jerome , who translated the Bible into Latin , came to Egypt while en route to Jerusalem around 400 AD, leaving details of his experiences in his letters. St. Benedict founded
4400-631: The Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the Coptic Museum in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are Salama Moussa , Louis Awad and Secretary General of the Wafd Party Makram Ebeid . In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in
4500-589: The Egyptian natives, as opposed to the Christians of non-Egyptian origins. Some Protestant churches for instance are called " Coptic Evangelical Church ", thus helping differentiate their native Egyptian congregations from churches attended by non-Egyptian immigrant communities such as Europeans or Americans. The previous head of the Coptic Orthodox Church, Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria , died 17 March 2012. On 4 November 2012, Bishop Tawadros
4600-669: The English-speaking world. Lancaster schools provided a grammar-school education with fully developed internal economies for a cost per student near $ 40 per year in 1999 U.S. dollars. To reduce cost and motivated to save up scrip, Lancaster students rented individual pages of textbooks from the school library instead of purchasing the textbook. Student's would read aloud their pages to groups. Students commonly exchanged tutoring and paid for items and services with receipts from down tutoring . The schools did not teach submission to orthodox Christian beliefs or government authorities. As
4700-693: The Father, to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, both now and always, and unto the ages of ages. Amen. According to Walker, early Ptolemaic Greek colonists married local women and adopted Egyptian religious beliefs, and by Roman times, their descendants were viewed as Egyptians by the Roman rulers, despite their own self-perception of being Greek. The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies
4800-509: The Lancaster school resulted in the older children acting as disciplinary monitors and taskmasters. To provide order and promote discipline the school implemented a unique internal economic system, inventing a currency called a Scrip. Although the currency was worthless in the outside world, it was created at a fixed exchange rate from a student's tuition and student's could use scrip to buy food, school supplies, books, and other items from
4900-663: The Name of the Father: and the Son: and the Holy Spirit: One God: Amen Our Father Who art in heaven: hallowed be Thy name: Thy kingdom come: Thy will be done On earth as it is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread And forgive us our trespasses: as we forgive those who trespass against us And lead us not into temptation: but deliver us from evil one In Christ Jesus our Lord For Thine
5000-546: The Prussian model. In other countries, such as the Soviet Union , France, Spain, and Germany, the Prussian model has dramatically improved reading and math test scores for linguistic minorities . In the 19th century, before the advent of government-funded public schools, Protestant organizations established Charity Schools to educate the lower social classes. The Roman Catholic Church and governments later adopted
5100-463: The U.S. Indian school service failed to suppress Lakota and Navaho , or when a culture has widely respected autonomous cultural institutions, as when the Spanish failed to suppress Catalan . Many students of democracy have desired to improve education in order to improve the quality of governance in democratic societies; the necessity of good public education follows logically if one believes that
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#17327733645245200-412: The United States has ranged from teaching literacy and proficiency of religious doctrine to establishing cultural literacy, assimilating immigrants into a democratic society , producing a skilled labor force for the industrialized workplace , preparing students for careers, and competing in a global marketplace. Education inequality is also a motivation for education reform, seeking to address problems of
5300-415: The United States the economic equivalent of a permanent national recession." Reforms are usually proposed by thinkers who aim to redress societal ills or institute societal changes, most often through a change in the education of the members of a class of people—the preparation of a ruling class to rule or a working class to work, the social hygiene of a lower or immigrant class, the preparation of citizens in
5400-533: The United States", below) (Tyack and Cuban, pp. 17–26) These reforms have since become heavily entrenched, and many today who identify themselves as progressives are opposed to many of them, while conservative education reform during the Cold War embraced them as a framework for strengthening traditional curriculum and standards. More recent methods, instituted by groups such as the think tank Reform 's education division, and S.E.R. have attempted to pressure
5500-806: The United States, the first public school was established in Boston, Massachusetts, on April 23, 1635. Puritan schoolmaster Philemon Pormont led instruction at the Boston Latin School . During this time, post-secondary education was a commonly utilized tool to distinguish one's social class and social status. Access to education was the "privilege of white, upper-class, Christian male children" in preparation for university education in ministry. In colonial America, to maintain Puritan religious traditions, formal and informal education instruction focused on teaching literacy. All colonists needed to understand
5600-483: The accumulation of human capital. Many Coptic intellectuals hold to Pharaonism , which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic Egyptian culture. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, and it helped bridge the divide between those groups. Some scholars see Pharaonism as shaped by Orientalism . Today, members of
5700-473: The child through experience rather intellectual instruction. Rousseau ideas were rarely implemented directly, but influenced later thinkers, particularly Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel , the inventor of the kindergarten . European and Asian nations regard education as essential to maintaining national, cultural, and linguistic unity. In the late 18th century (~1779), Prussia instituted primary school reforms expressly to teach
5800-445: The child's development; he held that a person could either be a man or a citizen . While Plato's plan could have brought the latter at the expense of the former, contemporary education failed at both tasks. He advocated a radical withdrawal of the child from society and an educational process that utilized the child's natural potential and curiosity, teaching the child by confronting them with simulated real-life obstacles and conditioning
5900-430: The civil service. Proficiency in business and administration made them a privileged minority. However, the return of militant Islam in the mid-1960s and subsequent demands by radicals for an Islamic constitution prompted Copts to join in public opposition to religious rule. Gaafar Nimeiry 's introduction of Islamic Sharia law in 1983 began a new phase of oppressive treatment of Copts, among other non-Muslims. After
6000-492: The council and halted the democratic transition; Christians, including Copts, were subjected to intensified persecution during a civil war that began in 2023 . Many became refugees or were internally displaced . Education reform Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education . The meaning and education methods have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Historically,
6100-618: The curriculum, and assessing outcomes, learning can be increased for all students, and more students can succeed than the 50 percent who are defined to be above or below grade level by norm referenced standards. States have tried to use state schools to increase state power, especially to make better soldiers and workers. This strategy was first adopted to unify related linguistic groups in Europe , including France , Germany and Italy . Exact mechanisms are unclear, but it often fails in areas where populations are culturally segregated, as when
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#17327733645246200-539: The early 19th century, and they generally received a tolerant welcome there. However, this was interrupted by a decade of persecution under Mahdist rule at the end of the 19th century. As a result of this persecution, many were forced to relinquish their faith, adopt Islam , and intermarry with the native Sudanese population. The Anglo-Egyptian invasion in 1898 allowed Copts greater religious and economic freedom, and they extended their original roles as artisans and merchants into trading, banking, engineering, medicine, and
6300-479: The early 20th century. While influenced particularly in its rhetoric by Dewey and even more by his popularizers, administrative progressivism was in its practice much more influenced by the Industrial Revolution and the concept economies of scale . The administrative progressives are responsible for many features of modern American education, especially American high schools: counseling programs,
6400-399: The education and thus deserved no say in their composition. Though motivated by charity, Lancaster claimed in his pamphlets to be surprised to find that he lived well on the income of his school, even while the low costs made it available to the most impoverished street children. Ironically, Lancaster lived on the charity of friends in his later life. Although educational reform occurred on
6500-451: The educational legislation, standards , methodology, and policy affecting a nation's public school system to reflect the needs and values of contemporary society. 18th century, classical education instruction from an in-home personal tutor, hired at the family's expense, was primarily a privilege for children from wealthy families. Innovations such as encyclopedias , public libraries , and grammar schools all aimed to relieve some of
6600-401: The educational standards to reflect the ever-evolving contemporary ideals of social, economic, and political culture. Reforms can be based on bringing education into alignment with a society's core values. Reforms that attempt to change a society's core values can connect alternative education initiatives with a network of other alternative institutions. Education reform has been pursued for
6700-441: The father of theology who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies . However, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects: science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before Braille , wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write. Another major contribution
6800-501: The financial burden associated with the expenses of the classical education model. Motivations during the Victorian era emphasized the importance of self-improvement . Victorian education focused on teaching commercially valuable topics, such as modern languages and mathematics, rather than classical liberal arts subjects, such as Latin , art, and history. Motivations for education reformists like Horace Mann and his proponents focused on making schooling more accessible and developing
6900-480: The government of the U.K. into more modernist educational reform, though this has met with limited success. In the United States, public education is characterized as "any federally funded primary or secondary school, administered to some extent by the government, and charged with educating all citizens. Although there is typically a cost to attend some public higher education institutions, they are still considered part of public education. " In what would become
7000-419: The harmonization of an individual's attitudes and behaviors with that of their socio-cultural milieu. " Educational matrices mean to reinforce those socially acceptable informal and formal norms , values , and beliefs that individuals need to learn in order to be accepted as good, functioning, and productive members of their society. Education reform is the process of constantly renegotiating and restructuring
7100-416: The imposition of an Arab-Islamic emphasis in language and history teaching were accompanied by harassment of Christian children and the introduction of hijab dress laws. A Coptic child was flogged for failing to recite a Koranic verse. In contrast with the extensive media broadcasting of the Muslim Friday prayers , the radio ceased coverage of the Christian Sunday service. As the civil war raged throughout
7200-628: The indigenous people of Egypt, Aigýptios ( Αἰγύπτιος ). The Greek term for Egypt, Aígyptos ( Ancient Greek : Αἴγυπτος ), itself derives from the Egyptian language , but dates to a much earlier period, being attested already in Mycenaean Greek as a 3 -ku-pi-ti-jo (lit. "Egyptian"; used here as a man's name). This Mycenaean form probably comes from Middle Egyptian ḥwt kꜣ ptḥ (reconstructed pronunciation /ħawitˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħajiʔˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħəjˌkuʔpəˈtaħ/, Egyptological pronunciation Hut-ka-Ptah ), literally "estate/palace of
7300-438: The introduction typically fall beyond the ability of all but the top 20 to 30 percent of students. The claims clearly renounce historical research that shows that all ethnic and income groups score differently on all standardized tests and standards based assessments and that students will achieve on a bell curve . Instead, education officials across the world believe that by setting clear, achievable, higher standards, aligning
7400-798: The latter being the direct descendent of the Ancient Egyptian language. For instance, the Lord's Prayer in the Coptic Church is recited in the native Coptic language as follows: Ϧⲉⲛ ⲫ̀ⲣⲁⲛ ⲙ̀ⲫ̀ⲓⲱⲧ: ⲛⲉⲙ ⲡ̀ϣⲏⲣⲓ: ⲛⲉⲙ Ⲡⲓⲡⲛⲉⲩⲙⲁ ⲉⲑⲟⲩⲁⲃ: ⲟⲩⲛⲟⲩϯ ⲛ̀ⲟⲩⲱⲧ: Ⲁⲙⲏⲛ Ϫⲉ ⲡⲉⲛⲓⲱⲧ ⲉⲧϧⲉⲛ ⲛⲓⲫⲏⲟⲩⲓ: ⲙⲁⲣⲉϥⲧⲟⲩⲃⲟ ⲛ̀ϫⲉ ⲡⲉⲕⲣⲁⲛ: ⲙⲁⲣⲉⲥⲓ ⲛ̀ϫⲉ ⲧⲉⲕⲙⲉⲧⲟⲩⲣⲟ: ⲡⲉⲧⲉϩⲛⲁⲕ ⲙⲁⲣⲉϥϣⲱⲡⲓ Ⲙ̀ⲫⲣⲏϯ ϧⲉⲛ ⲧ̀ⲫⲉ ⲛⲉⲙ ϩⲓϫⲉⲛ ⲡⲓⲕⲁϩⲓ ⲡⲉⲛⲱⲓⲕ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉ ⲣⲁⲥϯ ⲙⲏⲓϥ ⲛⲁⲛ ⲙ̀ⲫⲟⲟⲩ Ⲟⲩⲟϩ ⲭⲁ ⲛⲏⲉⲧⲉⲣⲟⲛ ⲛⲁⲛ ⲉ̀ⲃⲟⲗ: ⲙ̀ⲫ̀ⲣⲏϯ ϩⲱⲛ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉⲛⲭⲱ ⲉ̀ⲃⲟⲗ ⲛ̀ⲛⲏⲉⲧⲉ ⲟⲩⲟⲛ ⲛ̀ⲧⲁⲛ ⲉⲣⲱⲟⲩ Ⲟⲩⲟϩ ⲙ̀ⲡⲉⲣⲉⲛⲧⲉⲛ ⲉϧⲟⲩⲛ ⲉ̀ⲡⲓⲣⲁⲥⲙⲟⲥ: ⲁⲗⲗⲁ ⲛⲁϩⲙⲉⲛ ⲉⲃⲟⲗϩⲁ ⲡⲓⲡⲉⲧϩⲱⲟⲩ Ϧⲉⲛ Ⲡⲭ̅ⲥ̅ Ⲓⲏ̅ⲥ̅ Ⲡⲉⲛⲟ̅ⲥ̅ Ϫⲉ ⲑⲱⲕ ⲧⲉ ϯⲙⲉⲧⲟⲩⲣⲟ ⲛⲉⲙ ϯϫⲟⲙ ⲛⲉⲙ ⲡⲓⲱⲟⲩ ϣⲁ ⲉⲛⲉϩ. Ⲁⲙⲏⲛ. In
7500-506: The model. Designed to be inexpensive, Charity schools operated on minimal budgets and strived to serve as many needy children as possible. This led to the development of grammar schools , which primarily focused on teaching literacy, grammar, and bookkeeping skills so that the students could use books as an inexpensive resource to continue their education. Grammar was the first third of the then-prevalent system of classical education. Educators Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell developed
7600-522: The modernization of Egypt and the Arab world as a whole; they also contributed to the "social and political life and key debates such as pan-Arabism , good governance, educational reform , and democracy ", and they have historically flourished in business affairs. While Coptic Christians speak the same dialects and are culturally similar to other Egyptians, they strongly oppose Arab identity and associate it with Islam and Islamism . In Egypt, Copts have
7700-575: The most prominent figure of the council was the future Patriarch of Alexandria Athanasius , who played the major role in the formulation of the Nicene Creed , recited today in most Christian churches of different denominations. One of the council's decisions was to entrust the Patriarch of Alexandria with calculating and annually announcing the exact date of Easter to the rest of the Christian churches. The Council of Constantinople (381 AD)
7800-409: The motivations for reform have not reflected the current needs of society. A consistent theme of reform includes the idea that large systematic changes to educational standards will produce social returns in citizens' health, wealth, and well-being. As part of the broader social and political processes, the term education reform refers to the chronology of significant, systematic revisions made to amend
7900-402: The move from many small local high schools to large centralized high schools, curricular differentiation in the form of electives and tracking, curricular, professional, and other forms of standardization, and an increase in state and federal regulation and bureaucracy, with a corresponding reduction of local control at the school board level. (Cf. "State, federal, and local control of education in
8000-478: The overthrow of Nimeiry, Coptic leaders supported a secular candidate in the 1986 elections. However, when the National Islamic Front overthrew the elected government of Sadiq al-Mahdi with the help of the military, discrimination against Copts returned in earnest. Hundreds of Copts were dismissed from the civil service and judiciary. In February 1991, a Coptic pilot working for Sudan Airways
8100-553: The population. They pride themselves on the apostolicity of the Egyptian Church: its founder was the first in an unbroken chain of patriarchs. The main body has been out of communion with the Roman Catholic Church since the 5th century AD. According to ancient tradition, Christianity was introduced to present day Egypt by St. Mark in Alexandria , shortly after the ascension of Christ and during
8200-629: The quality of democratic governance depends on the ability of citizens to make informed, intelligent choices, and that education can improve these abilities. Politically motivated educational reforms of the democratic type are recorded as far back as Plato in The Republic . In the United States, this lineage of democratic education reform was continued by Thomas Jefferson , who advocated ambitious reforms partly along Platonic lines for public schooling in Virginia . Another motivation for reform
8300-578: The reformers' goals of "high-quality education" has meant "high-intensity education", with a narrow emphasis on teaching individual, test-friendly subskills quickly, regardless of long-term outcomes, developmental appropriateness, or broader educational goals. In the United States, Horace Mann (1796 – 1859) of Massachusetts used his political base and role as Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education to promote public education in his home state and nationwide. Advocating
8400-567: The reign of the Roman emperor Claudius around 42 AD. The legacy that St. Mark left in Egypt was a considerable Christian community in Alexandria. Within half a century of St. Mark's arrival Christianity had spread throughout Egypt. This is clear from a fragment of the Gospel of John , written in Coptic and found in Upper Egypt that can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century, and
8500-669: The rod". (More radically, Manson proposed the "liberty of each [child] to take the quantity [of lessons] agreeable to his inclination"). Lancaster, an impoverished Quaker during the early 19th century in London and Bell at the Madras School of India developed this model independent of one another. However, by design, their model utilizes more advanced students as a resource to teach the less advanced students; achieving student-teacher ratios as small as 1:2 and educating more than 1000 students per adult. The lack of adult supervision at
8600-566: The rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century. He abolished the Jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Egyptians (Copts) to enroll in the army. Pope Cyril IV , 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive Isma'il Pasha , in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs. Some Copts participated in
8700-510: The school store. Students could earn scrip through tutoring. To promote discipline, the school adopted a work-study model. Every job of the school was bid-for by students, with the largest bid winning. However, any student tutor could auction positions in his or her classes to earn scrip. The bids for student jobs paid for the adult supervision. Lancaster promoted his system in a piece called Improvements in Education that spread widely throughout
8800-473: The settled form of the name. In the 20th century, some Egyptian nationalists and intellectuals in the context of Pharaonism began using the term qubṭ in the historical sense. The Copts are one of the oldest Christian communities in the Middle East. Although integrated in the larger Egyptian nation state, the Copts have survived as a distinct religious community forming around 5 to 20 percent of
8900-808: The term Monophysites as erroneous and referred to themselves as Miaphysites . The majority of the Egyptians belonged to the Miaphysite branch, which led to their persecution by the Byzantines in Egypt . In 641 AD, Egypt was conquered by the Arabs who faced off with the Byzantine army. Local resistance by the Egyptians however began to materialize shortly thereafter and would last until at least
9000-649: The written language on some fundamental level in order to read the Bible and the colony's written secular laws. Religious leaders recognized that each person should be "educated enough to meet the individual needs of their station in life and social harmony. " The first compulsory education laws were passed in Massachusetts between 1642 and 1648 when religious leaders noticed not all parents were providing their children with proper education. These laws stated that all towns with 50 or more families were obligated to hire
9100-446: Was also compared with that of earlier Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient Egyptians than to Greeks or other European populations. Victor J. Katz notes that "research in papyri dating from the early centuries of the common era demonstrates that a significant amount of intermarriage took place between the Greek and Egyptian communities". Modern day Copts use predominantly Arabic and Coptic,
9200-641: Was chosen as the new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians. His name was selected from a glass bowl containing the three shortlisted candidates by a blindfolded boy at a ceremony in Cairo 's St Mark's Cathedral . In Ethiopia the Orthodox Tewahedo Church was part of the Coptic Orthodox Church until 1959 when it was granted its own patriarch by the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa Cyril VI . Sudan has
9300-406: Was correlated with increased farming efficiencies and income. In both cases some researchers have concluded these correlations as representing an underlying causal relationship: education causes socio-economic benefits. In the case of Iran, researchers concluded that the improvements were due to farmers gaining reliable access to national crop prices and scientific farming information. As taught from
9400-600: Was executed for illegal possession of foreign currency. Before his execution, he had been offered amnesty and money if he converted to Islam , but he refused. Thousands attended his funeral, and the execution was taken as a warning by many Copts, who began to flee the country. Restrictions on the Copts' rights to Sudanese nationality followed, and it became difficult for them to obtain Sudanese nationality by birth or by naturalization, resulting in problems when attempting to travel abroad. The confiscation of Christian schools and
9500-536: Was headed by Metropolitan Marcos until his death on 11 May 2008. This Oriental Orthodox Christianity –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about an organization in France is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Copts This is an accepted version of this page Copts ( Coptic : ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ , romanized: niremənkhēmi ; Arabic : الْقِبْط , romanized : al-qibṭ ) are
9600-468: Was neglected could be removed from their parents or masters. " The 1647 law eventually led to establishing publicly funded district schools in all Massachusetts towns, although, despite the threat of fines, compliance and quality of public schools were less than satisfactory. "Many towns were 'shamefully neglectful' of children's education. In 1718 '...by sad experience, it is found that many towns that not only are obliged by law, but are very able to support
9700-598: Was not well received and did not begin to take hold on until the 1830s. However, in 1790, evolving socio-cultural ideals in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania led to the first significant and systematic reform in education legislation that mandated economic conditions would not inhibit a child's access to education: " Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania – 1790 ARTICLE VII Section I. The legislature shall, as soon as conveniently may be, provide, by law, for
9800-644: Was presided over by Patriarch Timothy of Alexandria , while the Council of Ephesus (431 AD) was presided over by Cyril of Alexandria . In 451 AD, following the Council of Chalcedon , the Church of Alexandria was divided into two branches. Those who accepted the terms of the Council became known as Chalcedonians or Melkites . Those who did not abide by the council's terms were labeled non-Chalcedonians or Monophysites and later Jacobites after Jacob Baradaeus . The non-Chalcedonians , however, rejected
9900-476: Was spoken in late antiquity . Following the Muslim conquest, the treatment of the Coptic Christians who refused to convert ranged from relative tolerance to open persecution . Historically, the Copts suffered from "waves of persecution giving way to relative tolerance in cycles that varied according to the local ruler and other political and economic circumstances". Persecution is significantly involved in
10000-617: Was the fina l state to adopt the law . John Dewey , a philosopher and educator based in Chicago and New York, helped conceptualize the role of American and international education during the first four decades of the 20th century. An important member of the American Pragmatist movement, he carried the subordination of knowledge to action into the educational world by arguing for experiential education that would enable children to learn theory and practice simultaneously;
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