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57-429: The language is closely related to other Western Polynesian languages : Fagauvea , Wallisian , Tongan , Samoan , Tokelau , and Niuafoʻou . It is classified as Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Central-Eastern Oceanic, Remote Oceanic, Central Pacific, East Fijian-Polynesian, Polynesian, Nuclear, Samoic-Outlier, Futunic, Futuna, East. This language

114-414: A grammatical relationship that links its complement to another word or phrase in the context. It also generally establishes a semantic relationship, which may be spatial ( in , on , under , ...), temporal ( after , during , ...), or of some other type ( of , for , via , ...). The World Atlas of Language Structures treats a word as an adposition if it takes a noun phrase as a complement and indicates

171-473: A noun phrase , this being called its complement , or sometimes object . English generally has prepositions rather than postpositions – words such as in, under and of precede their objects, such as in England , under the table , of Jane – although there are a few exceptions including ago and notwithstanding , as in "three days ago" and "financial limitations notwithstanding". Some languages that use

228-524: A prefix to a verb . As noted above, adpositions typically have noun phrases as complements. This can include nominal clauses and certain types of non-finite verb phrase: The word to when it precedes the infinitive in English is not a preposition, but rather is a grammatical particle outside of any main word class . In other cases, the complement may have the form of an adjective or adjective phrase , or an adverbial. This may be regarded as

285-444: A French overseas territory, legally unionizing Wallis and Futuna despite the fact that the islands are home to two distinct Polynesian societies with different cultures. Despite being a French colony, Futunan remained relatively protected from the linguistic consequences of European language domination. The situation began to change around the second World War when the numbers of speakers started to decline dramatically. A major event in

342-483: A au e lātou ke kau ano o fakafofoga loku fā kolo i le aso o Toloke. "They represented me to go and represent the village at the festivities in Toloke"). Co-occurring clitic and post-posed pronouns seem to have given way to the unique occurrence of post-posed pronouns with similar focusing functions. The marker 'a' is required before definite plural nouns and noun phrases, post-verbal pronominals and proper nouns, however it

399-535: A certain case (e.g., ἐν always takes its object in the dative), while other prepositions may take their object in one of two or more cases, depending on the meaning of the preposition (e.g., διά takes its object in the genitive or the accusative, depending on the meaning). Some languages have cases that are used exclusively after prepositions ( prepositional case ), or special forms of pronouns for use after prepositions ( prepositional pronoun ). The functions of adpositions overlap with those of case markings (for example,

456-514: A complement representing a different syntactic category , or simply as an atypical form of noun phrase (see nominalization ). In the last example, the complement of the preposition from is in fact another prepositional phrase. The resulting sequence of two prepositions ( from under ) may be regarded as a complex preposition; in some languages, such a sequence may be represented by a single word, as Russian из-под iz-pod ("from under"). Some adpositions appear to combine with two complements: It

513-494: A different orthography. In daily life, the macron is usually omitted or replaced with a circumflex accent due to difficulties in typing these diacritics on an AZERTY keyboard. The apostrophe for glottal stop is also omitted, especially when located at the beginning of the word. Thus, the phrase mālō le ma’uli 'good morning' is often written as malo le ma’uli or even simply malo le mauli without any apostrophe at all. Claire Moyse-Faurie nevertheless believes that it

570-445: A different word order have postpositions instead (like Turkic languages ) or have both types (like Finnish ). The phrase formed by an adposition together with its complement is called an adpositional phrase (or prepositional phrase, postpositional phrase, etc.). Such a phrase can function as an adjective or as an adverb. A less common type of adposition is the circumposition , which consists of two parts that appear on each side of

627-417: A group of words that act as one unit. Examples of complex prepositions in English include in spite of , with respect to , except for , by dint of , and next to . The distinction between simple and complex adpositions is not clear-cut. Many complex adpositions are derived from simple forms (e.g., with + in → within , by + side → beside ) through grammaticalisation . This change takes time, and during

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684-435: A list of 118 words collected by William Schouten  [ fr ] and Jacob Le Maire in 1616 during their visit to Futuna . The first orthography for Futunan was developed by Isidore Grétzel, and was largely phonological, with vowel length indicated by a superscript dash (e.g. ā, ē, ī, ō, ū) and glottal stop by an apostrophe . This practice was then adopted and improved by Claire Moyse-Faurie , notably replacing

741-401: A macron: ā, ē, ī, ō, ū. Futunan has 11 consonants: 4 plosives /p, t, k, ʔ/; 3 nasals /m, n, ŋ/; 1 liquid /l/; and 3 fricatives /f, v, s/. The Futunan syllable structure is (C)V, examples: eio (yes), tauasu (meeting where one drinks kava), aua (particle of the negative imperative), etc.). As Futunan natives did not have a writing system, the first documented written form of Futunian was

798-416: A noun, e.g., a gerund ), together with its specifier and modifiers such as articles , adjectives , etc. The complement is sometimes called the object of the adposition. The resulting phrase , formed by the adposition together with its complement, is called an adpositional phrase or prepositional phrase (PP) (or for specificity, a postpositional or circumpositional phrase). An adposition establishes

855-446: A particular direction ("Kay went to the store"), the direction in which something leads or points ("A path into the woods"), or the extent of something ("The fog stretched from London to Paris"). A static meaning indicates only a location (" at the store", " behind the chair", " on the moon"). Some prepositions can have both uses: "he sat in the water" (static); "he jumped in the water" (probably directional). In some languages,

912-410: A postpositional phrase. Examples include: Some adpositions can appear either before or after their complement: An adposition like the above, which can be either a preposition or a postposition, can be called an ambiposition . However, ambiposition may also be used to refer to a circumposition (see below), or to a word that appears to function as a preposition and postposition simultaneously, as in

969-467: A preposition (Latin: praepositio ) stand before the word it governs (go the fools among (Sh[akespeare]); What are you laughing at ?). You might just as well believe that all blackguards are black or that turkeys come from Turkey; many names have either been chosen unfortunately at first or have changed their meanings in the course of time." Simple adpositions consist of a single word ( on , in , for , towards , etc.). Complex adpositions consist of

1026-409: A prepositional phrase headed by cóng ("from"), taking the locative noun phrase bīngxīang lǐ ("refrigerator inside") as its complement. An inposition is a rare type of adposition that appears between parts of a complex complement. For example, in the native Californian Timbisha language , the phrase "from a mean cold" can be translated using the word order "cold from mean"—the inposition follows

1083-560: A pronominal object to form inflected prepositions . The following properties are characteristic of most adpositional systems: As noted above, adpositions are referred to by various terms, depending on their position relative to the complement. While the term preposition sometimes denotes any adposition, its stricter meaning refers only to one that precedes its complement. Examples of this, from English, have been given above; similar examples can be found in many European and other languages, for example: In certain grammatical constructions,

1140-508: Is a member of the diminishing set of native Pacific languages . it is classified as endangered. King Sigave signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate on 16 February 1888, after being pressured by missionaries to do so. The islands were put under the authority of the French colony of New Caledonia . In 1917, the three traditional kingdoms of Wallis, Futuna and Alofi were annexed as colonies of France. In 1961 citizens voted on becoming

1197-532: Is a tendency for languages that feature postpositions also to have other head-final features, such as verbs that follow their objects ; and for languages that feature prepositions to have other head-initial features, such as verbs that precede their objects . This is only a tendency, however; an example of a language that behaves differently is Latin , which employs mostly prepositions, even though it typically places verbs after their objects. A circumposition consists of two or more parts, positioned on both sides of

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1254-528: Is also found in some Niger–Congo languages such as Vata and Gbadi, and in some North American varieties of French . Some prescriptive English grammars teach that prepositions cannot end a sentence, although there is no rule prohibiting that use. Similar rules arose during the rise of classicism, when they were applied to English in imitation of classical languages such as Latin. Otto Jespersen , in his Essentials of English Grammar (first published 1933), commented on this definition-derived rule: "...nor need

1311-529: Is called improper if it is some other part of speech being used in the same way as a preposition. Examples of simple and complex prepositions that have been so classified include prima di ("before") and davanti (a) ("in front of") in Italian , and ergo ("on account of") and causa ("for the sake of") in Latin . In reference to Ancient Greek , however, an improper preposition is one that cannot also serve as

1368-455: Is essential to note the vowel length and the glottal stroke in order to distinguish words correctly and avoid any confusion. Similarly, the spacing of words differs between the official orthography and the majority usage of Futunans. For example, the official spelling separates prepositions from articles ( ko le, i le, ki le ), whereas self-taught orthography tends to use no spacing at all ( kole, ile, kile ). The third person pronoun

1425-455: Is going into her bedroom", but not *"Jay is lying down into her bedroom"). Directional meanings can be further divided into telic and atelic . Telic prepositional phrases imply movement all the way to the endpoint ("she ran to the fence"), while atelic ones do not ("she ran towards the fence"). Static meanings can be divided into projective and non-projective , where projective meanings are those whose understanding requires knowledge of

1482-414: Is more commonly assumed, however, that Sammy and the following predicate forms a small clause , which then becomes the single complement of the preposition. (In the first example, a word such as as may be considered to have been elided , which, if present, would clarify the grammatical relationship.) Adpositions can be used to express a wide range of semantic relations between their complement and

1539-814: Is not required for phrases preceded by an article or possessive pronoun. The marker 'e' is used in front of ergative arguments. The markers 'i' and 'ki' cover a range of meanings and satisfy a range of conditions. Most commonly the objects of 'i' are obligatory, while only some objects of 'ki' are. They are used extensively as directional, causal, or instrumental case markers. They refer to destination, aim or purpose as well as verbs of feeling, address or sensation. The verb classes consists of impersonal , intransitive (A/A + I) , middle (A + Ki), transitive (A + E), "AA + E", "AA + I" or AA + E" verbs. most AA + I and A + E verbs undergo derivation to change their argument structure. Futunan has single, double and triple argument structures. Suffixes 'i' and 'ki' are used to derive verbs,

1596-474: Is now rarely used in Futunan. For all pronoun references, except third person singular, Futunan offers a choice of pre-posed and post-posed pronouns, which are pronouns placed before or after the subject. Modern Futunan has done away with the possibility of expressing pre-posed and post-posed pronouns. Clitic pronouns (clitic pronouns are dependent on an adjacent word and cannot stand on their own in meaning.) of

1653-842: The Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (CEMP) branch. This includes all Austronesian languages spoken in Madagascar , Mainland Southeast Asia , the Philippines , the Greater Sunda Islands (including smaller neighboring islands), Bali , Lombok , the western half of Sumbawa , Palau and the Mariana Islands . Western Malayo-Polynesian was originally proposed by Robert Blust as a sister branch within Malayo-Polynesian coordinate to

1710-554: The Vedic Sanskrit construction (noun-1) ā (noun-2), meaning "from (noun-1) to (noun-2)". Whether a language has primarily prepositions or postpositions is seen as an aspect of its typological classification, and tends to correlate with other properties related to head directionality . Since an adposition is regarded as the head of its phrase, prepositional phrases are head-initial (or right- branching ), while postpositional phrases are head-final (or left-branching). There

1767-539: The case of the complement varies depending on the meaning, as with several prepositions in German , such as in : In English and many other languages, prepositional phrases with static meaning are commonly used as predicative expressions after a copula ("Bob is at the store"); this may happen with some directional prepositions as well ("Bob is from Australia"), but this is less common. Directional prepositional phrases combine mostly with verbs that indicate movement ("Jay

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1824-616: The CEMP branch. Because there are no features that define the WMP languages positively as a subgroup, recent classifications have abandoned it. Prepositions Adpositions are a class of words used to express spatial or temporal relations ( in, under, towards, behind, ago , etc.) or mark various semantic roles ( of, for ). The most common adpositions are prepositions (which precede their complement) and postpositions (which follow their complement). An adposition typically combines with

1881-517: The Indo-European languages this phenomenon is mostly confined to the Celtic languages like Welsh and Irish . Polish also allows some degree of combining prepositions with pronouns in the third person. The majority of Welsh prepositions can be inflected. This is achieved by having a preposition such as o ( ' of/from ' ) + a linking element; in the case of o this is -hon- +

1938-478: The Latin prefix ad- , meaning "to"). However, some linguists prefer to use the well-known and longer-established term preposition in place of adposition , irrespective of position relative to the complement. An adposition typically combines with exactly one complement , most often a noun phrase (or, in a different analysis, a determiner phrase ). In English, this is generally a noun (or something functioning as

1995-486: The case of middle verbs with two arguments verb derivation results in the experiencer being placed in the ergative, and the argument placed in the absolutive. Western Polynesian languages The Western Malayo-Polynesian (WMP) languages , also known as the Hesperonesian languages , are a paraphyletic grouping of Austronesian languages that includes those Malayo-Polynesian languages that do not belong to

2052-532: The choice of adposition may be determined by another element in the construction or be fixed by the construction as a whole. Here the adposition may have little independent semantic content of its own, and there may be no clear reason why the particular adposition is used rather than another. Examples of such expressions are: Prepositions sometimes mark roles that may be considered largely grammatical: Spatial meanings of adpositions may be either directional or static . A directional meaning usually involves motion in

2109-407: The complement of a preposition may be absent or may be moved from its position directly following the preposition. This may be referred to as preposition stranding (see also below ), as in "Whom did you go with ?" and "There's only one thing worse than being talked about ." There are also some (mainly colloquial) expressions in which a preposition's complement may be omitted, such as "I'm going to

2166-484: The complement. Circumpositions are very common in Pashto and Kurdish . The following are examples from Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji): Various constructions in other languages might also be analyzed as circumpositional, for example: Most such phrases, however, can be analyzed as having a different hierarchical structure (such as a prepositional phrase modifying a following adverb). The Chinese example could be analyzed as

2223-780: The complement. Other terms sometimes used for particular types of adposition include ambiposition , inposition and interposition . Some linguists use the word preposition in place of adposition regardless of the applicable word order. The word preposition comes from Latin : prae- prefix (pre- prefix) ("before") and Latin : ponere ("to put"). This refers to the situation in Latin and Greek (and in English ), where such words are placed before their complement (except sometimes in Ancient Greek), and are hence "pre-positioned". In some languages, including Sindhi , Hindustani , Turkish , Hungarian , Korean , and Japanese ,

2280-506: The decline was the immigration of a large number of native Futunian speakers to New Caledonia. French has since enveloped Futunan in society, becoming the primary language used in grade schools. Futunans speak and use their language daily, mainly only using French in contact with European natives, or within the educational spheres. RFO-radio airs 15 minutes daily news broadcasts in Futunan. The Futunan language has five vowels; /a, e, i, o, u/, which can be short or long. Long vowels are denoted by

2337-415: The disadvantage of"), zulasten/zu Lasten ("at the expense of"). The distinction between complex adpositions and free combinations of words is not a black-and-white issue: complex adpositions (in English, "prepositional idioms") can be more fossilized or less fossilized. In English, this applies to a number of structures of the form "preposition + (article) + noun + preposition", such as in front of , for

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2394-742: The first and second type may correspond to different types of arguments: the absolute of intransitive clauses, the ergative of transitive clauses, and the absolute of transitive clauses. In some cases unique to the Polynesian language family, Futunan uses a pre-posed pronoun to refer to the patient of an ergative verb. In casual conversation the use of a pre-verbal pronoun can be rather frequent. Futunan makes extensive syntactic use of pre-posed pronouns in conversation, where post-posed pronouns are used more in tails. Sentences containing post-posed pronouns only have two possible word orders: VAO (Verb, Adverb, Object) or VOA (Verb, Object, Adverb) (Example: etusiʻi

2451-425: The grammatical or semantic relationship of that phrase to the verb in the containing clause. Some examples of the use of English prepositions are given below. In each case, the prepositional phrase appears in italics , the preposition within it appears in bold , and the preposition's complement is underlined . As demonstrated in some of the examples, more than one prepositional phrase may act as an adjunct to

2508-467: The meaning of the English preposition of is expressed in many languages by a genitive case ending), but adpositions are classed as syntactic elements, while case markings are morphological . Adpositions themselves are usually non-inflecting ("invariant"): they do not have paradigms of the form (such as tense, case, gender, etc.) the same way that verbs, adjectives, and nouns can. There are exceptions, though, such as prepositions that have fused with

2565-446: The noun but precedes any following modifiers that form part of the same noun phrase . The Latin word cum is also commonly used as an inposition, as in the phrase summa cum laude , meaning "with highest praise", lit. "highest with praise". The term interposition has been used for adpositions in structures such as word for word , French coup sur coup ("one after another, repeatedly"), and Russian друг с другом ("one with

2622-494: The only productive suffix is 'a' which means "be full of". If an absolute argument in a sentence with a non-derived verb represents an agent, it will be marked as an ergative , and a patient will be added in the absolute case. (Example: "kutu" means lice; "kutu-a" means be covered with lice). If an absolutive argument represents a patient in a sentence with a derived verb, it will contain an additional ergative argument. (Example: "lamata" means tame, "faka-lamata" means be tamed by). In

2679-422: The other"). This is not a case of an adposition appearing inside its complement, as the two nouns do not form a single phrase (there is no phrase * word word , for example); such uses have more of a coordinating character. Preposition stranding is a syntactic construct in which a preposition occurs somewhere other than immediately before its complement. For example, in the English sentence "What did you sit on?"

2736-463: The park. Do you want to come with [me]?", and the French Il fait trop froid, je ne suis pas habillée pour ("It's too cold, I'm not dressed for [the situation].") The bolded words in these examples are generally still considered prepositions because when they form a phrase with a complement (in more ordinary constructions) they must appear first. A postposition follows its complement to form

2793-578: The perspective or point of view. For example, the meaning of "behind the rock" is likely to depend on the position of the speaker (projective), whereas the meaning of "on the desk" is not (non-projective). Sometimes the interpretation is ambiguous, as in "behind the house," which may mean either at the natural back of the house or on the opposite side of the house from the speaker. Some languages feature inflected adpositions—adpositions (usually prepositions) marked for grammatical person and/or grammatical number to give meanings such as "on me," "from you," etc. In

2850-430: The preposition on has what as its complement, but what is moved to the start of the sentence, because it is an interrogative word . This sentence is much more common and natural than the equivalent sentence without stranding: "On what did you sit?" Preposition stranding is commonly found in English , as well as North Germanic languages such as Swedish . Its existence in German is debated. Preposition stranding

2907-464: The rest of the context. The relations expressed may be spatial (denoting location or direction), temporal (denoting position in time), or relations expressing comparison, content, agent, instrument, means, manner, cause, purpose, reference, etc. Most common adpositions are highly polysemous (they have various different meanings). In many cases, a primary, spatial meaning becomes extended to non-spatial uses by metaphorical or other processes. Because of

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2964-756: The sake of . The following characteristics are good indications that a given combination is "frozen" enough to be considered a complex preposition in English: Marginal prepositions are prepositions that have affinities with other word classes, most notably participles. Marginal prepositions behave like prepositions but derive from other parts of speech. Some marginal prepositions in English include barring , concerning , considering , excluding , failing , following , including , notwithstanding , regarding , and respecting . In descriptions of some languages, prepositions are divided into proper (or essential ) and improper (or accidental ). A preposition

3021-578: The same kinds of words typically come after their complement. To indicate this, they are called postpositions (using the prefix post- , from Latin post meaning "behind, after"). There are also some cases where the function is performed by two parts coming before and after the complement; this is called a circumposition (from Latin circum- prefix "around"). In some languages, for example Finnish , some adpositions can be used as both prepositions and postpositions. Prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions are collectively known as adpositions (using

3078-517: The same word. In the last of these examples the complement has the form of an adverb, which has been nominalised to serve as a noun phrase; see Different forms of complement , below. Prepositional phrases themselves are sometimes nominalized: An adposition may determine the grammatical case of its complement. In English, the complements of prepositions take the objective case where available ( from him , not * from he ). In Koine Greek , for example, certain prepositions always take their objects in

3135-485: The superscript denoting vowel length with a macron . In the Futunan orthography nasal velar consonant [ ŋ ] is written as ⟨g⟩ . This practice differs from the other Polynesian languages such as Tongan , where the said phoneme is written as ⟨ng⟩ (e.g. Tongan tangata vs. Futunan tagata , 'man'). Despite the adoption of the Futunan orthography proposed by Moyse-Faurie for teaching and official uses, both Futunans and Wallisians use

3192-452: The transitional stages, the adposition acts in some ways like a single word, and in other ways like a multi-word unit. For example, current German orthographic conventions recognize the indeterminate status of certain prepositions, allowing two spellings: anstelle / an Stelle ("instead of"), aufgrund / auf Grund ("because of"), mithilfe / mit Hilfe ("by means of"), zugunsten / zu Gunsten ("in favor of"), zuungunsten / zu Ungunsten ("to

3249-416: The variety of meanings, a single adposition often has many possible equivalents in another language, depending on the exact context. This can cause difficulties in foreign language learning . Usage can also vary between dialects of the same language (for example, American English has on the weekend , whereas British English uses at the weekend ). In some contexts (as in the case of some phrasal verbs )

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