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169-622: Mainly part of Indonesia , each island is diverse in its ethnicity, culture and biological attributes. The islands have a long and rich history which has shaped their cultural backgrounds. The term "Sunda" has been traced back to ancient times. According to Koesoemadinata, Professor Emeritus of Geology at the Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB), the name "Sunda" originates from the Sanskrit word "Cuddha," meaning white. Reinout Willem van Bemmelen , another geologist, noted that during

338-531: A special autonomous status ( otonomi khusus ) from the central government. Aceh, a conservative Islamic territory , has the right to create some aspects of an independent legal system implementing sharia . Yogyakarta is the only pre-colonial monarchy legally recognised within Indonesia, with the positions of governor and vice governor being prioritised for the reigning Sultan of Yogyakarta and Duke of Pakualaman , respectively. The six Papuan provinces are

507-585: A bulletin that no tsunami was expected following a magnitude 8.0 quake based on historical data. Only when more accurate measurements of the quakes >9.0 magnitude became available did scientists at the warning center realize they were dealing with a basin-wide tsunami across the Indian Ocean. When the tsunami hit, it was enormous, and the death toll in Aceh exceeded 100,000. There was no tsunami warning system in 2004. Tsunami warning systems have improved since

676-549: A complex mix of what the Acehnese regarded as transgressions against and betrayals of their rights. Sukarno , the first president of Indonesia, had reneged on his promise made on 16 June 1948 that Aceh would be allowed to rule itself in accordance with Islamic Law . Aceh was politically dismantled and incorporated into the province of North Sumatra in 1950. This resulted in the Acehnese Rebellion of 1953–59 which

845-462: A dividing line ( Wallace Line ) between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species. It runs roughly north–south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait , between Lombok and Bali. Flora and fauna on the west of the line are generally Asian, while east from Lombok is increasingly Australian until the tipping point at

1014-456: A further 1346 people on Nias and Simeulue, displaced tens of thousands more, and caused the tsunami response to be expanded to include Nias. The World Health Organisation estimates a 100% increase in prevalence of mild and moderate mental disorders in Aceh's general population after the tsunami. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, misjudging the intensity of the Sumatra earthquake, sent out

1183-481: A huge range of wildlife. Its close proximity to the Equator (1º S, 101º E) dictates its tropical climate, so that it is subject to the forces of climatic events El Niño and La Niña . Sumatra is divided administratively into twelve major regions. These regions were developed during World War II, to sustain functional political, economic and cultural relationships across the island. Each region supports itself based on

1352-720: A legislature ( DPRD Kabupaten/Kota ). The third level are the districts ( kecamatan , distrik in Papua , or kapanewon and kemantren in Yogyakarta ), and the fourth are the villages (either desa , kelurahan , kampung , nagari in West Sumatra , or gampong in Aceh ). The village is the lowest level of government administration. It is divided into several community groups ( rukun warga , RW), which are further divided into neighbourhood groups ( rukun tetangga , RT). In Java,

1521-487: A longer term target to further increase the coverage of its marine protected areas to 10% of its territorial waters, or 31 million hectares. Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, political and governmental structures have undergone sweeping reforms, with four constitutional amendments revamping the executive, legislative and judicial branches. Chief among them

1690-476: A loss of 0.65% of the forest cleared annually. This has had particular impact on the primate species of Sulawesi. The primates found on Sulawesi account for a third of all primates within Indonesia. Studies have shown that the two genera of primates that occupy Sulawesi, the Macaques and Tarsius , breed and thrive in specific areas across the island. There has been a 12% loss of these breeding and contact zones as

1859-545: A press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau . Fossilised remains of Homo erectus , popularly known as the " Java Man ", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. Homo sapiens reached the region around 43,000 BCE. Austronesian peoples , who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what is now Taiwan. They arrived in

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2028-575: A prevalent issue which is expected to continue to influence the overall biodiversity of Borneo over time. Covering over 13 million hectares, Java is the southernmost island of the Greater Sundas. The majority of the land has been cultivated for human usage; however there are still a range of forests and wild, uninhabited mountainous areas. Java is Indonesia's most populated island, with approximately 150 million people, constituting roughly 55% of Indonesia's total population. This makes Java one of

2197-460: A profound effect on the communities living in Sulawesi. Sulawesi is also prone to major earthquakes . These natural disasters are due to Sulawesi's geographical location and close proximity to the equator and tectonic plates . As of 1960, the island was split into two administrative regions in attempts to have greater economic and social control of the regions. These areas were distinguished by

2366-478: A range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches , dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems. Indonesia is one of the Coral Triangle countries with the world's most enormous diversity of coral reef fish , with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only. British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described

2535-403: A result of land clearing, which has directly impacted the primates population. There is concern that as the land continues to be cleared for agricultural purposes, many more species will be impacted and there will be a dramatic loss of overall biodiversity in Sulawesi. Borneo is the largest Indonesian island, as well as the third largest island in the world. Expanding across 75 million hectares,

2704-471: A significant degradation of the forests. In 1985, Sumatra was covered in 25 million hectares of forests, 53% of the island, compared to only 11% in 2016. Poaching and the illegal wildlife trade have also made Sumatra's wildlife extremely vulnerable. Sulawesi is the 11th largest island in the world, nestled between Borneo and the Maluku islands . Home to 11 active volcanoes , these geological phenomena can have

2873-520: A wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the Sumatran tiger , rhinoceros, orangutan, Asian elephant , and leopard were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Having been long separated from the continental landmasses, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku have developed their unique flora and fauna. Papua was part of the Australian landmass and

3042-569: Is US$ 15,835, while nominal per capita GDP is US$ 5,108. Services are the economy's largest sector and account for 43.4% of GDP (2018), followed by industry (39.7%) and agriculture (12.8%). Since 2009, it has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 47.7% of the total labour force, followed by agriculture (30.2%) and industry (21.9%). Over time, the structure of the economy has changed considerably. Historically, it has been weighted heavily towards agriculture, reflecting both its stage of economic development and government policies in

3211-421: Is Gayo. Gayo is a living language used by inhabitants of the central highlands of Aceh , which is located at the northern tip of Sumatra. The Gayo people have an estimated population of 4,000,000 people, and are the second largest ethnic group in the Aceh province. Various other provinces within Sumatra have their own unique dialects. Agriculture is the most prevalent occupation throughout Sumatra, covering 80% of

3380-639: Is a Hindu temple which was constructed in the 9th century to honour and worship the Trimurti , the trinity of the Hindu religion. Additionally, the Borobudur Temple is a Mahayana Buddhist temple, being the largest of its kind in the world. It was constructed in the 9th century and is decorated with numerous statues and intricate designs which tribute the Buddhist religion. This provides an insight into

3549-649: Is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) and the East Asia Summit . In common with most of the Muslim world , Indonesia does not have diplomatic relations with Israel and has actively supported Palestine . However, observers have pointed out that Indonesia has ties with Israel, albeit discreetly. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 and

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3718-554: Is a hot-spot for endemic fauna and flora. There are 127 endemic mammals, featuring 59 bird species and 17 endemic primates which can be divided into two genera. The composition of this fauna is also unique in comparison to the other Greater Sunda Islands, in that there are fewer biological families represented and these families have distinct morphological traits and adaptations. It is predicted that there are numerous organisms unique to Sulawesi that are yet to be discovered. Sulawesi also has over 1,500 endemic plant species, which highlights

3887-676: Is a major source of income, with Brunei Darssalam's export of petroleum accounting for 99% of the island's overall income. The production of petroleum has been consistent since the 1920s, and as this production began to flourish Borneo, along with mainland Indonesia and Malaysia, contribute to more than half of the world's production of natural liquid gas. Key landmarks of Borneo include the Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque in Brunei, Niah National Park in Sarawak, Bohey Dulang and

4056-404: Is believed to have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate and subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still in debate. The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history. The former caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash that spread and blanketed parts of

4225-536: Is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. Beginning with the 2015 local elections , elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019. Indonesia has several levels of subdivisions. The first level are

4394-403: Is generally below average in both regional and global context. Indonesia has one of the world's fastest deforestation rates. In 2020, forests covered approximately 49.1% of the country's land area, down from 87% in 1950. Since the 1970s, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the deforestation in Indonesia . Most recently, it has been driven by

4563-606: Is generally seen that the remaining 20% of the soil is cultivated in human development, for things such as road, buildings and housing. Indonesia Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania , between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands , including Sumatra , Java , Sulawesi , and parts of Borneo and New Guinea . Indonesia

4732-754: Is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire , where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian Plate , where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java , Bali and Nusa Tenggara , and then to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi . Of

4901-495: Is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species. Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic. Indonesia harbours 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forest , and the highest amount of forest carbon in the region. Tropical seas surround Indonesia's 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline. The country has

5070-487: Is inconclusive. The gravestone of Sultan Malik as-Salih, the first Muslim ruler of Samudra, has been found and is dated AH 696 (AD 1297). This is the earliest clear evidence of a Muslim dynasty in the Indonesia-Malay area and more gravestones from the 13th century show that this region continued under Muslim rule. Ibn Batutah , a Moroccan traveller, passing through on his way to China in 1345 and 1346, found that

5239-563: Is some policy recognition of OECMs but no national mechanism for reporting them. There are 55 national parks in Indonesia, of which 9 are predominantly marine . Of these 6 are World Heritage Sites , such as the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra that includes three parks. Seven national parks are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and 5 are wetlands of international importance under

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5408-555: Is the delegation of power and authority to various regional entities while remaining a unitary state . The President of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government , commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces ( Tentara Nasional Indonesia , TNI), and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. The highest representative body at

5577-455: Is the least populated island of the Greater Sundas. With a population of approximately 15 million (census date 2000), it accounts for only 8% of Indonesia's entire population. The population can be generally divided into two regions. A large group populate the South of Sulawesi, which is characterised by valleys and plains which have nutrient dense soils that are ideal for agriculture and living off

5746-486: Is the most prevalent religion adhered to on the island, with approximately 80% of the population being Muslim. Specifically, Islam has been the predominant religion on Sulawesi since the 17th century. Christianity accounts for the majority of the rest of the religious profile, being more prominent throughout North Sulawesi. However, it can be assumed that the majority of Christians of the island are immigrants, as Islam has been ingrained into Sulawesi culture since its arrival in

5915-483: Is the world's second-most-populous urban area . Indonesia shares land borders with Papua New Guinea , East Timor , and the eastern part of Malaysia , as well as maritime borders with Singapore , Peninsular Malaysia , Vietnam , Thailand , the Philippines , Australia , Palau , and India . Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of

6084-552: Is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area , at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country . Java, the world's most populous island , is home to more than half of the country's population. Indonesia is a presidential republic with an elected legislature . It has 38 provinces , of which nine have special autonomous status . The country's largest city, Jakarta ,

6253-734: Is the world's largest producer of nickel . These commodities make up a large portion of the country's exports, with palm oil and coal briquettes as the leading export commodities. In addition to refined and crude petroleum as the primary imports, telephones, vehicle parts and wheat cover the majority of additional imports. China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand are Indonesia's principal export markets and import partners. Aceh Aceh ( / ˈ ɑː tʃ eɪ / AH -chay , Indonesian: [aˈtʃɛ(h)] ; Acehnese : Acèh [atʃeh] , Jawi : اچيه ‎ ), officially

6422-426: The 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake . Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity , and it is among the 17 megadiverse countries identified by Conservation International . Its flora and fauna are a mixture of Asian and Australasian species. The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia and have

6591-639: The Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes Marine Corps ), and Air Force (TNI–AU). The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget was 0.7% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018, with controversial involvement of military-owned commercial interests and foundations. The Armed Forces were formed during the Indonesian National Revolution when it undertook guerrilla warfare along with informal militia. Since then, territorial lines have formed

6760-495: The Bali myna , Sumatran orangutan , and Javan rhinoceros . Some academics describe the deforestation and other environmental destruction in the country as an ecocide . As of 2023, the government of Indonesia has gazetted 21.3% of the country's land as protected areas , with the intention of developing a new protected area strategy in line with global post-2020 framework . The country also has 411 marine reserves , or 9% of

6929-464: The Butonese , Toraja and Kahumanoan peoples. There are approximately 114 language dialects throughout Sulawesi, which culminate to form a branch of a Malayo-Polynesian language family. Each region and ethnicity generally has its own unique dialects and languages, some having multiple languages learnt to communicate with a range of different individuals and provinces. Across all ethnic groups, Islam

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7098-611: The Constitutional Court ( Mahkamah Konstitusi ) which listens to constitutional and political matters, and the Religious Court ( Pengadilan Agama ), which deals with codified Islamic Personal Law ( sharia ) cases. Additionally, the Judicial Commission ( Komisi Yudisial ) monitors the performance of judges. Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system. In all legislative elections since

7267-471: The Consumer Price Index have contributed to strong economic growth in recent years. From 2007 to 2019, annual growth accelerated to between 4% and 6% due to improvements in the banking sector and domestic consumption, helping Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 Great Recession , and regain in 2011 the investment grade rating it had lost in 1997. As of 2019 , 9.41% of the population lived below

7436-583: The Gouvernment of Atjeh and Dependencies under a governor, although it did not establish wider control of its territory until after 1908. The Aceh army was rapidly modernized, and Aceh soldiers killed Köhler. Köhler made some grave tactical errors and the reputation of the Dutch was severely harmed. In recent years, in line with expanding international attention to human rights issues and atrocities in war zones, there has been increasing discussion about some of

7605-599: The Helsinki MOU , was signed on 15 August 2005. Under the agreement Aceh would receive special autonomy and government troops would be withdrawn from the province in exchange for GAM's disarmament. As part of the agreement, the European Union dispatched 300 monitors . Their mission expired on 15 December 2006, following local elections. Aceh has been granted broader autonomy through Aceh government legislation covering special rights agreed upon in 2002 as well as

7774-617: The Japanese invasion and occupation ended Dutch rule and encouraged the independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, influential nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence . Sukarno, Hatta, and Sutan Sjahrir were appointed president, vice-president, and prime minister, respectively. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule. In

7943-601: The Kota Kinabalu in Sabah. Borneo has many natural wonders; the national parks are home to some of the world's most distinctive species of flora and fauna. These parks include Gunung Mulu National Park and Mount Kinabalu ; they are home to endemic, critically endangered species such as the Borneo orangutans , Borneo elephant , and Bornean leaf monkey. In recent years, palm oil plantations have drawn media attention, as

8112-482: The Lambri Kingdom. Several documented references indicate that Hindu-Buddhist culture existed in the area before its Islamization . The people of Lambri were described by Marco Polo as "idolaters", who had a Maharaja as their ruler, a king in the Hindu political structure, likely meaning they were Hindus , Buddhists , or a combination thereof. The inscription at Tanjore of Rajendra I documents

8281-477: The Malacca Straits region. Aceh has a history of political independence and resistance to control by outsiders, including the former Dutch colonists and later the Indonesian government. Aceh has substantial natural resources of oil and natural gas . Aceh was the closest point of land to the epicenter of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , which devastated much of the western coast of

8450-557: The Malay , Batak , Minangkabau and Acehnese . Each of these groups has unique traditions and ceremonies, which have been passed on through generations by oral, written, social and artistic communications. Ethnic groups are prominent in political climates and are inherently linked to the religious profile of the island. Currently Sumatra is primarily Islamic (90%), with minority religious groups Christianity (8%) and Buddhism (2%). Links between ethnicity and religion can be demonstrated by

8619-681: The Maluku Islands . Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602, the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company ( Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie ; VOC) and became the dominant European power for almost 200 years. The VOC was dissolved in 1799 following bankruptcy, and the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony. For most of the colonial period , Dutch control over

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8788-512: The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indos ( Ἰνδός ) and nesos ( νῆσος ), meaning "Indian islands". The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl , an English ethnologist , proposed the terms Indunesians —and, his preference, Malayunesians —for

8957-516: The Pleistocene era , there was a large volcano named Mount Sunda located north of Bandung in West Java . Its eruption covered the surrounding area with white volcanic ash, giving rise to the name "Sunda." The use of the term "Sunda" to refer to the Indonesian region dates back to the exploration report of the geographer Claudius Ptolemaeus in 150 AD. This report served as a reference for

9126-689: The Portuguese and the Johor Sultanate . Acehnese military power waned gradually thereafter, and Aceh ceded its territory of Pariaman in Sumatra to the Dutch in the 18th century. By the early 19th century, however, Aceh had become an increasingly influential power due to its strategic location for controlling regional trade. In the 1820s it was the producer of over half the world's supply of black pepper . The pepper trade produced new wealth for

9295-556: The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS). The first general election was held in 1955 to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly ( Konstituante ). The most recent elections in 2019 resulted in nine political parties in the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote. At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004. Since then, the president

9464-544: The Province of Aceh ( Indonesian : Provinsi Aceh , Acehnese : Nanggroë Acèh , Jawi : نڠڬرواي اچيه دارالسلام ‎ ), is the westernmost province of Indonesia . It is located on the northern end of Sumatra island, with Banda Aceh being its capital and largest city. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west, Strait of Malacca to the northeast, as well bordering the province of North Sumatra to

9633-529: The Ramsar convention . Around 9% of the Indonesia surface are national parks. As of 2012 Indonesia had over 100 marine protected areas covering an area of 15.7 million ha, of which 32 where managed by the Ministry of Forestry while the rest where managed by local governments. In 2009 the president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono declared a target of reaching 20 million hectares by 2020. In 2010 Indonesia also set out

9802-619: The Sumatran tiger and Sumatran rhino . Sumatra has numerous flora species which constitute its vast forests and mangrove systems. There are 17 mangrove species and more than 20 plant communities located across all of Sumatra. These forests have a complex pollination system, in which plants rely on bats, birds, insects and numerous other pollinator species to disperse the plant species. Sumatra's natural resources are highly sought after. The forests have been subject to logging and deforestation for industrial developments, but most prominently palm oil and acacia plantations. This has led to

9971-715: The UNHRC have raised the issue of human rights abuses committed by Indonesian troops in Papua such as extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances. Past engagements of the army include the conflict against the Netherlands over the Dutch New Guinea , the opposition to the British -sponsored creation of Malaysia (" Konfrontasi "), the mass killings of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and

10140-489: The Weber Line . In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago , Wallace described numerous species unique to the area. The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea . Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues . They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. Problems include

10309-473: The Wilayatul Hisbah (Sharia Authority). All of the qanuns provide for penalties including fines, imprisonment, and caning , the latter a punishment unknown in most parts of Indonesia. Between mid-2005 and early 2007, at least 135 people were caned in Aceh for transgressing the qanuns. In April 2016, a 60-year-old non-Muslim woman was sentenced to 30 lashes for selling alcohol drinks. The controversy

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10478-682: The invasion of East Timor , the latter having been Indonesia's most massive military operation. Indonesia has a mixed economy in which the private sector and government play vital roles. As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia, the country has the largest economy in the region and is classified as a newly industrialised country . Per a 2023 estimate, it is the world's 16th largest economy by nominal GDP and 7th in terms of GDP at PPP , estimated to be US$ 1.417 trillion and US$ 4.393 trillion, respectively. Per capita GDP in PPP

10647-436: The palm oil industry, which has been criticised for its environmental impact and displacement of local communities. The situation has made Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as threatened and 15 as critically endangered, including

10816-436: The provinces , which have a legislature ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah , DPRD) and an elected governor . A total of 38 provinces have been established from the original eight in 1945, the most recent change being the split of Southwest Papua from the province of West Papua in 2022. The second level are the regencies ( kabupaten ) and cities ( kota ), led by regents ( bupati ) and mayors ( walikota ), respectively, and

10985-410: The tropical rainforest climate found on every large island of Indonesia. Cooler climate types exist in mountainous regions that are 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb ) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates ,

11154-445: The tsunami resulting from the magnitude 9.2 Indian Ocean earthquake on 26 December 2004. While estimates vary, over 170,000 people were killed by tsunami in Aceh and about 500,000 were left homeless. The tragedy of the tsunami was further compounded several months later, when the 2005 M8.6 Nias–Simeulue earthquake struck the sea bed between the islands of Simeulue Island in Aceh and Nias in North Sumatra. This second quake killed

11323-554: The world's highest levels of biodiversity . The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent . Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam , and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in

11492-621: The 17th century. Sulawesi is heavily involved in agriculture, with the majority of Sulawesi people participating in agriculture as their primary source of income and way of life. Rice , sugarcane , coconut and coffee are the main crops farmed in Sulawesi. Sulawesi is able to contribute to the Republic of Indonesia's income by exporting these products internationally. Additionally, below the nutrient dense soils are nickel and iron , which are beginning to be mined for further trading. Notable landmarks include Mount Mahawu , Tangkoko Batuangus Nature Reserve and Fort Rotterdam Makassar. Sulawesi

11661-413: The 1950s and 1960s to promote agricultural self-sufficiency. A gradual process of industrialisation and urbanisation began in the late 1960s and accelerated in the 1980s as falling oil prices saw the government focus on diversifying away from oil exports and towards manufactured exports. This development continued throughout the 1980s and into the next decade despite the 1990 oil price shock , during which

11830-416: The 1970s. The first wood pulp mill in Aceh was built in 1982. The government of Aceh intends a law by which 1.2 million hectares would be opened for commercial use. This proposal has caused many protests. Within the country, Aceh is governed not as a regular province but as a special autonomous province ( daerah istimewa ), an administrative designation intended to give the area increased autonomy from

11999-411: The 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active. Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java. Volcanic ash has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. However, it has also resulted in fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining the high population densities of Java and Bali. A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It

12168-401: The Acehnese rebelled again. The religious ulama party gained ascendancy to replace district warlords ( Ulèëbalang ) party that formerly collaborated with the Dutch. Concrete bunkers still line the northernmost beaches. After World War II, civil war erupted in 1945 between the district warlords party, that supported the return of a Dutch government, and the religious ulama party that supported

12337-521: The Bishop of Malacca , D. João Ribeiro Gaio, based on information provided by a former captive called Diogo Gil, wrote the "Roteiro das Cousas do Achem" (Lisboa 1997) – a description of the sultanate. Later, during its golden era , in the 17th century, its territory and political influence expanded as far as Satun in southern Thailand , Johor in Malay Peninsula , and Siak in what is today

12506-585: The Cham people fled the Vietnamese, one of the earliest locations that they established a relationship was with Aceh. Furthermore, it is thought that one of the earliest centers of Islam was in the Aceh region. When Venetian traveller Marco Polo passed by Sumatra on his way home from China in 1292 he found that Peureulak was a Muslim town while nearby 'Basma(n)' and 'Samara' were not. 'Basma(n)' and 'Samara' are often said to be Pasai and Samudra but evidence

12675-580: The Cold War. Numerous attempts by the United States and the Soviet Union , and China to some degree, culminated in the 1965 coup attempt and subsequent upheaval that led to a reorientation of foreign policy. Quiet alignment with the Western world while maintaining a non-aligned stance has characterised Indonesia's foreign policy since then. Today, it maintains close relations with its neighbours and

12844-586: The Dutch nor the British knew the specifics, there had been rumors since the 1850s that Aceh had been in communication with the rulers of France and of the Ottoman Empire. Pirates operating from Aceh threatened commerce in the Strait of Malacca ; the sultan was unable to control them. Britain was a protector of Aceh and gave the Netherlands permission to eradicate the pirates. The campaign quickly drove out

13013-410: The Dutch. In the treaty, the British described Aceh as one of their possessions, although they had no actual control over the sultanate. Initially, under the agreement the Dutch agreed to respect Aceh's independence. In 1871, however, the British dropped previous opposition to a Dutch invasion of Aceh, possibly to prevent France or the United States from gaining a foothold in the region. Although neither

13182-561: The East ( de Oost ); and Insulinde . After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894 . The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara when in 1913, he established

13351-529: The Free Aceh Movement and resulted in the second phase of the rebellion, this time with large support from the Acehnese people. This support was demonstrated during the 1999 plebiscite in Banda Aceh which was attended by nearly half a million people (of four million population of the province). The Indonesian central government responded in 2001 by broadening Aceh's autonomy, giving its government

13520-544: The GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%. As a result, the official poverty rate fell from 60% to 15%. Trade barriers reduction from the mid-1980s made the economy more globally integrated. The growth ended with the 1997 Asian financial crisis that severely impacted the economy, including a 13.1% real GDP contraction in 1998 and a 78% inflation. The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 with only 0.8% real GDP growth. Relatively steady inflation and an increase in GDP deflator and

13689-519: The God Indra , also indicate that Hinduism had a lasting and significant presence in this land. Evidence concerning the initial coming and subsequent establishment of Islam in Southeast Asia is thin and inconclusive. The historian Anthony Reid has argued that the region of the Cham people on the south-central coast of Vietnam was one of the earliest Islamic centers in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, as

13858-804: The Indonesian Muslim to be loyal to the Dutch East Indies Government". During World War II, Japanese troops occupied Aceh. The Acehnese ulama (Islamic clerics) fought against both the Dutch and the Japanese, revolting against the Dutch in February 1942 and against Japan in November 1942. The revolt was led by the All-Aceh Religious Scholars' Association (PUSA). The Japanese suffered 18 dead in

14027-489: The Indonesian authorities for 29 years, has signed a peace deal (15 August 2005). The perception that the tsunami was punishment for insufficient piety in this proudly Muslim province is partly behind the increased emphasis on the importance of religion post-tsunami. This has been most obvious in the increased implementation of Sharia law, including the introduction of the controversial Wilayatul Hisbah or Syariah police. As homes are being built and people's basic needs are met,

14196-532: The Indonesian central government to take repressive measures and to send troops to Aceh. Human rights abuse was rampant for the next decade, resulting in many grievances on the part of the Acehnese toward the Indonesian central government. In 1990, the Indonesian government initiated military operations against GAM by deploying more than 12,000 Indonesian troops in the region. During the late 1990s, chaos in Java and an ineffective central government gave an advantage to

14365-571: The Islamic attire requirement; Qanun 12/2003 prohibiting the consumption and sale of alcohol; Qanun 13/2003 prohibiting gambling; Qanun 14/2003 prohibiting "seclusion"; and Qanun 7/2004 on the payment of Islamic alms. With the exception of gambling, none of the offenses are prohibited outside of Aceh. Responsibility for enforcement of the qanuns rests both with the National Police and with a special Sharia police force unique to Aceh, known as

14534-470: The North and South regions of Sulawesi. North Sulawesi is extremely mountainous and home to the majority of volcanoes found on the island. South Sulawesi features more coastal features, such as coral reef systems and streams. However, in 1964, Sulawesi was divided further down to four provinces. These are now identified as North Sulawesi , Central Sulawesi , Southeast Sulawesi and South Sulawesi . Sulawesi

14703-466: The Philippines, Palau, and Australia. At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km (442 sq mi). Indonesia's largest rivers are in Kalimantan and New Guinea and include Kapuas , Barito , Mamberamo , Sepik and Mahakam . They serve as communication and transport links between

14872-600: The Portuguese occupation of Malacca in 1511, many Islamic traders passing the Malacca Straits shifted their trade to Banda Aceh and increased the Acehnese rulers' wealth. During the reign of Sultan Iskandar Muda in the 17th century, Aceh's influence extended to most of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula . Aceh allied itself with the Ottoman Empire and the Dutch East India Company in their struggle against

15041-460: The Portuguese when they arrived in Indonesia in 1500 AD and explored the Sunda kingdom in West Java . They categorized the region into Greater Sunda (Sunda Besar) for the larger western islands and Lesser Sunda (Sunda Kecil) for the smaller eastern islands. Since then, the term "Sunda" has been widely adopted in earth sciences (geology-geography) as a reference for the Indonesian region, surpassing

15210-600: The Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery . Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism , Indonesia secured its independence after World War II . Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratisation process, and periods of rapid economic growth. Indonesia consists of thousands of distinct native ethnic groups and hundreds of linguistic groups, with Javanese being

15379-491: The UN) scattered over both sides of the equator, around 6,000 of which are inhabited. The largest are Sumatra , Java , Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi , and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo and Sebatik , Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, East Timor on the island of Timor , and maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam,

15548-470: The archipelago and made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816 . The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world years after the event. Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and

15717-560: The archipelago around 2,000 BCE and confined the native Melanesians to the far eastern regions as they spread east. Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including with Indian kingdoms and Chinese dynasties, from several centuries BCE. Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. From

15886-519: The archipelago was tenuous. Dutch forces were engaged continuously in quelling rebellions on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku , and the Aceh War weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces. Only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. During World War II,

16055-476: The basis of all TNI branches' structure, aimed at maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats. The military has possessed a strong political influence since its founding, which peaked during the New Order . Political reforms in 1998 included the removal of the TNI's formal representation from the legislature. Nevertheless, its political influence remains, albeit at a reduced level. Since independence,

16224-578: The beginning of the Indonesian National Revolution , the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the face of international pressure in December 1949, following the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference . Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence. As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing

16393-463: The central government in Jakarta . This has resulted in canings for crimes deemed to have violated sharia law such as gambling, drinking, skipping Friday prayers, and most notably homosexuality. Regional elections have been held in Aceh in recent years for senior positions at the provincial, regency ( kabupaten ) and district ( kecamatan ) levels. In the 2006 elections , Irwandi Yusuf was elected as

16562-415: The coastal areas. Köhler's strategy was to attack and take the sultan's palace. It failed. The Dutch then tried a naval blockade, reconciliation, concentration within a line of forts, and lastly passive containment. They had scant success. Reaching 15 to 20 million guilders a year, the heavy spending for failed strategies nearly bankrupted the colonial government. During the course of the war, the Dutch set up

16731-650: The conquest of a land called "llämuridesam", located at the northern tip of Sumatra. The Nagarakritagama documents the possessions of the Imperial Majapahit , and states that they control Barat, identified as the western coast of Aceh. Chinese records indicate that Aceh was under the control of the Sriwijaya . Though many temples were left abandoned or converted into mosques, such as the Indrapuri Old Mosque , some evidence remains, such as

16900-499: The country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis . It brought out popular discontent with the New Order's corruption and suppression of political opposition and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency. In 1999, East Timor seceded from Indonesia, following its 1975 invasion by Indonesia and a 25-year occupation marked by international condemnation of human rights abuses . Since 1998, democratic processes have been strengthened by enhancing regional autonomy and instituting

17069-456: The country has struggled to maintain unity against local insurgencies and separatist movements. Some, notably in Aceh and Papua , have led to an armed conflict and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides. The former was resolved peacefully in 2005, while the latter has continued amid a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws. Reports from Amnesty , Human Rights Watch , and

17238-446: The country's first direct presidential election in 2004 . Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and instances of terrorism remained problems in the 2000s; however, the economy has performed strongly since 2007. Although relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh

17407-415: The country's total maritime area, and has set a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a 2023 study suggested this target is not on track and that existing marine reserves are poorly managed. Around 390 marine areas are managed in some way by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for these to be considered other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs). There

17576-432: The destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal deforestation (causing extensive haze across parts of Southeast Asia ), over-exploitation of marine resources, air pollution, garbage management, and reliable water and wastewater services . These issues contribute to Indonesia's low ranking (number 116 out of 180 countries) in the 2020 Environmental Performance Index . The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance

17745-425: The disaster included Lhoknga , Leupung , Lamno, Patek , Calang , Teunom , and the island of Simeulue . Affected or destroyed towns on the region's north and east coasts were Pidie Regency , Samalanga , and Lhokseumawe . The area was slowly rebuilt after the disaster. The government initially proposed the creation of a two-kilometer buffer zone along low-lying coastal areas within which permanent construction

17914-506: The dominance of Malay people in Sumatra. The Malay people are the most dominant ethnic group populating Sumatra. The most vital part of Malay culture is their intrinsic connection to Islam; adhering to Islam is directly linked to the Malay identity and an individual can identify as Malay only if they adhere to Islam. Hence, individuals who follow other religious groups identify as ethnic minorities. The main dialect of Indonesian spoken in Sumatra

18083-488: The dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. The first Europeans arrived in the archipelago in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão , sought to monopolise the sources of nutmeg , cloves , and cubeb pepper in

18252-449: The east, its sole land border, and shares maritime borders with Malaysia and Thailand to the east, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India to the north. Granted a special autonomous status, Aceh is a religiously conservative territory and the only Indonesian province practicing Sharia law officially. There are ten indigenous ethnic groups in this region, the largest being the Acehnese people , accounting for approximately 70% of

18421-630: The east. Other terms associated with "Sunda" include the Sunda Island Arc or the arc of Sunda Islands, Sunda Fold or tectonic folding in the Natuna Sea, the Sunda Trench, and Sundaland. Sumatra is the second largest, most westerly oriented Indonesian island, and the sixth largest island globally. Spanning 473,481 square kilometres (182,812 sq mi), Sumatra is home to human civilisations and tropical rainforests, which harbour

18590-657: The enactment of Law 44/1999 and the governor's Sharia regulations. In 2014, a group of scholars who call themselves Tadzkiiratul Ummah , started to paint the pants of men and women as a call for heavier Islamic law enforcement in the area. Upon the enactment of the Special Autonomy Law in 2001, Aceh's provincial legislature enacted a series of qanuns (local laws) governing the implementation of Sharia. Five qanuns enacted between 2002 and 2004 contained criminal penalties for violations of Sharia: Qanun 11/2002 on "belief, ritual, and promoting Islam," which contains

18759-651: The executive branch. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased its role in national governance, while the DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management. Most civil disputes appear before the State Court ( Pengadilan Negeri ); appeals are heard before the High Court ( Pengadilan Tinggi ). The Supreme Court of Indonesia ( Mahkamah Agung ) is the highest level of the judicial branch and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include

18928-617: The expansion of palm oil plantations across the island. To develop these plantations, a large amount of land continues to be cleared. This has had an extreme impact on the animals which inhabit these forests. The orangutan and the elephant have most notably suffered. Poaching and the illegal wildlife trade have also had a pronounced effect on wildlife diversity and conservation in Borneo. As Borneo nurtures such rare wildlife, they are highly desired by illegal wildlife traders. Despite government and charity organisations acting to prevent poachers from targeting such vulnerable animals, this continues to be

19097-728: The fall of the New Order , no political party has won an overall majority of seats. The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P) secured the most votes in the 2024 general election , becoming their third consecutive wins since 2014. Other notable parties include the Party of the Functional Groups ( Golkar ), the Great Indonesia Movement Party ( Gerindra ), the Democratic Party , and

19266-438: The frequency of drought and food shortages (with an impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet and dry seasons, and thus Indonesia's agriculture system ) as well as numerous diseases and wildfires. Rising sea levels would also threaten most of Indonesia's population, who live in low-lying coastal areas. Impoverished communities would likely be affected the most by climate change. Tectonically , most of Indonesia's area

19435-410: The hands of Indonesian military units hired by the company for security for its natural gas operations. ExxonMobil denied fault for the allegations. After a series of attacks against its operations, the company shut down its Arun natural gas operations in the province. The western coastal areas of Aceh, including the cities of Banda Aceh , Calang , and Meulaboh , were among the areas hardest-hit by

19604-500: The head of a stone sculpture of Avalokiteshvara Boddhisattva was discovered in Aceh. Images of Amitabha Buddhas adorn his crown in front and on each side. Srivijayan art estimated 9th-century CE collection of National Museum of Indonesia , Jakarta. One of the few structural remains is the Indra Patra fort, which has several Hindu shrines. Historic names such as Indrapurba, Indrapurwa, Indrapatra, and Indrapuri, which refer to

19773-404: The immense death toll drew international notice but in rural areas where many don't have internet access or cell phones it remains a challenge to communicate warnings in a timely manner. A warning system was put in place at the request of Aceh residents but it was disabled in 2007 after technical issues and a false alarm that caused a panic. The population of Aceh before the December 2004 tsunami

19942-399: The industry has had controversial effects on the native wildlife of Borneo. Borneo's forests are rich in natural resources, which have contributed substantially to the Indonesian economy. For instance, the camphor tree has been harvested in Borneo for trade, as the oil derived from the wood of the tree is used for some medical treatments. However, the most important recent development has been

20111-576: The inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago ". In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan , used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago . Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia . They preferred Malay Archipelago ( Dutch : Maleische Archipel ); the Netherlands East Indies ( Nederlandsch Oost Indië ), popularly Indië ;

20280-498: The interiors of Kalimantan and Papua, and less in areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, which tends to be relatively dry. The almost uniformly warm waters that constitute 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that land temperatures remain relatively constant. Humidity is quite high, at between 70 and 90%. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in May through October and from

20449-421: The island is geographically and ecologically diverse. There are three main geographical regions: tropical rainforests, coastal areas and river basins. Tropical rainforests are situated centrally, where inland they are surrounded by dense and lush mountain zones. The coastal areas are characterised by mangroves and swamps, often extending across hundreds of kilometres of coastal waters. The river basins lie in between

20618-419: The island's river settlements. Indonesia lies along the equator, and its climate tends to be relatively even year-round. Indonesia has two seasons—a dry season and a wet season —with no extremes of summer or winter. For most parts of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and October, while the wet season falls between November and April. Indonesia's climate is almost entirely tropical , dominated by

20787-602: The kings of Sumatra from Aceh through Palembang were Muslim. At Pasai, in what is now the North Aceh Regency , there was a thriving international port. Pires attributed the establishment of Islam in Pasai to the 'cunning' of the Muslim merchants. The ruler of Pasai, however, had not been able to convert the people of the interior. The Sultanate of Aceh was established by Sultan Ali Mughayat Syah in 1511. In 1584–88

20956-579: The land. The other half of the large group lives in the North-East, within the Manado and Minahasa regions. Each of these regions populations are distinguished by their unique ethnic groups. The Buginese is the most prominent ethnic group, with approximately 3.5 million people. The Makassarese account for 1.5 million people, the Mandarese have 0.5 million people. Other primary ethnic groups include

21125-464: The largest. A shared identity has developed with the motto " Bhinneka Tunggal Ika " ("Unity in Diversity" literally , "many, yet one"), defined by a national language , cultural diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. A developing country , Indonesia is classified a newly industrialized country , with its economy

21294-458: The long, diverse and rich religious and cultural history of Java. It pays homage to the traditions of Indonesian culture. Java is extremely biodiverse, with numerous endemic flora and fauna species. These include the Javan rhinoceros , the Javan hawk-eagle and the Javan leopard . Java has extremely rich land and soil, as it is estimated around 80% of the soil is productive and nutrient dense. It

21463-455: The most densely populated places in the world. The capital of Java is Jakarta , on the northern coast. The majority of the population is Javanese and Sundanese, however minority groups include Chinese, Arab, Indian and other immigrant groups who have settled on the island. Java holds hundreds of years of Indonesian cultural history on its soil. Notable landmarks include Mount Bromo , Prambanan Temple and Borobudur Temple . The Prambanan temple

21632-642: The national level is the People's Consultative Assembly ( Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat , MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising broad outlines of state policy. The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat , DPR), with 575 members, and the Regional Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Daerah , DPD), with 136. The DPR passes legislation and monitors

21801-487: The native people of Aceh induced Dr. Hasan Muhammad di Tiro , former ambassador of Darul Islam, to call for an independent Aceh. He proclaimed independence in 1976. The movement had a small number of followers initially, and di Tiro himself had to live in exile in Sweden. Meanwhile, the province followed Suharto 's policy of economic development and industrialization. During the late 1980s several security incidents prompted

21970-472: The newly proclaimed state of Indonesia. The ulama won, and the area remained free during the Indonesian War of Independence . The Dutch military itself never attempted to invade Aceh. The civil war raised the religious ulama party leader, Daud Bereueh , to the position of military governor of Aceh. The Acehnese revolted soon after its inclusion into an independent Indonesia, a situation created by

22139-503: The north and west in November through April. Typhoons and large-scale storms pose little hazard to mariners; significant dangers come from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits. Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change . These include unreduced emissions resulting in an average temperature rise of around 1 °C (2 °F) by mid-century, raising

22308-425: The only ones where the indigenous people have privileges in their local government. Indonesia maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies. The country adheres to what it calls a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking a role in regional affairs in proportion to its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among other countries. Indonesia was a significant battleground during

22477-487: The opposing forces of the military , political Islam, and the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Tensions between the military and the PKI culminated in an attempted coup in 1965. The army, led by Major General Suharto , countered by instigating a violent anti-communist purge that killed between 500,000 and one million people and incarcerated roughly a million more in concentration camps . The PKI

22646-469: The past it was also spelled as Acheh , Atjeh , and Achin . According to several archaeological findings, the first evidence of human habitation in Aceh is from a site near the Tamiang River where shell middens are present. Stone tools and faunal remains were also found on the site. Archeologists believe the site was first occupied around 10,000 BCE. The history of Aceh stretches back to

22815-494: The people are also looking to improve the quality of education , increase tourism, and develop responsible, sustainable industry. Well-qualified educators are in high demand in Aceh. While parts of the capital Banda Aceh were unscathed, the areas closest to the water, especially the areas of Kampung Jawa and Meuraxa, were completely destroyed. Most of the rest of the western coast of Aceh was severely damaged. Many towns completely disappeared. Other towns on Aceh's west coast hit by

22984-427: The population. Sumatra is recognised for its natural wonders, including Mount Leuser National Park , Lake Maninjau and Mount Sibayak . The forests of Sumatra are a biological hotspot, with countless endemic and paleoendemic species . There are over 200 species of mammals and more than 600 bird species, with new species continually being discovered. Sumatra is also home to critically endangered species, including

23153-544: The poverty line, and the official open unemployment rate was 5.28%. During the first year of the global COVID-19 pandemic , the economy suffered its first recession since the 1997 crisis but recovered in the following year. Indonesia has abundant natural resources. Its primary industries are fishing, petroleum, timber, paper products, cotton cloth, tourism, petroleum mining, natural gas, bauxite, coal, and tin. Its main agricultural products are rice, coconuts, soybeans, bananas, coffee, tea, palm, rubber, and sugar cane. Indonesia

23322-552: The province of Riau . As was the case with most non-Javan pre-colonial states, Acehnese power expanded outward by sea rather than inland. As it expanded down the Sumatran coast, its main competitors were Johor and Portuguese Malacca on the other side of the Straits of Malacca . It was this seaborne trade focus that saw Aceh rely on rice imports from north Java rather than develop self sufficiency in rice production. After

23491-576: The province. Approximately 170,000 Indonesians were killed or went missing in the disaster. The disaster helped precipitate the peace agreement between the government of Indonesia and the separatist group of Free Aceh Movement . Aceh was first known as Aceh Darussalam (1511–1945). Upon its formation in 1956 it bore the name Aceh before being renamed to the Daerah Istimewa Aceh (Aceh Special Region; 1959–2001), Nanggroë Aceh Darussalam (2001–2009), and back to Aceh (2009–present). In

23660-913: The provincial governor for 2007–2012 and in elections in April 2012 , Zaini Abdullah was elected as governor for 2012–2017. Beginning with the promulgation of Law 44/1999, Aceh's governor began to issue limited Sharia -based regulations, for example requiring female government employees to wear Islamic dress. These regulations were not enforced by the provincial government, but as early as April 1999, reports emerged that groups of men in Aceh were engaging in vigilante violence in an effort to impose Sharia, for example, by conducting " jilbab raids," subjecting women who were not wearing Islamic headscarves to verbal abuse, cutting their hair or clothes, and committing other acts of violence against them. The frequency of these and other attacks on individuals considered to be violating Sharia principles appeared to increase following

23829-452: The reconstruction work was performed by local people using a mix of traditional methods and partial prefabricated structures, with funding coming from many international organizations and individuals, governments, and the people themselves. The Government of Indonesia estimated in their Preliminary Damage and Losses Assessment that damages amounted to US$ 4.5 billion (before inflation, and US$ 6.2 billion including inflation). Three years after

23998-410: The recorded acts of cruelty and slaughter committed by Dutch troops during the period of warfare in Aceh. Hasan Mustafa (1852–1930) was a chief penghulu , or judge, for the colonial government and was stationed in Aceh. He had to balance traditional Muslim justice with Dutch law. To stop the Aceh rebellion, Hasan Mustafa issued a fatwa, telling the Muslim population there in 1894, "It is Incumbent upon

24167-466: The region's population of about 5.5 million people in mid-2023. Its area is comparable to Croatia or Togo . Aceh is where the spread of Islam in Indonesia began, and was a key factor of the spread of Islam in Southeast Asia . Islam reached Aceh (Kingdoms of Fansur and Lamuri ) around 1250 AD. In the early 17th century the Sultanate of Aceh was the most wealthy, powerful and cultivated state in

24336-407: The region; central regions of Sumatra rely on this region to transport ocean foods and marine related goods, while Insular Riau is dependent on the central regions of Sumatra for import of foods and other goods. Sumatra has about 50 million people (census date 2000), making it the fourth most populated island in the world. There is a diverse range of ethnicities; the most predominant ethnic groups are

24505-618: The right of the Acehnese to establish local political parties to represent their interests. Human rights advocates protested that previous human rights violations in the province needed to be addressed, however. Aceh has the largest range of biodiversity in the Asian Pacific region. Among the rarer large mammals are the Sumatran rhinoceros , Sumatran tiger , Orangutan and Sumatran elephant . In 2014, there were 460 Sumatran elephants in Aceh including at least eight baby elephants. The area has been suffering from deforestation since

24674-424: The right to apply Sharia law more broadly and the right to receive direct foreign investment. This was again accompanied by repressive measures, however, and in 2003 an offensive began and a state of emergency was proclaimed in the province. The war was still ongoing when the tsunami disaster of 2004 struck the province. In 2001, villagers from the North Aceh Regency sued ExxonMobil for human rights abuses at

24843-498: The ruler of Samudra was a follower of the Shafi'i school of Islam. After the initial appearance of Islam in Aceh, it further spread into the coastal regions by the 15th century. Aceh soon became a cultural and scholastic Islamic center throughout Southeast Asia. It also became wealthy because it was a center of extensive trade. The Portuguese apothecary Tome Pires reported in his early 16th-century book Suma Oriental that most of

25012-679: The same time, the GAM leadership was undergoing changes, and the Indonesian military had inflicted so much damage on the rebel movement that it had little choice but to negotiate with the central government. The peace talks were first initiated by Juha Christensen , a Finnish peace activist, and then formally facilitated by a Finland -based NGO, the Crisis Management Initiative led by former Finnish president Martti Ahtisaari . The resulting peace agreement, generally known as

25181-455: The seventh century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished due to trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism . Between the eighth and tenth centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan . The Hindu Majapahit kingdom

25350-452: The sheer scale of the disaster, and logistic difficulties, progress was slow. A study in 2007 estimated that 83.6% of the population had a psychiatric illness, while 69.8% suffers from severe emotional distress. The ramifications of the tsunami went beyond the immediate impact to the lives and infrastructure of the Acehnese living on the coast. Since the disaster, the Acehnese rebel movement GAM, which had been fighting for independence against

25519-438: The subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb ) is more pronounced during dry season. Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra , experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season and floods in the wet season. Rainfall varies across regions, with more in western Sumatra, Java, and

25688-429: The sultan but the local leaders mobilized and fought the Dutch in four decades of guerrilla war, with high levels of atrocities. The Dutch colonial government declared war on Aceh on 26 March 1873. Aceh sought American help but Washington rejected the request. The Dutch tried one strategy after another over the course of four decades. An expedition under Major General Johan Harmen Rudolf Köhler in 1873 occupied most of

25857-485: The sultanate and for the rulers of many smaller nearby ports that had been under Aceh's control, but were now able to assert more independence. These changes initially threatened Aceh's integrity, but a new Sultan Tuanku Ibrahim , who controlled the kingdom from 1838 to 1870, reasserted power over nearby ports. Under the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 the British ceded their colonial possessions on Sumatra to

26026-740: The tropical rainforests and the coastline, acting as a pathway for trade and transport across the island. Borneo is the northernmost island of the Greater Sundas (1º N, 115º E) Although most of it is part of Indonesia (this part is known as Kalimantan), it also includes parts of Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak), and all of Brunei Darussalam . With about 21 million people (census date 2014), there are over 190 ethnicities. A variety of local dialects and languages are spoken; these are unique to certain provinces and cultures. There are over 100 Austronesian languages . Some prominent languages are Bahasa Indonesia , Hakka , Tamil and English . Many other languages draw on Chinese backgrounds and linguistic history. Trade

26195-562: The tsunami with photographs, stories, and a simulation of the earthquake that triggered the tsunami. The 2004 tsunami helped trigger a peace agreement between the GAM and the Indonesian government. The mood in post- Suharto Indonesia in the liberal-democratic reform period, as well as changes in the Indonesian military, helped create an environment more favorable to peace talks. The roles of newly elected president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and vice president Jusuf Kalla were highly significant. At

26364-403: The tsunami, reconstruction was still ongoing. The World Bank monitored funding for reconstruction in Aceh and reported that US$ 7.7 billion had been earmarked for the reconstruction whilst at June 2007 US$ 5.8 billion had been allocated to specific reconstruction projects, of which US$ 3.4 billion had actually been spent (58%). In 2009, the government opened a US$ 5.6 million museum to commemorate

26533-480: The unique resources abundant in their location, trading with other regions; hence, the stable relationship between each regions is significantly influenced by their geographical location. For instance, the Insular Riau region is situated along the central coast of Sumatra, and thus has a strong relationship with fishing, seafare and marine operations. This has characterised the transportation and trading aspects of

26702-419: The uniqueness of their ecosystems. Deforestation has had a significant effect on the fauna which inhabit the island. The niche habitat of Sulawesi means that the animals which inhabit the land are adapted to the specific environmental conditions, as well as to a unique diet. Between 2000 and 2017, 2.07 million hectares of forest was destroyed. This equates to 10.90% of the total forest destroyed, averaging out to

26871-535: The uprising while they slaughtered up to 100 or over 120 Acehnese. The revolt happened in Bayu and was centered around Tjot Plieng village's religious school. During the revolt, the Japanese troops armed with mortars and machine guns were charged by sword wielding Acehnese under Teungku Abduldjalil (Tengku Abdul Djalil) in Buloh Gampong Teungah and Tjot Plieng on 10 and 13 November. In May 1945

27040-482: The usage of " Indonesia " in this field. The terms Greater Sunda and Lesser Sunda are commonly used in geological-geographical literature. According to Koesoemadinata, even today, in earth sciences, "Sunda Islands" is more recognized than "Indonesia Islands." "Sunda" also denotes continental shelves or landmasses. Indonesia itself has two shelves: the Sunda Shelf in the west and the Sahul/Arafuru Shelf in

27209-633: The village ( desa ) is divided into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), which are the same as RW. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, regencies and cities have become chief administrative units responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles village or neighbourhood matters through an elected village head ( lurah or kepala desa ). Nine provinces—Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua , Central Papua , Highland Papua , South Papua , Southwest Papua , and West Papua —are granted

27378-521: The world's 16th-largest by nominal GDP and the 7th-largest by PPP . It is the world's third-largest democracy, a regional power , and is considered a middle power in global affairs. The country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the United Nations, World Trade Organization , G20 , and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement , Association of Southeast Asian Nations , East Asia Summit , D-8 , APEC , and

27547-487: Was 4,271,000 (2004). The population as of 15 September 2005 was 4,031,589, and in January 2014 was 4,731,705. The 2020 census produced a total population of 5,274,871, comprising 2,647,563 males and 2,627,308 females. As of February 2006, more than a year after the tsunami, a large number of people were still living in barrack-style temporary living centers (TLC) or tents . Reconstruction was visible everywhere, but due to

27716-681: Was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Indonesia is a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group , the World Trade Organization (WTO), and a former member of OPEC . Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1967, and recently, the country established its first overseas aid programme in late 2019. Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include

27885-579: Was achieved in 2005. Indonesia is the southernmost country in Asia. The country lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E . A transcontinental country spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania, it is the world's largest archipelagic state , extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south. The country's Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs says Indonesia has 17,504 islands (with 16,056 registered at

28054-402: Was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and following a drawn-out power play with Sukarno , Suharto was appointed president in March 1968. His US-backed "New Order" administration encouraged foreign direct investment , which was a crucial factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. Indonesia was

28223-401: Was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada , its influence stretched over much of present-day Indonesia. This period is often referred to as the "Golden Age" in Indonesian history. The earliest evidence of Islamized populations in the archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra . Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam, and it was

28392-533: Was led by Daud Beureu'eh who on 20 September 1953 declared a free independent Aceh under the leadership of Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosoewirjo . In 1959, the Indonesian government attempted to placate the Acehnese by offering wide-ranging freedom in matters relating to religion, education and culture. During the 1970s, under an agreement with the Indonesian central government, American oil and gas companies began exploitation of Aceh natural resources. Alleged unequal distribution of profits between central government and

28561-533: Was not permitted. This proposal was unpopular among some local inhabitants and proved impractical in most situations, especially fishing families that are dependent on living near to the sea. The Indonesian government set up a special agency for Aceh reconstruction, the Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi (BRR) headed by Kuntoro Mangkusubroto , a former Indonesian government minister. This agency had ministry level of authority and incorporated officials, professionals and community leaders from all backgrounds. Most of

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