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154-675: Copts in Egypt refers to Coptic Christians born in or residing in Egypt . As of 2019, "Copts are generally understood to make up approximately 10 percent of Egypt's population," with an estimated population of 9.5 million (figure cited in the Wall Street Journal , 2017) or 10 million (figure cited in the Associated Press , 2019). Smaller or larger figures have also been cited, in the range of "somewhere between 6% and 18% of
308-431: A university degree in institutions of higher education . According to the scholar Andrea Rugh Copts tend to belong to the educated middle and upper-middle class , and according to scholar Lois Farag "The Copts still played the major role in managing Egypt's state finances. They held 20% of total state capital, 45% of government employment, and 45% of government salaries". According to scholar J. D. Pennington 45% of
462-438: A Coptic Orthodox priest to a government position, though the ruling Islamist party remained dominant. After the 2018 Sudanese revolution , one Copt ( Raja Nicola Issa Abdul-Masseh ) was appointed in 2019 to the 11-member Transitional Sovereignty Council , which was convened as part of plan to transition Sudan to democracy. However, a military coup in 2019 , led by Abdel Fattah al-Burhan and Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo , dissolved
616-479: A brief period and wrote articles for the school's paper, including a piece on French philosopher Voltaire titled "Voltaire, the Man of Freedom". On 13 November 1935, Nasser led a student demonstration against British rule, protesting against a statement made four days prior by UK foreign minister Samuel Hoare that rejected prospects for the 1923 Constitution's restoration. Two protesters were killed and Nasser received
770-525: A brief period of time. The Egyptian Census of 1897 reported the percentage of Non-Muslims in Urban Provinces as 14.7% (13.2% Christians, 1.4% Jews). The Egyptian Census of 1986 reported the percentage of Non-Muslims in Urban Provinces as 6.1% (5.7% Christians, 0% Jews). The decline in the Jewish representation is interpreted through the creation of the state of Israel, and the subsequent emigration of
924-805: A coup d'état against King Farouk , which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. Nasser 's mainstream policy was pan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10 to 20 percent of the population. In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed. In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher educational attainment , relatively higher wealth index, and
1078-664: A coup d'état against King Farouk , which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. Nasser 's mainstream policy was pan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10–20% of the population. In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed. Many Coptic intellectuals hold to "Pharaonism," which states that Coptic culture
1232-554: A dispute between a Muslim and a Christian. "Twenty Christians and one Muslim were killed after violence broke out in the town of el-Kosheh, 440 kilometres (270 mi) south of Cairo". International Christian Concern reported that in February 2001, Muslims burned a new Egyptian church and the homes of 35 Christians, and that in April 2001 a 14-year-old Egyptian Christian girl was kidnapped because her parents were believed to be harboring
1386-481: A graze to the head from a policeman's bullet. The incident garnered his first mention in the press: the nationalist newspaper Al Gihad reported that Nasser led the protest and was among the wounded. On 12 December, the new king, Farouk , issued a decree restoring the constitution. Nasser's involvement in political activity increased throughout his school years, such that he only attended 45 days of classes during his last year of secondary school. Despite it having
1540-514: A heart attack and died. His funeral in Cairo drew five to six million mourners, and prompted an outpouring of grief across the Arab world. Nasser remains an iconic figure in the Arab world, particularly for his strides towards social justice and Arab unity, his modernization policies, and his anti-imperialist efforts. His presidency also encouraged and coincided with an Egyptian cultural boom, and
1694-516: A native Coptic minority, although many Copts in Sudan are descended from more recent Egyptian immigrants. Copts in Sudan live mostly in northern cities, including Al Obeid , Atbara , Dongola , Khartoum , Omdurman , Port Sudan , and Wad Medani . Many Sudanese Copts have advanced educations. They have occasionally faced forced conversion to Islam , resulting in their emigration and decrease in number. Modern immigration of Copts to Sudan peaked in
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#17327655201941848-534: A person who had converted from Islam to Christianity. In 2006, one person attacked three churches in Alexandria , killing one person and injuring 5–16. The attacker was not linked to any organisation and described as "psychologically disturbed" by the Ministry of Interior . In May 2010, The Wall Street Journal reported increasing waves of mob attacks by Muslims against Copts. Despite frantic calls for help,
2002-479: A principal theme of Egyptian foreign policy regarding the Cold War. Nasser was welcomed by large crowds of people lining the streets of Cairo on his return to Egypt on 2 May and was widely heralded in the press for his achievements and leadership in the conference. Consequently, Nasser's prestige was greatly boosted, as was his self-confidence and image. With his domestic position considerably strengthened, Nasser
2156-626: A result. At the Bandung Conference in Indonesia in late April 1955, Nasser was treated as the leading representative of the Arab countries and was one of the most popular figures at the summit. He had paid earlier visits to Pakistan (9 April), India (14 April), Burma , and Afghanistan on the way to Bandung, and previously cemented a treaty of friendship with India in Cairo on 6 April, strengthening Egyptian–Indian relations on
2310-552: A return to the pre-1952 order, the RCC decreed an end to restrictions on monarchy-era parties and the Free Officers' withdrawal from politics. The RCC succeeded in provoking the beneficiaries of the revolution, namely the workers, peasants, and petty bourgeois, to oppose the decrees, with one million transport workers launching a strike and thousands of peasants entering Cairo in protest in late March. Naguib sought to crack down on
2464-563: A series of major socialist measures and modernization reforms in Egypt. Despite setbacks to his pan-Arabist cause, by 1963 Nasser's supporters gained power in several Arab countries, but he became embroiled in the North Yemen Civil War , and eventually the much larger Arab Cold War . He began his second presidential term in March 1965 after his political opponents were banned from running. Following Egypt's defeat by Israel in
2618-473: A sizable group within the RCC, led by Khaled Mohieddin, demanded Naguib's release and return to the presidency. Nasser acquiesced, but delayed Naguib's reinstatement until 4 March, allowing him to promote Amer to Commander of the Armed Forces—a position formerly occupied by Naguib. On 5 March, Nasser's security coterie arrested thousands of participants in the uprising. As a ruse to rally opposition against
2772-733: A speech in Alexandria announcing the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company as a means to fund the Aswan Dam project in light of the British–American withdrawal. In the speech, he denounced British imperialism in Egypt and British control over the canal company's profits, and upheld that the Egyptian people had a right to sovereignty over the waterway, especially since "120,000 Egyptians had died building it". The motion
2926-502: A stronger representation in white collar job types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims. Historically; many Copts were accountants , and in 1961 Coptic Christians owned 51% of the Egyptian banks . A Pew Center study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that around 26% of Egyptian Christians obtain
3080-614: Is a Copt who lived in Egypt during that era. In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday. However, many Copts continue to complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion. Copts are unrepresented and marginalized in Egyptian politics, bureaucracy, and society. Minorities at Risk reports that there are no Christian governors, university presidents, or deans in
3234-405: Is hampered to varying degrees by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Coptic Christians, being the largest religious minority in Egypt, are also negatively affected. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup d'état led by Gamal Abdel Nasser . Until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although
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#17327655201943388-455: Is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic Egyptian culture. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, and it helped bridge the divide between those groups. However, some Western scholars today argue that Pharaonism was a late development shaped primarily by Orientalism , and doubt its validity. Religious freedom in Egypt
3542-522: Is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever. Amen. The major contributions that the See of Alexandria has contributed to the establishment of early Christian theology and dogma are attested to by fact that the first three ecumenical councils in the history of Christianity were headed by Egyptian patriarchs. The Council of Nicaea (325 AD) was presided over by St. Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria , along with Saint Hosius of Córdoba . In addition,
3696-633: Is the variety of Greek spoken in Egypt from antiquity until the Islamic conquest of Egypt in the 7th century. Egyptian Greek adopted many loanwords from Egyptian language ; there was a great deal of intracommunity bilingualism in Egypt. The following is an example of Egyptian Greek language, used in the Coptic Church : ⲇⲟⲝⲁ ⲡⲁⲧⲣⲓ ⲕⲉ ⲩⲓⲱ: ⲕⲉ ⲁ̀ⲅⲓⲱ ⲡⲛⲉⲩⲙⲁⲧⲓ: ⲕⲉ ⲛⲩⲛ ⲕⲉ ⲁ̀ⲓ̀ ⲕⲉ ⲓⲥ ⲧⲟⲩⲥ ⲉⲱⲛⲁⲥ ⲧⲱⲛ ⲉ̀ⲱ̀ⲛⲱⲛ ⲁ̀ⲙⲏⲛ Δόξα Πατρὶ κὲ Υἱῷ κὲ Ἁγίῳ Πνεύματι, κὲ νῦν κὲ ἀῒ κὲ ἰς τοὺς ἐῶνας τῶν ἐώνων. Ἀμήν. Glory to
3850-786: The Abdeen Palace Incident , British soldiers and tanks surrounded King Farouk's palace to compel the King to dismiss Prime Minister Hussein Sirri Pasha in favour of Mostafa El-Nahas , whom the United Kingdom government felt would be more sympathetic to their war effort against the Axis. The British Ambassador, Miles Lampson , marched into the palace, and threatened the King with the bombardment of his palace, his removal as king, and his exile from Egypt unless he conceded to
4004-624: The Benedictine Order in the 6th century on the model of Saint Pachomius , although in a stricter form. Coptic Christians practice male circumcision as a rite of passage. The Faiyum mummy portraits reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and that of the Hellenized Middle East. By the time of Roman emperor Caracalla in the 2nd century AD, ethnic Egyptians could be distinguished from Egyptian Greeks only by their speech. Egyptian Greek
4158-630: The Church in Rome . The Church of Alexandria is therefore the oldest Christian church in Africa. The Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to Christian tradition. The Catechetical School of Alexandria was the oldest school of its kind in the world. Founded around 190 AD by the scholar Pantanaeus , the school became an important institution of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as Athenagoras , Clement , Didymus , and Origen ,
4312-745: The Eastern Bloc and concluded a US$ 320,000,000 armaments agreement with Czechoslovakia on 27 September. Through the Czechoslovakian arms deal , the balance of power between Egypt and Israel was more or less equalized and Nasser's role as the Arab leader defying the West was enhanced. The arms deal led to increased unease in the United States, where Nasser was compared to Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler , causing it to strengthen its relations with Israel and become more wary of Egypt as
4466-451: The Egyptian banks . A Pew Center study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that around 36% of Egyptian Christians obtain a university degree in institutions of higher education . According to the scholar Andrea Rugh Copts tend to belong to the educated middle and upper-middle class , and according to scholar Lois Farag "The Copts still played the major role in managing Egypt's state finances. They held 20% of
4620-593: The Evangelical Church of Egypt . The Copts played a central role in the Arab Renaissance as well as the modernization of Egypt and the Arab world as a whole; they also contributed to the "social and political life and key debates such as pan-Arabism , good governance, educational reform , and democracy ", and they have historically flourished in business affairs. While Coptic Christians speak
4774-759: The Muslim conquest of Egypt in 639–646 AD. Copts have historically spoken the Coptic language , a direct descendant of the Demotic Egyptian that was spoken in late antiquity . Following the Muslim conquest, the treatment of the Coptic Christians who refused to convert ranged from relative tolerance to open persecution . Historically, the Copts suffered from "waves of persecution giving way to relative tolerance in cycles that varied according to
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4928-646: The New Testament writings found in Oxyrhynchus , in Middle Egypt , which date around 200 AD. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into Coptic (then known as Egyptian ). By the beginning of the 3rd century AD, Christians constituted the majority of Egypt's population, and the Church of Alexandria was recognized as one of Christendom 's four apostolic sees, second in honor only to
5082-508: The Qur'an , the sayings of Muhammad , the lives of the Sahaba (Muhammad's companions), the biographies of nationalist leaders Napoleon , Atatürk , Otto von Bismarck and Garibaldi , and the autobiography of Winston Churchill . Nasser was greatly influenced by Egyptian nationalism , as espoused by politician Mustafa Kamel , poet Ahmed Shawqi , and his anti-colonialist instructor at
5236-558: The Royal Military Academy , Aziz al-Masri , to whom Nasser expressed his gratitude in a 1961 newspaper interview. He was especially influenced by Egyptian writer Tawfiq al-Hakim 's novel Return of the Spirit , in which al-Hakim wrote that the Egyptian people were only in need of a "man in whom all their feelings and desires will be represented, and who will be for them a symbol of their objective". Nasser later credited
5390-631: The Six-Day War of 1967, Nasser resigned, but he returned to office after popular demonstrations called for his reinstatement. By 1968, Nasser had appointed himself prime minister, launched the War of Attrition to regain the Israeli-occupied Sinai Peninsula , began a process of depoliticizing the military, and issued a set of political liberalization reforms. After the conclusion of the 1970 Arab League summit , Nasser suffered
5544-567: The kꜣ ("double" spirit) of Ptah " (compare Akkadian ḫi-ku-up-ta-aḫ ), the name of the temple complex of the god Ptah at Memphis (and a synecdoche for the city of Memphis and the region around it). The term Aigýptios in Greek came to designate the native Egyptian population in Roman Egypt (as distinct from Greeks, Romans, Jews, etc.). After the Muslim conquest of Egypt (639-646) it became restricted to those Egyptians adhering to
5698-813: The medical doctors , 60% of the pharmacists of Egypt were Christians. A number of Coptic business and land-owning families became very wealthy and influential such as the Egyptian Coptic Christian Sawiris family that owns the Orascom conglomerate , spanning telecommunications, construction, tourism, industries and technology. In 2008, Forbes estimated the family's net worth at $ 36 billion. According to scholars Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein argue that Copts have relatively higher educational attainment and relatively higher wealth index, due to Coptic Christianity emphasis on literacy and that Coptic Christianity encouraged
5852-608: The non-Chalcedonian Coptic Orthodox Church constitute the majority of the Egyptian Christian population. Mainly through emigration and partly through European, American, and other missionary work and conversions, the Egyptian Christian community now also includes other Christian denominations such as Protestants (known in Arabic as Evangelicals ), Roman Catholics and Eastern Rite Catholics , and other Orthodox congregations. The term Coptic remains exclusive however to
6006-587: The persecution of Coptic Christians included closing and demolishing churches, forced conversion to Islam , and heavy taxes for those who refused to convert. During the Ottoman period, Copts were classified alongside other Oriental Orthodox and Nestorian peoples under the Armenian millet . Under Muslim rule, Christians paid special taxes, had lower access to political power, and were exempt from military service. Their position improved dramatically under
6160-488: The "Arab notion of glory", since the name of Nasser's brother, Izz al-Arab, translates to "Glory of the Arabs". Nasser's family traveled frequently due to his father's work. In 1921, they moved to Asyut and, in 1923, to Khatatba , where Nasser's father ran a post office. Nasser attended a primary school for the children of railway employees until 1924, when he was sent to live with his paternal uncle in Cairo , and to attend
6314-545: The 1990s, the government focused its religious fervor on the south. Although experiencing discrimination, the Copts and other long-established Christian groups in the north had fewer restrictions than other types of Christians in the south . As of 2010, the Coptic Church in Sudan was officially registered with the government, and exempt from property tax. In 2005, the Sudanese government of National Unity (GNU) named
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6468-619: The 9th century. Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained mainly Christian, but Coptic Christians lost their majority status after the 14th century, as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches there. From the Muslim conquest of Egypt onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslim regimes, such as the Umayyad Caliphate , Abbasid Caliphate , Fatimid Caliphate , Mamluk Sultanate , and Ottoman Empire ;
6622-476: The Arab "peoples" or the "Arab region". In January 1955, the RCC appointed him as their president, pending national elections. Nasser made secret contacts with Israel in 1954–55, but determined that peace with Israel would be impossible, considering it an "expansionist state that viewed the Arabs with disdain". On 28 February 1955, Israeli troops attacked the Egyptian-held Gaza Strip with
6776-641: The British demands. Ultimately, the 22 year old King submitted, and appointed El-Nahas. Nasser saw the incident as a blatant violation of Egyptian sovereignty and wrote, "I am ashamed that our army has not reacted against this attack", and wished for "calamity" to overtake the British. Nasser was accepted into the General Staff College later that year. He began to form a group of young military officers with strong nationalist sentiments who supported some form of revolution. Nasser stayed in touch with
6930-710: The Brotherhood's influence over his cadres' activities without severing ties with the organization. Nasser was sent as a member of the Egyptian delegation to Rhodes in February 1949 to negotiate a formal armistice with Israel, and reportedly considered the terms to be humiliating, particularly because the Israelis were able to easily occupy the Eilat region while negotiating with the Arabs in March. Nasser's return to Egypt coincided with Husni al-Za'im 's Syrian coup d'état . Its success and evident popular support among
7084-678: The Christian religion. The Coptic name for Egyptians , remənkhēmi ( Coptic : ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ ), is realized in Fayyumic Coptic as ⲗⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ lemenkēmi and as ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ remənkēme in the Sahidic dialect; cf. Egyptian rmṯ n kmt , Demotic rmṯ n kmỉ . The Arabic word qibṭ "Copt" has also been connected to the Greek name of the town of Kóptos ( Koinē Greek : Κόπτος , now Qifṭ ; Coptic Kebt and Keft ) in Upper Egypt . This association may have contributed to making "Copt"
7238-586: The Cold War, recognition of communist China, and arms deal with the Eastern bloc alienated the United States. On 19 July 1956, the US and UK abruptly withdrew their offer to finance construction of the Aswan Dam, citing concerns that Egypt's economy would be overwhelmed by the project. Nasser was informed of the British–American withdrawal in a news statement while aboard a plane returning to Cairo from Belgrade , and took great offense. Although ideas for nationalizing
7392-602: The Coptic Church had declared "war against Islam and Muslims" and that "The Pope of the Church is involved in the removal of the first elected Islamist president. The Pope of the Church alleges Islamic Sharia is backwards, stubborn, and reactionary." On August 15, nine Egyptian human rights groups under the umbrella group "Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights", released a statement saying, In December … Brotherhood leaders began fomenting anti-Christian sectarian incitement. The anti-Coptic incitement and threats continued unabated up to
7546-564: The Coptic Orthodox Church or other Coptic churches. Coptic people Copts ( Coptic : ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ , romanized: niremənkhēmi ; Arabic : الْقِبْط , romanized : al-qibṭ ) are a Christian ethnoreligious group native to Northeast Africa who have primarily inhabited the area of modern Egypt and Sudan , and predominantly follow the Orthodox Church in Alexandria . They are
7700-727: The Egyptian Copts made to Christianity was the creation and organization of monasticism . Worldwide Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example. The most prominent figures of the monastic movement were Anthony the Great , Paul of Thebes , Macarius the Great , Shenouda the Archimandrite and Pachomius the Cenobite . By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout
7854-555: The Egyptian Jews. There is no explanation for a 55% decline in the percentage of Christians in Egypt. It has been suggested that Egyptian censuses held after 1952 have been politicized to under-represent the Christian population. In August 2013, following the 3 July 2013 Coup and clashes between the military and Morsi supporters, there were widespread attacks on Coptic churches and institutions in Egypt by Morsi supports. According to at least one Egyptian scholar (Samuel Tadros),
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#17327655201948008-569: The Egyptian delegation negotiating a British withdrawal from the Suez Canal. When Naguib began showing signs of independence from Nasser by distancing himself from the RCC's land reform decrees and drawing closer to Egypt's established political forces, namely the Wafd and the Brotherhood, Nasser resolved to depose him. In June, Nasser took control of the interior ministry post from Naguib loyalist Sulayman Hafez , and pressured Naguib to conclude
8162-558: The Egyptian desert. Since then pilgrims have visited the Egyptian Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. St Basil the Great Archbishop of Caesarea Mazaca , and the founder and organiser of the monastic movement in Asia Minor , visited Egypt around 357 AD and his monastic rules are followed by the Eastern Orthodox Churches . Saint Jerome , who translated the Bible into Latin , came to Egypt while en route to Jerusalem around 400 AD, leaving details of his experiences in his letters. St. Benedict founded
8316-428: The Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the Coptic Museum in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are Salama Moussa , Louis Awad and Secretary General of the Wafd Party Makram Ebeid . In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in
8470-426: The Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the Coptic Museum in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are Salama Moussa , Louis Awad and Secretary General of the Wafd Party Makram Ebeid . In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in
8624-455: The Egyptian natives, as opposed to the Christians of non-Egyptian origins. Some Protestant churches for instance are called " Coptic Evangelical Church ", thus helping differentiate their native Egyptian congregations from churches attended by non-Egyptian immigrant communities such as Europeans or Americans. The previous head of the Coptic Orthodox Church, Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria , died 17 March 2012. On 4 November 2012, Bishop Tawadros
8778-408: The Father, to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, both now and always, and unto the ages of ages. Amen. According to Walker, early Ptolemaic Greek colonists married local women and adopted Egyptian religious beliefs, and by Roman times, their descendants were viewed as Egyptians by the Roman rulers, despite their own self-perception of being Greek. The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies
8932-465: The Free Officers expected to become the "guardians of the people's interests" against the monarchy and the pasha class while leaving the day-to-day tasks of government to civilians. They asked former prime minister Ali Maher to accept reappointment to his previous position, and to form an all-civilian cabinet. The Free Officers then governed as the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) with Naguib as chairman and Nasser as vice-chairman. Relations between
9086-442: The Free Officers to the forefront of Egyptian politics. By then, the organization had expanded to around ninety members. According to Khaled Mohieddin , "nobody knew all of them and where they belonged in the hierarchy except Nasser". Nasser felt that the Free Officers were not ready to move against the government and, for nearly two years, he did little beyond officer recruitment and underground news bulletins. On 11 October 1951,
9240-583: The Greek term for the indigenous people of Egypt, Aigýptios ( Αἰγύπτιος ). The Greek term for Egypt, Aígyptos ( Ancient Greek : Αἴγυπτος ), itself derives from the Egyptian language , but dates to a much earlier period, being attested already in Mycenaean Greek as a 3 -ku-pi-ti-jo (lit. "Egyptian"; used here as a man's name). This Mycenaean form probably comes from Middle Egyptian ḥwt kꜣ ptḥ (reconstructed pronunciation /ħawitˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħajiʔˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħəjˌkuʔpəˈtaħ/, Egyptological pronunciation Hut-ka-Ptah ), literally "estate/palace of
9394-404: The Liberation Rally, which Nasser determined had failed in generating mass public participation. In the new movement, Nasser attempted to incorporate more citizens, approved by local-level party committees, in order to solidify popular backing for his government. The NU would select a nominee for the presidential election whose name would be provided for public approval. Nasser's nomination for
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#17327655201949548-415: The Liberation Rally, a loosely structured movement whose chief task was to organize pro-RCC rallies and lectures, with Nasser its secretary-general . Despite the dissolution order, Nasser was the only RCC member who still favored holding parliamentary elections, according to his fellow officer Abdel Latif Boghdadi . Although outvoted, he still advocated holding elections by 1956. In March 1953, Nasser led
9702-419: The Middle East, and a mechanism to undermine the Arab League and "perpetuate [Arab] subservience to Zionism and [Western] imperialism". Nasser felt that if he was to maintain Egypt's regional leadership position he needed to acquire modern weaponry to arm his military. When it became apparent to him that Western countries would not supply Egypt under acceptable financial and military terms, Nasser turned to
9856-570: The Muslim Brotherhood, the Egyptian Communist Party, and the aristocracy. Nasser was unanimously elected chairman of the organization. In the 1950 parliamentary elections, the Wafd Party of el-Nahhas gained a victory—mostly due to the absence of the Muslim Brotherhood, which boycotted the elections—and was perceived as a threat by the Free Officers as the Wafd had campaigned on demands similar to their own. Accusations of corruption against Wafd politicians began to surface, however, breeding an atmosphere of rumor and suspicion that consequently brought
10010-444: The Nahhasin elementary school. Nasser exchanged letters with his mother and visited her on holidays. He stopped receiving messages at the end of April 1926. Upon returning to Khatatba, he learned that his mother had died after giving birth to his third brother, Shawki, and that his family had kept the news from him. Nasser later stated that "losing her this way was a shock so deep that time failed to remedy". He adored his mother and
10164-410: The Name of the Father: and the Son: and the Holy Spirit: One God: Amen Our Father Who art in heaven: hallowed be Thy name: Thy kingdom come: Thy will be done On earth as it is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread And forgive us our trespasses: as we forgive those who trespass against us And lead us not into temptation: but deliver us from evil one In Christ Jesus our Lord For Thine
10318-402: The Officer's Club—normally a ceremonial office—with the king's backing. Nasser was determined to establish the independence of the army from the monarchy, and with Amer as the intercessor, resolved to field a nominee for the Free Officers. They selected Mohamed Naguib , a popular general who had offered his resignation to Farouk in 1942 over British high-handedness and was wounded three times in
10472-418: The Palestine War. Naguib won overwhelmingly and the Free Officers, through their connection with a leading Egyptian daily, al-Misri , publicized his victory while praising the nationalistic spirit of the army. On 25 January 1952, at a time of growing fedayeen attacks on British forces occupying the Suez Canal Zone, some 7,000 British soldiers attacked the main police station in the Canal city Ismailia . In
10626-424: The RCC and Maher grew tense, however, as the latter viewed many of Nasser's schemes—agrarian reform, abolition of the monarchy, reorganization of political parties —as too radical, culminating in Maher's resignation on 7 September. Naguib assumed the additional role of prime minister, and Nasser that of deputy prime minister. In September, the Agrarian Reform Law was put into effect. In Nasser's eyes, this law gave
10780-417: The RCC its own identity and transformed the coup into a revolution. Preceding the reform law, in August 1952, communist-led riots broke out at textile factories in Kafr el-Dawwar , leading to a clash with the army that left nine people dead. While most of the RCC insisted on executing the riot's two ringleaders, Nasser opposed this. Nonetheless, the sentences were carried out. The Muslim Brotherhood supported
10934-448: The RCC's dissolution. While visiting the striking officers at Military Headquarters (GHQ) to call for the mutiny's end, Nasser was initially intimidated into accepting their demands. However, on 27 February, Nasser's supporters in the army launched a raid on the GHQ, ending the mutiny. Later that day, hundreds of thousands of protesters, mainly belonging to the Brotherhood, called for Naguib's return and Nasser's imprisonment. In response,
11088-419: The RCC, and after Naguib's assumption of power, demanded four ministerial portfolios in the new cabinet. Nasser turned down their demands and instead hoped to co-opt the Brotherhood by giving two of its members, who were willing to serve officially as independents, minor ministerial posts. In January 1953, Nasser overcame opposition from Naguib and banned all political parties, creating a one-party system under
11242-714: The Straits of Tiran and restricted the use of airspace over the Gulf of Aqaba by Israeli aircraft in early September. The Israelis re-militarized the al-Auja Demilitarized Zone on the Egyptian border on 21 September. Simultaneous with Israel's February raid, the Baghdad Pact was formed between some regional allies of the UK. Nasser considered the Baghdad Pact a threat to his efforts to eliminate British military influence in
11396-570: The Suez Canal Company were in the offing after the UK agreed to withdraw its military from Egypt in 1954 (the last British troops left on 13 June 1956), journalist Mohamed Hassanein Heikal asserts that Nasser made the final decision to nationalize the company that operated the waterway between 19 and 20 July. Nasser himself would later state that he decided on 23 July, after studying the issue and deliberating with some of his advisers from
11550-488: The Syrian people encouraged Nasser's revolutionary pursuits. Soon after his return, he was summoned and interrogated by Prime Minister Ibrahim Abdel Hadi regarding suspicions that he was forming a secret group of dissenting officers. According to secondhand reports, Nasser convincingly denied the allegations. Abdel Hadi was also hesitant to take drastic measures against the army, especially in front of its chief of staff, who
11704-522: The Wafd government abrogated the unpopular Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 by which the United Kingdom had the right to maintain its military forces in the Suez Canal Zone. The popularity of this move, as well as that of government-sponsored guerrilla attacks against the British, put pressure on Nasser to act. According to Sadat, Nasser decided to wage "a large scale assassination campaign". In January 1952, he and Hassan Ibrahim attempted to kill
11858-405: The abolition of the monarchy. On 25 February 1954, Naguib announced his resignation after the RCC held an official meeting without his presence two days prior. On 26 February, Nasser accepted the resignation, put Naguib under house arrest, and the RCC proclaimed Nasser as both RCC chairman and prime minister. As Naguib intended, a mutiny immediately followed, demanding Naguib's reinstatement and
12012-483: The accumulation of human capital. Many Coptic intellectuals hold to Pharaonism , which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic Egyptian culture. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, and it helped bridge the divide between those groups. Some scholars see Pharaonism as shaped by Orientalism . Today, members of
12166-405: The almost unanimous backing of Egypt's political forces, Nasser strongly objected to the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty because it stipulated the continued presence of British military bases in the country. Nonetheless, political unrest in Egypt declined significantly and Nasser resumed his studies at al-Nahda, where he received his leaving certificate later that year. Aburish asserts that Nasser
12320-502: The attacks are the worst violence against the Coptic Church since the 14th century. USA Today reported that "forty churches have been looted and torched, while 23 others have been attacked and heavily damaged". The Facebook page of the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party was "rife with false accusations meant to foment hatred against Copts", according to journalist Kirsten Powers. The Party's page claimed that
12474-439: The cabinet. After the three-year transition period ended with Nasser's official assumption of power, his domestic and independent foreign policies increasingly collided with the regional interests of the UK and France. The latter condemned his strong support for Algerian independence , and the UK's Eden government was agitated by Nasser's campaign against the Baghdad Pact. In addition, Nasser's adherence to neutralism regarding
12628-469: The ceding of Faluja to Israel. According to veteran journalist Eric Margolis , the defenders of Faluja, "including young army officer Gamal Abdel Nasser, became national heroes" for enduring Israeli bombardment while isolated from their command. Still stationed after the war in the Faluja enclave, Nasser agreed to an Israeli request to identify 67 killed soldiers of the "religious platoon" . The expedition
12782-430: The civil service. Proficiency in business and administration made them a privileged minority. However, the return of militant Islam in the mid-1960s and subsequent demands by radicals for an Islamic constitution prompted Copts to join in public opposition to religious rule. Gaafar Nimeiry 's introduction of Islamic Sharia law in 1983 began a new phase of oppressive treatment of Copts, among other non-Muslims. After
12936-471: The council and halted the democratic transition; Christians, including Copts, were subjected to intensified persecution during a civil war that began in 2023 . Many became refugees or were internally displaced . Gamal Abdel Nasser President (1956–1970) Prime Minister (1954–(March)1954,(April)1954–1962,1967–1970) Deputy prime minister (1953–1954) [REDACTED] Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein (15 January 1918 – 28 September 1970)
13090-675: The country and their desire to topple the monarchy. Sadat would later write that because of his "energy, clear-thinking, and balanced judgement", Nasser emerged as the group's natural leader. In 1941, Nasser was posted to Khartoum , Sudan, which was part of Egypt at the time. Nasser returned to Egypt in September 1942 after a brief stay in Sudan, then secured a position as an instructor in the Cairo Royal Military Academy in May 1943. In February 1942, in what became known as
13244-664: The country. Official and unofficial discrimination against Copts occurs in forms such as disadvantages in education and the judicial system, violence from Islamic militants, and restrictions on religious activity and expression. While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to Human Rights Watch , "Egyptians are able to convert to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents." The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to
13398-466: The demonstrations of June 30 and, with the removal of President Morsi … morphed into sectarian violence, which was sanctioned by … the continued anti-Coptic rhetoric heard from the group's leaders on the stage … throughout the sit-in. An Egyptian court on February 25, 2016, convicted four Coptic Christian teenagers for contempt of Islam, after they appeared in a video mocking Muslim prayers. Nearly all Egyptian Christians today are Copts, adherents of either
13552-451: The dissolved RCC, namely Boghdadi and technical specialist Mahmoud Younis , beginning on 21 July. The rest of the RCC's former members were informed of the decision on 24 July, while the bulk of the cabinet was unaware of the nationalization scheme until hours before Nasser publicly announced it. According to Ramadan, Nasser's decision to nationalize the canal was a solitary decision, taken without consultation. On 26 July 1956, Nasser gave
13706-539: The early 19th century, and they generally received a tolerant welcome there. However, this was interrupted by a decade of persecution under Mahdist rule at the end of the 19th century. As a result of this persecution, many were forced to relinquish their faith, adopt Islam , and intermarry with the native Sudanese population. The Anglo-Egyptian invasion in 1898 allowed Copts greater religious and economic freedom, and they extended their original roles as artisans and merchants into trading, banking, engineering, medicine, and
13860-415: The ease with which Christians can often become Muslim. Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from Islam to Christianity (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining
14014-571: The ensuing battle, which lasted two hours, 50 Egyptian policeman were killed, sparking outrage across Egypt, and the Cairo Fire riots which left 76 people dead. Afterwards, Nasser published a simple six-point program in Rose al-Yūsuf to dismantle feudalism and British influence in Egypt. In May, Nasser received word that Farouk knew the names of the Free Officers and intended to arrest them; he immediately entrusted Free Officer Zakaria Mohieddin with
14168-424: The family's net worth at $ 36 billion. According to scholars Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein argue that Copts have relatively higher educational attainment and relatively higher wealth index, due to Coptic Christianity emphasis on literacy and that Coptic Christianity encouraged the accumulation of human capital. The early church historian, Eusebius, states in his Chronicle that Mark arrived in Egypt in
14322-441: The father of theology who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies . However, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects: science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before Braille , wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write. Another major contribution
14476-652: The group's members primarily through Amer, who continued to seek out interested officers within the Egyptian Armed Force's various branches and presented Nasser with a complete file on each of them. Nasser's first battlefield experience was in Palestine during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . He initially volunteered to serve with the Arab Higher Committee (AHC) led by Mohammad Amin al-Husayni . Nasser met with and impressed al-Husayni, but
14630-546: The imposition of an Arab-Islamic emphasis in language and history teaching were accompanied by harassment of Christian children and the introduction of hijab dress laws. A Coptic child was flogged for failing to recite a Koranic verse. In contrast with the extensive media broadcasting of the Muslim Friday prayers , the radio ceased coverage of the Christian Sunday service. As the civil war raged throughout
14784-624: The independence of Tunisia , Algeria , and Morocco from French rule , support for the Palestinian right of return , and the implementation of UN resolutions regarding the Arab–Israeli conflict . He succeeded in lobbying the attendees to pass resolutions on each of these issues, notably securing the strong support of China and India. Following Bandung, Nasser officially adopted the "positive neutralism" of Yugoslavian president Josip Broz Tito and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as
14938-520: The injury of her death deepened when his father remarried before the year's end. In 1928, Nasser went to Alexandria to live with his maternal grandfather and attend the city's Attarin elementary school. He left in 1929 for a private boarding school in Helwan , and later returned to Alexandria to enter the Ras el-Tin secondary school and to join his father, who was working for the city's postal service. It
15092-567: The international policy and economic development fronts. Nasser mediated discussions between the pro-Western, pro-Soviet, and neutralist conference factions over the composition of the "Final Communique" addressing colonialism in Africa and Asia and the fostering of global peace amid the Cold War between the West and the Soviet Union . At Bandung, Nasser sought a proclamation for the avoidance of international defense alliances, support for
15246-705: The largest Christian denomination in Egypt and the Middle East , as well as in Sudan and Libya . Copts account for roughly 5–15 percent of the population of Egypt ; Copts in Sudan account for 1 percent of the Sudanese population , and Copts in Libya similarly account for 1 percent of the Libyan population . Originally referring to all Egyptians, the term Copt became synonymous with native Christians in light of Egypt's Islamization and Arabization after
15400-443: The largest political crackdowns in the modern history of Egypt, with the arrests of thousands of dissenters, mostly members of the Brotherhood, but also communists, and the dismissal of 140 officers loyal to Naguib. Eight Brotherhood leaders were sentenced to death, although the sentence of its chief ideologue, Sayyid Qutb , was commuted to a 15-year imprisonment. Naguib was removed from the presidency and put under house arrest, but
15554-798: The latter being the direct descendent of the Ancient Egyptian language. For instance, the Lord's Prayer in the Coptic Church is recited in the native Coptic language as follows: Ϧⲉⲛ ⲫ̀ⲣⲁⲛ ⲙ̀ⲫ̀ⲓⲱⲧ: ⲛⲉⲙ ⲡ̀ϣⲏⲣⲓ: ⲛⲉⲙ Ⲡⲓⲡⲛⲉⲩⲙⲁ ⲉⲑⲟⲩⲁⲃ: ⲟⲩⲛⲟⲩϯ ⲛ̀ⲟⲩⲱⲧ: Ⲁⲙⲏⲛ Ϫⲉ ⲡⲉⲛⲓⲱⲧ ⲉⲧϧⲉⲛ ⲛⲓⲫⲏⲟⲩⲓ: ⲙⲁⲣⲉϥⲧⲟⲩⲃⲟ ⲛ̀ϫⲉ ⲡⲉⲕⲣⲁⲛ: ⲙⲁⲣⲉⲥⲓ ⲛ̀ϫⲉ ⲧⲉⲕⲙⲉⲧⲟⲩⲣⲟ: ⲡⲉⲧⲉϩⲛⲁⲕ ⲙⲁⲣⲉϥϣⲱⲡⲓ Ⲙ̀ⲫⲣⲏϯ ϧⲉⲛ ⲧ̀ⲫⲉ ⲛⲉⲙ ϩⲓϫⲉⲛ ⲡⲓⲕⲁϩⲓ ⲡⲉⲛⲱⲓⲕ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉ ⲣⲁⲥϯ ⲙⲏⲓϥ ⲛⲁⲛ ⲙ̀ⲫⲟⲟⲩ Ⲟⲩⲟϩ ⲭⲁ ⲛⲏⲉⲧⲉⲣⲟⲛ ⲛⲁⲛ ⲉ̀ⲃⲟⲗ: ⲙ̀ⲫ̀ⲣⲏϯ ϩⲱⲛ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉⲛⲭⲱ ⲉ̀ⲃⲟⲗ ⲛ̀ⲛⲏⲉⲧⲉ ⲟⲩⲟⲛ ⲛ̀ⲧⲁⲛ ⲉⲣⲱⲟⲩ Ⲟⲩⲟϩ ⲙ̀ⲡⲉⲣⲉⲛⲧⲉⲛ ⲉϧⲟⲩⲛ ⲉ̀ⲡⲓⲣⲁⲥⲙⲟⲥ: ⲁⲗⲗⲁ ⲛⲁϩⲙⲉⲛ ⲉⲃⲟⲗϩⲁ ⲡⲓⲡⲉⲧϩⲱⲟⲩ Ϧⲉⲛ Ⲡⲭ̅ⲥ̅ Ⲓⲏ̅ⲥ̅ Ⲡⲉⲛⲟ̅ⲥ̅ Ϫⲉ ⲑⲱⲕ ⲧⲉ ϯⲙⲉⲧⲟⲩⲣⲟ ⲛⲉⲙ ϯϫⲟⲙ ⲛⲉⲙ ⲡⲓⲱⲟⲩ ϣⲁ ⲉⲛⲉϩ. Ⲁⲙⲏⲛ. In
15708-494: The launching of large industrial projects, including the Aswan Dam , and Helwan city. Nasser's detractors criticize his authoritarianism, his human rights violations , his antisemitism , and the dominance of the military over civil institutions that characterised his tenure, establishing a pattern of military and dictatorial rule in Egypt which has persisted, nearly uninterrupted, to the present day. Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein
15862-447: The law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles and restrictions in building new churches. These restrictions do not apply for building mosques. The Coptic community has been targeted with hate crimes by Islamic extremists. The most significant was the 2000–01 El Kosheh attacks, in which Muslims and Christians were involved in bloody inter-religious clashes following
16016-585: The local ruler and other political and economic circumstances". Persecution is significantly involved in the Copts' ethnic identity due to historic and current conflicts. Most Copts adhere to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria , an Oriental Orthodox Church . The smaller Coptic Catholic Church is an Eastern Catholic Church , in communion with the Holy See of Rome ; others belong to
16170-575: The most prominent figure of the council was the future Patriarch of Alexandria Athanasius , who played the major role in the formulation of the Nicene Creed , recited today in most Christian churches of different denominations. One of the council's decisions was to entrust the Patriarch of Alexandria with calculating and annually announcing the exact date of Easter to the rest of the Christian churches. The Council of Constantinople (381 AD)
16324-731: The novel as his inspiration to launch the coup d'état that began the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 . In 1937, Nasser applied to the Royal Military Academy for army officer training, but his police record of anti-government protest initially blocked his entry. Disappointed, he enrolled in the law school at King Fuad University , but quit after one semester to reapply to the Military Academy. From his readings, Nasser, who frequently spoke of "dignity, glory, and freedom" in his youth, became enchanted with
16478-478: The overthrow of Nimeiry, Coptic leaders supported a secular candidate in the 1986 elections. However, when the National Islamic Front overthrew the elected government of Sadiq al-Mahdi with the help of the military, discrimination against Copts returned in earnest. Hundreds of Copts were dismissed from the civil service and judiciary. In February 1991, a Coptic pilot working for Sudan Airways
16632-444: The party to prevent "sedition". Both Umm Kulthum and Abdel Halim Hafez , the leading Arab singers of the era, performed songs praising Nasser's nationalism. Others produced plays denigrating his political opponents. According to his associates, Nasser orchestrated the campaign himself. Arab nationalist terms such "Arab homeland" and "Arab nation" frequently began appearing in his speeches in 1954–55, whereas prior he would refer to
16786-548: The police typically arrived after the violence was over. The police also coerced the Copts to accept "reconciliation" with their attackers to avoid prosecuting them, with no Muslims convicted for any of the attacks. In Marsa Matrouh , a Bedouin mob of 3,000 Muslims tried to attack the city's Coptic population, with 400 Copts having to barricade themselves in their church while the mob destroyed 18 homes, 23 shops and 16 cars. Journalist John R. Bradley writing around 2008 noted that " ... other longstanding Coptic complaints include
16940-611: The population," with the Egyptian government estimating lower numbers and the Coptic Orthodox Church estimating much higher numbers. A lack of definite, reliable demographic data renders all estimates uncertain. In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher educational attainment , relatively higher wealth index, and a stronger representation in white collar job types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims. Historically, many Copts were accountants , and in 1961 Coptic Christians owned 51% of
17094-553: The population. They pride themselves on the apostolicity of the Egyptian Church: its founder was the first in an unbroken chain of patriarchs. The main body has been out of communion with the Roman Catholic Church since the 5th century AD. According to ancient tradition, Christianity was introduced to present day Egypt by St. Mark in Alexandria , shortly after the ascension of Christ and during
17248-453: The post and the new constitution were put to public referendum on 23 June and each was approved by an overwhelming majority. A 350-member National Assembly was established, elections for which were held in July 1957. Nasser had ultimate approval over all the candidates. The constitution granted women's suffrage , prohibited discrimination by sex, and entailed special protection for women in
17402-585: The protesters, but his requests were rebuffed by the heads of the security forces. On 29 March, Nasser announced the decrees' revocation in response to the "impulse of the street". Between April and June, hundreds of Naguib's supporters in the military were either arrested or dismissed, and Mohieddin was informally exiled to Switzerland to represent the RCC abroad. King Saud of Saudi Arabia attempted to mend relations between Nasser and Naguib, but to no avail. On 26 October 1954, Muslim Brotherhood member Mahmoud Abdel-Latif attempted to assassinate Nasser while he
17556-508: The reign of the Roman emperor Claudius around 42 AD. The legacy that St. Mark left in Egypt was a considerable Christian community in Alexandria. Within half a century of St. Mark's arrival Christianity had spread throughout Egypt. This is clear from a fragment of the Gospel of John , written in Coptic and found in Upper Egypt that can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century, and
17710-606: The resilience it displayed. He started writing his book Philosophy of the Revolution during the siege. After the war, Nasser returned to his role as an instructor at the Royal Military Academy. He sent emissaries to forge an alliance with the Muslim Brotherhood in October 1948, but soon concluded that the religious agenda of the Brotherhood was not compatible with his nationalism. From then on, Nasser prevented
17864-584: The revolution, Nasser had notified the American and British governments of his intentions, and both had agreed not to aid Farouk. Under pressure from the Americans, Nasser had agreed to exile the deposed king with an honorary ceremony. On 18 June 1953, the monarchy was abolished and the Republic of Egypt declared, with Naguib as its first president . According to Aburish, after assuming power, Nasser and
18018-468: The royalist general Hussein Sirri Amer by firing their submachine guns at his car as he drove through the streets of Cairo. Instead of killing the general, the attackers wounded an innocent female passerby. Nasser recalled that her wails "haunted" him and firmly dissuaded him from undertaking similar actions in the future. Sirri Amer was close to King Farouk, and was nominated for the presidency of
18172-558: The rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century. He abolished the Jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Copts to enroll in the army. Pope Cyril IV , 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive Isma'il Pasha , in power from 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs. Some Copts participated in
18326-515: The rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century. He abolished the Jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Egyptians (Copts) to enroll in the army. Pope Cyril IV , 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive Isma'il Pasha , in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs. Some Copts participated in
18480-500: The sake of your freedom and honor. Let them kill me; it does not concern me so long as I have instilled pride, honor, and freedom in you. If Gamal Abdel Nasser should die, each of you shall be Gamal Abdel Nasser ... Gamal Abdel Nasser is of you and from you and he is willing to sacrifice his life for the nation. The crowd roared in approval and Arab audiences were electrified. The assassination attempt backfired, quickly playing into Nasser's hands. Upon returning to Cairo, he ordered one of
18634-512: The same dialects and are culturally similar to other Egyptians, they strongly oppose Arab identity and associate it with Islam and Islamism . In Egypt, Copts have a relatively higher educational attainment , a relatively higher wealth index , and a stronger representation in white-collar job types , but limited representation in military and security agencies. The majority of demographic, socio-economic, and health indicators are similar among Christians and Muslims . The English language adopted
18788-473: The settled form of the name. In the 20th century, some Egyptian nationalists and intellectuals in the context of Pharaonism began using the term qubṭ in the historical sense. The Copts are one of the oldest Christian communities in the Middle East. Although integrated in the larger Egyptian nation state, the Copts have survived as a distinct religious community forming around 5 to 20 percent of
18942-472: The stated aim of suppressing Palestinian fedayeen raids. Nasser did not feel that the Egyptian Army was ready for a confrontation and did not retaliate militarily. His failure to respond to Israeli military action demonstrated the ineffectiveness of his armed forces and constituted a blow to his growing popularity. Nasser subsequently ordered the tightening of the blockade on Israeli shipping through
19096-458: The stories of national liberators and heroic conquerors; a military career became his chief priority. Convinced that he needed a wasta , or an influential intermediary to promote his application above the others, Nasser managed to secure a meeting with Under-Secretary of War Ibrahim Khairy Pasha, the person responsible for the academy's selection board, and requested his help. Khairy Pasha agreed and sponsored Nasser's second application, which
19250-591: The subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening. In 2007, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam. However, in February 2008 the Supreme Administrative Court overturned the decision, allowing 12 citizens who had reverted to Christianity to re-list their religion on identity cards, but they will specify that they had adopted Islam for
19404-449: The task of planning the government takeover by army units loyal to the association. The Free Officers' intention was not to install themselves in government, but to re-establish a parliamentary democracy. Nasser did not believe that a low-ranking officer like himself (a lieutenant colonel ) would be accepted by the Egyptian people, and so selected General Naguib to be his "boss" and lead the coup in name. The revolution they had long sought
19558-757: The term Monophysites as erroneous and referred to themselves as Miaphysites . The majority of the Egyptians belonged to the Miaphysite branch, which led to their persecution by the Byzantines in Egypt . In 641 AD, Egypt was conquered by the Arabs who faced off with the Byzantine army. Local resistance by the Egyptians however began to materialize shortly thereafter and would last until at least
19712-525: The third year of Emperor Claudius (43 A.D.), marking the beginning of Christianity in Egypt. By 641 C.E., the Arab forces take over Egypt, marking the beginning of the Arab-Muslim period in Egypt. Under Muslim rule, the Copts were cut off from the mainstream of Christianity, and were compelled to adhere to the Pact of Umar covenant, thus assigned to Dhimmi status. Their position improved dramatically under
19866-444: The time of peace comes. The Egyptian singer Umm Kulthum hosted a public celebration for the officers' return despite reservations from the royal government, which had been pressured by the British to prevent the reception. The apparent difference in attitude between the government and the general public increased Nasser's determination to topple the monarchy. Nasser had also felt bitter that his brigade had not been relieved despite
20020-501: The total state capital, 45% of government employment, and 45% of government salaries". According to scholar J. D. Pennington 45% of the medical doctors , 60% of the pharmacists of Egypt were Christians. A number of Coptic business and land-owning families became very wealthy and influential such as the Egyptian Coptic Christian Sawiris family that owns the Orascom conglomerate , spanning telecommunications, construction, tourism, industries and technology. In 2008, Forbes estimated
20174-403: The under-representation of Christians in the police, judiciary, armed forces, civil service, government, and education system. There is also a virtual ban on access to state-controlled radio and television. One oft-cited example of official discrimination is a law that, until recently, required personal presidential approval to carry out even simple church repairs, such as fixing a toilet and which
20328-576: The word Copt in the 17th century from Neo-Latin Coptus, Cophtus , which derives from the Arabic collective qubṭ / qibṭ قبط "the Copts" with nisba adjective qubṭī, qibṭī قبطى , plural aqbāṭ أقباط ; Also quftī, qiftī (where the Arabic / f / reflects the historical Coptic / p / ) an Arabisation of the Coptic word ⲁⲓⲅⲩⲡⲧⲓⲟⲛ aiguption ( Bohairic ) or ⲕⲩⲡⲧⲁⲓⲟⲛ kuptaion ( Sahidic ). The Coptic word in turn represents an adaptation of
20482-421: The workplace. Coinciding with the new constitution and Nasser's presidency, the RCC dissolved itself and its members resigned their military commissions as part of the transition to civilian rule. During the deliberations surrounding the establishment of a new government, Nasser began a process of sidelining his rivals among the original Free Officers, while elevating his closest allies to high-ranking positions in
20636-640: Was formally elected president in June 1956. Nasser's popularity in Egypt and the Arab world skyrocketed after his nationalization of the Suez Canal Company and his political victory in the subsequent Suez Crisis , known in Egypt as the Tripartite Aggression . Calls for pan-Arab unity under his leadership increased, culminating with the formation of the United Arab Republic with Syria from 1958 to 1961. In 1962, Nasser began
20790-464: Was a Copt who served as Egypt 's foreign minister under President Anwar Sadat . During Mubarak regime, there were two Copts serving on Egypt 's governmental cabinet: Finance Minister Youssef Boutros Ghali and Environment Minister Magued George. There was also one Coptic governor out of 25, that of the upper Egyptian governorate of Qena , and the first Coptic governor in a few decades. In addition, Naguib Sawiris , an extremely successful businessman,
20944-483: Was able to secure primacy over his RCC colleagues and gained relatively unchallenged decision-making authority, particularly over foreign policy. In January 1956, the new Constitution of Egypt was drafted, entailing the establishment of a single-party system under the National Union (NU), a movement Nasser described as the "cadre through which we will realize our revolution". The NU was a reconfiguration of
21098-516: Was accepted in late 1937. Nasser focused on his military career from then on, and had little contact with his family. At the academy, he met Abdel Hakim Amer and Anwar Sadat , both of whom became important aides during his presidency. After graduating from the academy in July 1938, he was commissioned a second lieutenant in the infantry, and posted to Mankabad . It was here that Nasser and his closest comrades, including Sadat and Amer, first discussed their dissatisfaction at widespread corruption in
21252-446: Was also compared with that of earlier Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient Egyptians than to Greeks or other European populations. Victor J. Katz notes that "research in papyri dating from the early centuries of the common era demonstrates that a significant amount of intermarriage took place between the Greek and Egyptian communities". Modern day Copts use predominantly Arabic and Coptic,
21406-429: Was an Egyptian military officer and politician who served as the second president of Egypt from 1954 until his death in 1970. Nasser led the Egyptian revolution of 1952 and introduced far-reaching land reforms the following year. Following a 1954 attempt on his life by a Muslim Brotherhood member, he cracked down on the organization, put President Mohamed Naguib under house arrest and assumed executive office. He
21560-579: Was arrested and detained for a night before his father bailed him out. Nasser joined the paramilitary wing of the group, known as the Green Shirts , for a brief period in 1934. His association with the group and active role in student demonstrations during this period "imbued him with a fierce Egyptian nationalism", according to the historian James Jankowski. When his father was transferred to Cairo in 1933, Nasser joined him and attended al-Nahda al-Masria school. He took up acting in school plays for
21714-411: Was blamed for delays of more than a decade in the issuing of permits to build churches. Mubarak eased the law in 2005, delegating such responsibility to local governors." Members of U.S. Congress have expressed concern about "human trafficking" of Coptic women and girls who are victims of abductions, forced conversion to Islam, sexual exploitation and forced marriage to Muslim men. Boutros Boutros-Ghali
21868-593: Was born in Bakos , Alexandria , Egypt on 15 January 1918, a year before the tumultuous events of the Egyptian Revolution of 1919 . Nasser's father was a postal worker born in Beni Mur in Upper Egypt , and raised in Alexandria, and his mother's family came from Mallawi , el-Minya . His parents had married in 1917. Nasser had two brothers, Izz al-Arab and al-Leithi. Nasser's biographers Robert Stephens and Said Aburish wrote that Nasser's family believed strongly in
22022-590: Was chosen as the new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians. His name was selected from a glass bowl containing the three shortlisted candidates by a blindfolded boy at a ceremony in Cairo 's St Mark's Cathedral . In Ethiopia the Orthodox Tewahedo Church was part of the Coptic Orthodox Church until 1959 when it was granted its own patriarch by the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa Cyril VI . Sudan has
22176-474: Was delivering a speech in Alexandria, broadcast to the Arab world by radio, to celebrate the British military withdrawal. The gunman was 25 feet (7.6 m) away from him and fired eight shots, but all missed Nasser. Panic broke out in the mass audience, but Nasser maintained his posture and raised his voice to appeal for calm. With great emotion he exclaimed the following: My countrymen, my blood spills for you and for Egypt. I will live for your sake and die for
22330-545: Was deputy commander of the Egyptian forces that secured the Faluja pocket (commanded by Said Taha Bey nicknamed the "Sudanese tiger" by the Israelis ). On 12 July, he was lightly wounded in the fighting. By August, his brigade was surrounded by the Israeli Army . Appeals for help from Transjordan 's Arab Legion went unheeded, but the brigade refused to surrender. Negotiations between Israel and Egypt finally resulted in
22484-600: Was executed for illegal possession of foreign currency. Before his execution, he had been offered amnesty and money if he converted to Islam , but he refused. Thousands attended his funeral, and the execution was taken as a warning by many Copts, who began to flee the country. Restrictions on the Copts' rights to Sudanese nationality followed, and it became difficult for them to obtain Sudanese nationality by birth or by naturalization, resulting in problems when attempting to travel abroad. The confiscation of Christian schools and
22638-492: Was in Alexandria that Nasser became involved in political activism. After witnessing clashes between protesters and police in Manshia Square, he joined the demonstration without being aware of its purpose. The protest, organized by the ultranationalist Young Egypt Society , called for the end of colonialism in Egypt in the wake of the 1923 Egyptian constitution 's annulment by Prime Minister Isma'il Sidqi . Nasser
22792-435: Was launched on 22 July and was declared a success the next day. The Free Officers seized control of all government buildings, radio stations, and police stations, as well as army headquarters in Cairo. While many of the rebel officers were leading their units, Nasser donned civilian clothing to avoid detection by royalists and moved around Cairo monitoring the situation. In a move to stave off foreign intervention two days before
22946-407: Was led by Rabbi Shlomo Goren and Nasser personally accompanied him, ordering the Egyptian soldiers to stand at attention. They spoke briefly, and according to Goren, after learning what the square phylacteries found with the soldiers were, Nasser told him that he "now understands their courageous stand". During an interview on Israeli TV in 1971, Rabbi Goren claimed the two agreed to meet again when
23100-518: Was never tried or sentenced, and no one in the army rose to defend him. With his rivals neutralized, Nasser became the undisputed leader of Egypt. Nasser's street following was still too small to sustain his plans for reform and to secure him in office. To promote himself and the Liberation Rally, he gave speeches in a cross-country tour, and imposed controls over the country's press by decreeing that all publications had to be approved by
23254-476: Was not distressed by his frequent relocations, which broadened his horizons and showed him Egyptian society's class divisions . His own social status was well below the wealthy Egyptian elite, and his discontent with those born into wealth and power grew throughout his lifetime. Nasser spent most of his spare time reading, particularly in 1933, when he lived near the National Library of Egypt . He read
23408-492: Was present during the interrogation, and subsequently released Nasser. The interrogation pushed Nasser to speed up his group's activities. After 1949, the group adopted the name " Association of Free Officers " and advocated "little else but freedom and the restoration of their country's dignity". Nasser organized the Free Officers' founding committee, which eventually comprised fourteen men from different social and political backgrounds, including representation from Young Egypt,
23562-644: Was presided over by Patriarch Timothy of Alexandria , while the Council of Ephesus (431 AD) was presided over by Cyril of Alexandria . In 451 AD, following the Council of Chalcedon , the Church of Alexandria was divided into two branches. Those who accepted the terms of the Council became known as Chalcedonians or Melkites . Those who did not abide by the council's terms were labeled non-Chalcedonians or Monophysites and later Jacobites after Jacob Baradaeus . The non-Chalcedonians , however, rejected
23716-512: Was ultimately refused entry to the AHC's forces by the Egyptian government for reasons that were unclear. In May 1948, following the British withdrawal, King Farouk sent the Egyptian army into Israel, with Nasser serving as a staff officer of the 6th Infantry Battalion. During the war, he wrote of the Egyptian army's unpreparedness, saying "our soldiers were dashed against fortifications". Nasser
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