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112-594: Pashto ( / ˈ p ʌ ʃ t oʊ / PUH -shto , / ˈ p æ ʃ t oʊ / PASH -toe ; پښتو , Pəx̌tó , [pəʂˈto, pʊxˈto, pəʃˈto, pəçˈto] ) is an Eastern Iranian language in the Indo-European language family , natively spoken in northwestern Pakistan and southern and eastern Afghanistan . It has official status in Afghanistan and the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . It

224-697: A Jihad against the British in the hope to proclaim full independence, as well as to strengthen his own legitimacy. Amanullah's forces invaded British India on three fronts taking advantage of the unrest in India , in an effort to seize the old Afghan provinces west of the River Indus . Despite some initial success, the Afghan invasion was however repelled by the British, the latter who were reinforced and responded in force. The Afghans were then driven back across

336-637: A in Southern Pashto, but changes to gu x t in Shughni, γwa x̌ a in Central and Northern Pashto. Third Anglo-Afghan War Afghan victory [REDACTED]   Afghanistan [REDACTED]   United Kingdom The Third Anglo-Afghan War was a short war which began on 3 May and ended on 8 August 1919. The new Amir of the Emirate of Afghanistan Amanullah Khan declared

448-495: A tribal uprising a decade before had left many in doubt of joining the war directly, holding sentiments to refuse both an Afghan, or British army to cross through the territory of the frontier tribes. The third army was led by 'Abd al-Quddus Khan, who was beginning to raise an army in Kandahar . His objective was to advance into Balochistan and seize control of Chaman , Gulistan , Pishin , and establish complete control over

560-434: A boost to the army's strength, the Afghan command could call upon the loyalty of up to 80,000 frontier tribesmen and an indeterminate number of deserters from local militia units under British command. In reality, the Afghan regular army was not ready for war. As in past years, the upper levels of the officer corps were riddled with political intrigue. In his book on the campaign, Lieutenant-General George Molesworth gave

672-556: A contentious issue between the two nations – as a border separating Afghanistan from the North-West Frontier, and the undertaking that the Afghans made to stop interference on the British side of the line. The circumstances behind the war were complicated as was the final settlement. In going to war in 1919 against British India, Amir Amanullah's war aims were complicated. Even up against a depleted British Indian Army,

784-628: A contiguous area: southern and eastern Afghanistan and the adjacent parts of western Pakistan; the Badakhshan Mountainous Autonomous Region in eastern Tajikistan ; and the westernmost parts of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in western China . There are also two living members in widely separated areas: the Yaghnobi language of northwestern Tajikistan (descended from Sogdian ); and the Ossetic language of

896-565: A device). Post-7th century borrowings came primarily from Persian and Hindi-Urdu , with Arabic words being borrowed through Persian, but sometimes directly. Modern speech borrows words from English, French , and German . However, a remarkably large number of words are unique to Pashto. Here is an exemplary list of Pure Pashto and borrowings: naṛә́i jahān dunyā tod/táwda garm aṛtyā́ ḍarurah híla umid də...pə aṛá bāra bolә́la qasidah Eastern Iranian languages The largest living Eastern Iranian language

1008-454: A few, very old, four-barrel Gardiner machine guns . Ammunition was in short supply and distribution must have been very difficult. For the artillery much black powder was used, both as a propellent and bursting charge for shells. The Kabul arsenal workshops were elementary and mainly staffed by Sikh artificers with much ingenuity but little real skill. There was no organised transport and arrangements for supply were rudimentary. In support of

1120-614: A habit which is prevalent amongst all civilized people of the West." On 29 May Amanullah requested for an armistice which, despite some protests, his Afghan commanders reluctantly agreed to. This was sent to the British Indian government on 31 May. On 2 June, at dawn Dyer's brigade launched an attack on the Afghan regulars that were positioned away to the west of Thal. As this attack went in Nadir Khan sent out an envoy to deliver

1232-711: A hard-fought campaign on the Indian frontier. Amanullah Khan raised three armies planned for his invasion of British India through a three-pronged attack. The raised force in Nangarhar led by Saleh Muhammad Khan commanded mostly Mohmand and Afridi tribesmen. His intention was to attack through the Khyber Pass and seize Peshawar . This would also coincide with a planned uprising in Peshawar sponsored by Mahmud Tarzi and other Indian revolutionaries. The second army

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1344-399: A message to the brigade commander. The message told Dyer that Amir Amanullah had ordered Nadir Khan to cease hostilities and Nadir Khan asked Dyer to acknowledge that he would honour the armistice. Unaware that this request had been made, and uncertain as to whether the message and request for a cease fire was a ruse on Nadir Khan's part, Dyer decided that he would not take any chances and sent

1456-697: A pervasive external influence on the closest neighbouring Eastern Iranian, as it is evident in the development in the retroflex consonants (in Pashto, Wakhi, Sanglechi, Khotanese, etc.) and aspirates (in Khotanese, Parachi and Ormuri). A more localized sound change is the backing of the former retroflex fricative ṣ̌ [ʂ] , to x̌ [x] or to x [χ] , found in the Shughni–Yazgulyam branch and certain dialects of Pashto. E.g. "meat": ɡu ṣ̌ t in Wakhi and γwa ṣ̌

1568-612: A promoter of the wealth and antiquity of Afghanistan's Pashto culture." From the 16th century, Pashto poetry become very popular among the Pashtuns. Some of those who wrote in Pashto are Bayazid Pir Roshan (a major inventor of the Pashto alphabet ), Khushal Khan Khattak , Rahman Baba , Nazo Tokhi , and Ahmad Shah Durrani , founder of the modern state of Afghanistan or the Durrani Empire . The Pashtun literary tradition grew in

1680-431: A result it was not until 17 May that the area was secured and the Afghans withdrew. Meanwhile, the previous day, British and Indian forces had launched an attack on 'Stonehenge Ridge', where an Afghan force of about 3,000 men had established themselves with a number of artillery pieces and machine guns. Under cover of a preliminary bombardment to soften up the Afghan defences, men from the 11th Sikh Regiment had launched

1792-635: A result of the war and the lessons that were learned about the potential of airpower in the region, following the war, the Chief of the Air Staff , Sir Hugh Trenchard , proposed controlling the frontier by air power alone. This plan had proven highly successful in Mesopotamia , Aden and the Transjordan , however, due to the uniqueness of the North-West Frontier and also due to inter-service politics

1904-586: A striking force of two infantry divisions and two cavalry brigades for offensive operations on the Kyber front with the possibility of using it also in the Tochi and Kurram areas. One infantry division and a so-called "mounted" brigade were also detailed for operations on the Baluchistan – Zhob front. There were also three frontier brigades as well as a number of frontier militia and irregular corps. Artillery

2016-604: A symbol of "official nationalism" leading Afghanistan to independence after the defeat of the British Empire in the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919. In the 1930s, a movement began to take hold to promote Pashto as a language of government, administration, and art with the establishment of a Pashto Society Pashto Anjuman in 1931 and the inauguration of the Kabul University in 1932 as well as

2128-402: A tactical victory was unlikely; however, the war served the dual purpose of deflecting domestic criticism and also offering the opportunity for strategic political gains. Following the wars conclusion, Amanullah Khan was hailed as a hero across Muslim world, with some even calling for him to become the new Caliph . Amanullah Khan's intentions for Jihad however, failed. The British believed in

2240-413: A threat of counterattack. On 3 June, the Afghan camp at Yusef Khel was seized by two platoons from the 1st/25th London and two troops from the 37th Lancers supported by a section of guns from the 89th Battery. Following this Dyer received a telegram ordering to break off his pursuit as an armistice came into effect that day. The war had lasted exactly one month, though sporadic conflict continued until

2352-722: Is Pashto , with at least 80 million speakers between the Oxus River in Afghanistan and the Indus River in Pakistan . The second-largest living Eastern Iranian language is Ossetic , with roughly 600,000 speakers across Ossetia (split between Georgia and Russia ). All other languages of the Eastern Iranian subgroup have fewer than 200,000 speakers combined. Most living Eastern Iranian languages are spoken in

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2464-472: Is known in historical Persian literature as Afghani ( افغانی , Afghāni ). Spoken as a native language mostly by ethnic Pashtuns , it is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan alongside Dari , and it is the second-largest provincial language of Pakistan , spoken mainly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the northern districts of Balochistan . Likewise, it is the primary language of

2576-463: Is sometimes classified as Eastern Iranian, but is not assigned to a branch in 21st-century classifications. The Eastern Iranian area has been affected by widespread sound changes , e.g. t͡ʃ > ts. Common to most Eastern Iranian languages is a particularly widespread lenition of the voiced stops *b, *d, *g. Between vowels, these have been lenited also in most Western Iranian languages, but in Eastern Iranian, spirantization also generally occurs in

2688-560: Is taught poorly in schools in Pakistan. Moreover, in government schools material is not provided for in the Pashto dialect of that locality, Pashto being a dialectically rich language. Further, researchers have observed that Pashtun students are unable to fully comprehend educational material in Urdu. Professor Tariq Rahman states: "The government of Pakistan, faced with irredentist claims from Afghanistan on its territory, also discouraged

2800-654: Is unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the mother tongue of 45–60% of the total population of Afghanistan . In Pakistan , Pashto is spoken by 15% of its population, mainly in the northwestern province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and northern districts of Balochistan province. It is also spoken in parts of Mianwali and Attock districts of the Punjab province , areas of Gilgit-Baltistan and in Islamabad . Pashto speakers are found in other major cities of Pakistan, most notably Karachi , Sindh, which may have

2912-399: Is universally agreed upon. What scholars do agree on is the fact that Pashto is an Eastern Iranian language sharing characteristics with Eastern Middle Iranian languages such as Bactrian, Khwarezmian and Sogdian . Compare with other Eastern Iranian Languages and Old Avestan : Zə tā winə́m /ɐz dɐ wənən/ Az bū tū dzunim Strabo , who lived between 64 BC and 24 CE, explains that

3024-769: The Amritsar massacre , Amanullah decided to invade British India. Afghan historians typically represent the Third Anglo-Afghan War as a war of independence, while in reality, it was a Jihad . Upon his accession, Amanullah had already declared Afghanistan independent, and the British were incapable of stopping it. In 1919, the Afghan regular army was not a very formidable force, and was only able to muster some 50,000 men. These men were organised into 21 cavalry regiments and 75 infantry battalions , with about 280 modern artillery pieces, organised into 70 batteries, in support. In addition to this, however, in

3136-590: The Caucasus (descended from Scytho-Sarmatian and is hence classified as Eastern Iranian despite its location). These are remnants of a vast ethno-linguistic continuum that stretched over most of Central Asia , parts of the Caucasus, Eastern Europe , and Western Asia in the 1st millennium BC — an area otherwise known as Scythia . The large Eastern Iranian continuum in Eastern Europe would continue up to

3248-611: The Khojak Pass . However, 'Abd al-Quddus's late arrival saw a revolt by religious leaders which he had to suppress with the aid of Ali Ahmad Khan . This was followed by a complete massacre of the Afghan Qizilbash in Kandahar. When 'Abd al-Quddus was finally capable of marching into Balochistan, the armistice was already signed and the war had come to an end. The conflict began on 3rd May 1919 when Afghan troops crossed

3360-477: The Pashtun diaspora around the world. The total number of Pashto-speakers is at least 40 million, although some estimates place it as high as 60 million. Pashto is "one of the primary markers of ethnic identity" amongst Pashtuns. A national language of Afghanistan , Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south, and southwest, but also in some northern and western parts of the country. The exact number of speakers

3472-487: The Saur Revolution in 1978. Although officially supporting the use of Pashto, the Afghan elite regarded Persian as a "sophisticated language and a symbol of cultured upbringing". King Zahir Shah (reigning 1933–1973) thus followed suit after his father Nadir Khan had decreed in 1933 that officials were to study and utilize both Persian and Pashto. In 1936 a royal decree of Zahir Shah formally granted Pashto

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3584-559: The Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880). The end of the Second Afghan War in 1880, marked the beginning of almost 40 years of good relations between Britain and Afghanistan, under the leadership of Abdur Rahman Khan and Habibullah Khan , during which time the British attempted to manage Afghan foreign policy through the payment of a large subsidy. While the country ostensibly remained independent, under

3696-698: The Sheen Khalai in Rajasthan , and the Pathan community in the city of Kolkata , often nicknamed the Kabuliwala ("people of Kabul "). Pashtun diaspora communities in other countries around the world speak Pashto, especially the sizable communities in the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia . Pashto is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan, along with Dari Persian . Since

3808-473: The Treaty of Gandamak (1879) it accepted that in external matters it would "...have no windows looking on the outside world, except towards India". Though in reality, this was not enforced, and Afghanistan continued diplomatic interactions with other nations outside of British approval. In 1901, the death of Emir Abdur Rahman Khan led indirectly to the war that began 18 years later. His successor, Habibullah,

3920-529: The national anthem of Afghanistan are in Pashto. In British India , prior to the creation of Pakistan by the British government, the 1920s saw the blossoming of Pashto language in the then NWFP : Abdul Ghafar Khan in 1921 established the Anjuman-e- Islah al-Afaghina (Society for the Reformation of Afghans) to promote Pashto as an extension of Pashtun culture; around 80,000 people attended

4032-608: The quid pro quo of the Emir accepting the subsidy. Amanullah also received little but a letter recognizing Afghanistan's independence, with Afghan government propaganda trying to conceal it by claiming the war was a complete victory. The British had traditionally wanted Afghanistan as a buffer state between India and the Russian Empire. In 1919, the Russian Civil War was raging and any threat from Russia to India at

4144-667: The voiced labiodental fricative /v/ . The dental member has proved the most unstable: while a voiced dental fricative /ð/ is preserved in some Pamir languages, it has in e.g. Pashto and Munji lenited further to /l/ . On the other hand, in Yaghnobi and Ossetian, the development appears to have been reversed, leading to the reappearance of a voiced stop /d/ . (Both languages have also shifted earlier *θ > /t/ .) The consonant clusters *ft and *xt have also been widely lenited, though again excluding Ormuri-Parachi, and possibly Yaghnobi. The neighboring Indo-Aryan languages have exerted

4256-507: The 2nd and 3rd Infantry Brigades of the 1st Infantry Division were dispatched from Nowshera and Abbottabad , concentrating at Jamrud and Kacha Garhi. At the same time, the 6th Brigade from the 2nd Infantry Division moved up to Peshawar from Rawalpindi to help quell the unrest there. Two days later, on 11 May, a second attack was made on Bagh by the 1st and 2nd Infantry Brigades, under Major General Fowler, and this time it proved successful. Supported with 22 machine guns and 18 artillery pieces,

4368-762: The 4th century AD, with the successors of the Scythians, namely the Sarmatians . Western Iranian is thought to have separated from Proto-Iranian in the course of the later 2nd millennium BC not long after Avestan , possibly occurring in the Yaz culture . Eastern Iranian followed suit, and developed in place of Proto-Iranian, spoken within the Andronovo horizon . Due to the Greek presence in Central Asia, some of

4480-766: The 8th century, and they use the writings found in Pata Khazana . Pə́ṭa Xazāná ( پټه خزانه ) is a Pashto manuscript claimed to be written by Mohammad Hotak under the patronage of the Pashtun emperor Hussain Hotak in Kandahar ; containing an anthology of Pashto poets. However, its authenticity is disputed by scholars such as David Neil MacKenzie and Lucia Serena Loi. Nile Green comments in this regard: "In 1944, Habibi claimed to have discovered an eighteenth-century manuscript anthology containing much older biographies and verses of Pashto poets that stretched back as far as

4592-724: The Arab conquests and during Islamic-Arab rule. The replacement of the Pahlavi script with the Arabic script in order to write the Persian language was done by the Tahirids in 9th century Khorasan. The Persian Dari language spread, leading to the extinction of Eastern Iranic languages including Bactrian and Khorezmian . Only a few speakers of the Sogdian descended Yaghnobi remain among

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4704-608: The Armistice was signed in August. Propaganda from the Afghan government was not fruitful, and the Afghan army was completely defeated on two fronts, with Spin Boldak also being occupied by the British. The treaty of Rawalpindi was concluded on 8th August 1919. As a result of the peace treaty that was negotiated, the British ceased payment of the Afghan subsidy , and thus ended their claim to direct Afghan foreign policy, which had been

4816-480: The British could call on a much larger force. In May 1919, the British and British Indian Army , not including frontier militia, totalled eight divisions , as well as five independent brigades of infantry and three of cavalry. However, of this force, the entire North-West Frontier Province had three infantry divisions and two cavalry brigades, although there was also GHQ India 's central reserve of one infantry division and one cavalry brigade. From this, they formed

4928-607: The British informed the Italians that they had to recognize the British influence in the country. Afghan diplomats in Kabul in retaliation attempted to humiliate British diplomats there who were negotiating a treaty, which resulted in Afghan delegations to London being refused. British diplomatic mail and letters were rejected, and the British government refused to refer to Amanullah Khan as "Your Majesty", and letters to George V were intentionally left unanswered. Casualties during

5040-703: The British posts around the Kurram Valley had to be abandoned. The following day Handley Page bombers attacked Kabul; however, it did little to stem the tide, and the supply situation in Landi Kotal grew worse. On 27th May the British commander in Quetta decided to attack the Afghan fortress at Spin Baldak , capturing it (the last time the British Army used an escalade ) and, in the process, seized

5152-404: The British rear along their line of communications through the Khyber where the Khyber Rifles began to become disaffected by the situation and began to desert en masse . As a result, it was decided to disarm and disband the regiment in an effort to stop the spread of similar sentiment to other regiments. Following this Lord Chelmsford decided that the situation could be resolved by continuing

5264-412: The Central Powers, but failed to keep in check troublesome tribal leaders, intent on undermining British rule in India, as Turkish agents attempted to foment trouble along the frontier. The British had long seen Afghanistan as the only capable state of invading India, which remained a serious threat. The departure of a large part of the British Indian Army to fight overseas and news of British defeats at

5376-498: The First World War and had suffered a large number of casualties. Many of its units still had not returned from overseas, and those that had had begun the process of demobilisation . As such, many regiments had lost almost all of their most experienced men. Likewise, the British Army in India had been gutted. Prior to 1914 there had been 61 British regiments serving in India. However, of these, all but ten (two cavalry and eight infantry) had been withdrawn in order to fight in Europe or

5488-403: The Frontier Garrison Artillery. Machine guns, at least on the Khyber front, were old .303 Maxims . The British gained a command and control advantage with their use of motor transport and wireless communications, while armored cars and RAF detachments increased their firepower and reach, the latter being demonstrated to the Afghans by a bombing raid on Kabul itself. They could also direct

5600-487: The Middle East. In their place, units of the Territorial Force (TF), part-time soldiers usually only intended for home defence but who had volunteered for overseas service, had been sent in order to release regular units for the fighting in France. After four years of mundane garrison duty, away from their families and disaffected, most of these men were really only interested in demobilisation and returning to Britain to get on with their lives. They were in no way prepared for

5712-408: The Ottoman sultan (as titular leader of Islam ) called for a holy war against the Allies. Despite remaining neutral in the conflict, Habibullah did in fact accept a Turkish-German mission in Kabul and military assistance from the Central Powers as he attempted to play both sides of the conflict for the best deal. Through continual prevarication, he resisted numerous requests for assistance from

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5824-408: The Pashto Movement and eventually allowed its use in peripheral domains only after the Pakhtun elite had been co-opted by the ruling elite...Thus, even though there is still an active desire among some Pakhtun activists to use Pashto in the domains of power, it is more of a symbol of Pakhtun identity than one of nationalism." Robert Nicols states: "In the end, national language policy, especially in

5936-404: The Second Battle of Bagh, amounted to 100 Afghans killed and 300 wounded, while the British and Indian forces lost eight killed and 31 wounded. Although Amanullah continued to profess that he had no untoward intentions, Roos-Keppel decided that it was prudent to continue the advance and ordered the army to pursue the Afghans across the border. On 13 May British and Indian troops seized control of

6048-428: The Society's annual meeting in 1927. In 1955, Pashtun intellectuals including Abdul Qadir formed the Pashto Academy Peshawar on the model of Pashto Tolana formed in Afghanistan. In 1974, the Department of Pashto was established in the University of Balochistan for the promotion of Pashto. In Pakistan, Pashto is the first language around of 15% of its population (per the 1998 census). However, Urdu and English are

6160-421: The advance further into Afghanistan and gave the order for the brigade in Dacca to march towards Jalalabad , but this order could not be carried out as fighting broke out further to the south and in the eastern Khyber. As part of the attack on the Khyber, secondary attacks had been planned on Quetta and Kurram , in the north in Chitral state and in the south in Baluchistan and the Zhob Valley. On 23rd May

6272-424: The air raids on Kabul, citing British condemnation of the German Zeppelin attacks on London. In his letter to the British government he said, "It is a matter of great regret that the throwing of bombs by Zeppelins on London was denounced as a most savage act and the bombardment of places of worship and sacred spots was considered a most abominable operation, while now we see with our own eyes that such operations were

6384-409: The attack had been launched ahead of schedule, however, for Amanullah had intended initially for it to coincide with an uprising that was being planned in Peshawar for 8th May. This served to alert the British Chief Commissioner of the North West Frontier, Sir George Roos-Keppel , who had become aware of the plan and as a result he was able to successfully convince the Viceroy , Lord Chelmsford , of

6496-401: The attack was carried to the top of the ridge. Upon reaching the escarpment they found that the Afghans had fled the battlefield, leaving most of their equipment, artillery and a number of standards . During the assault the British and Indian forces lost 22 killed and 157 wounded, while Afghan losses were estimated at around 200 killed and 400 wounded. At this time, however, trouble struck in

6608-423: The attack was preceded by a thirty-minute preparation bombardment before being carried by the 2nd Battalion, North Staffordshire Regiment and two battalions from the 11th Gurkhas , who charged into the Afghan positions with bayonets fixed and drove them into the Lower Khyber, where they were subjected to further indirect fire from mountain guns that had been set up in ambush. As the Afghans were forced back over

6720-399: The backdrop to weakening Pashtun power following Mughal rule: Khushal Khan Khattak used Pashto poetry to rally for Pashtun unity and Pir Bayazid as an expedient means to spread his message to the Pashtun masses. For instance Khushal Khattak laments in : "The Afghans (Pashtuns) are far superior to the Mughals at the sword, Were but the Afghans, in intellect, a little discreet. If

6832-404: The border via the Khyber Pass towards Jalalabad , with the British occupying Dacca and Spin Boldak by the end of May. Further Afghan incursions and tribal uprisings attacks were contained such as in Thal . The Royal Air Force were also used in bombing and strafing attacks on the frontier tribes as well as targets within Afghanistan, including Kabul and Jalalabad. Although small in scale, it

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6944-415: The border, the RAF followed them across and carried out a number of bombing runs. The rout was total and tribesman that might have otherwise have been expected to counterattack in support of the Afghans decided against doing so, instead turning their efforts to looting the battlefield and gathering the arms and ammunition that the retreating Afghans had left behind. Casualties during the battle, later known as

7056-401: The brigade commander decided to split his forces and detach almost half his force to protect his flank and as a result was unable to achieve the necessary concentration of force to capture all of his objectives. Coinciding with this, three BE2c aircraft from the Royal Air Force carried out a bombing raid on Dacca in Afghanistan, attacking a group of hostile tribesmen. Following this

7168-418: The centre of the Amritsar massacre—set out to relieve Eustace's force at Thal. Dyer's force consisted of only one British battalion, the 1st/25th London Regiment , as well as Dogras , Punjabis and Gurkhas, and short of rations and possessing no transport, they were forced to march through intense heat to relieve Thal. Despite the conditions, however, the British and Indian troops under Dyer's command rose to

7280-412: The commandant, were forced to fight their way out to a column of the North Zhob Militia which had been sent out to relieve them. Seeing that the situation was deteriorating for the British and seeing an opportunity, Nadir Khan decided to attack Thal. As the Frontier Constabulary had abandoned their posts, on the night of 28th/29th May the Afghans were able to occupy a tower 500 yards (460 m) from

7392-483: The death of his father. Needing a way of cementing his power, upon seizing the throne in April 1919, Amanullah posed as a supporter of democratic ideals, promising governmental reforms. He stated that there should be no forced labour, tyranny, or oppression, and that Afghanistan should be free and independent and no longer bound by the Treaty of Gandamak. Amanullah had his uncle Nasrullah arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment for Habibullah's murder. Nasrullah had been

7504-410: The different tribes would but support each other, Kings would have to bow down in prostration before them" Pashto is a subject–object–verb (SOV) language with split ergativity . In Pashto, this means that the verb agrees with the subject in transitive and intransitive sentences in non-past, non-completed clauses, but when a completed action is reported in any of the past tenses, the verb agrees with

7616-401: The early 18th century, the monarchs of Afghanistan have been ethnic Pashtuns (except for Habibullāh Kalakāni in 1929). Persian, the literary language of the royal court, was more widely used in government institutions, while the Pashtun tribes spoke Pashto as their native tongue . King Amanullah Khan began promoting Pashto during his reign (1926–1929) as a marker of ethnic identity and as

7728-451: The easternmost of these languages were recorded in their Middle Iranian stage (hence the "Eastern" classification), while almost no records of the Scytho-Sarmatian continuum stretching from Kazakhstan west across the Pontic steppe to Ukraine have survived. Some authors find that the Eastern Iranian people had an influence on Russian folk culture. Middle Persian/Dari spread around the Oxus River region, Afghanistan, and Khorasan after

7840-443: The eighth century. It was an extraordinary claim, implying as it did that the history of Pashto literature reached back further in time than Persian, thus supplanting the hold of Persian over the medieval Afghan past. Although it was later convincingly discredited through formal linguistic analysis, Habibi's publication of the text under the title Pata Khazana ('Hidden Treasure') would (in Afghanistan at least) establish his reputation as

7952-400: The field of education in the NWFP, had constructed a type of three tiered language hierarchy. Pashto lagged far behind Urdu and English in prestige or development in almost every domain of political or economic power..." Although Pashto used as a medium of instruction in schools for Pashtun students results in better understanding and comprehension for students when compared to using Urdu, still

8064-523: The fire of the 60-pounders. The RAF squadrons involved were No. 31 Squadron and No. 114 Squadron . The main problem for the British was discontent among their soldiers. The troops in India were no longer as uncritical as they had been when considering what they were being asked to do. Like other units of the British Army, many of the troops considered the war over and looked forward to being demobilised. The Indian Army had been heavily committed to

8176-459: The following day the garrison was subjected to a heavy bombardment from Afghan guns. As a result of this, the British decided to bring the 16th Infantry Division, consisting of the 45th and 46th Infantry Brigades, up to Peshawar from Lahore, for the purpose of advancing on Jalalabad and have it move up to Kurram. While part of the division was detached to defend Kohat , the 45th Infantry Brigade under Brigadier General Reginald Dyer —who had been at

8288-566: The following evaluation of the Amir's army: Afghan regular units...were ill-trained, ill-paid, and probably under strength. The cavalry was little better than indifferent infantry mounted on equally indifferent ponies. Rifles varied between modern German, Turkish and British types, to obsolete Martinis and Snyders . Few infantry units had bayonets. Artillery was ponydrawn, or pack, and included modern 10 cm Krupp howitzers, 75 mm Krupp mountain guns and ancient 7 pounder weapons. There were

8400-519: The formation of the Pashto Academy (Pashto Tolana) in 1937. Muhammad Na'im Khan, the minister of education between 1938 and 1946, inaugurated the formal policy of promoting Pashto as Afghanistan's national language, leading to the commission and publication of Pashto textbooks. The Pashto Tolana was later incorporated into the Academy of Sciences Afghanistan in line with Soviet model following

8512-450: The fort and from there they were able to set fire to a number of food stores. This made the situation in the fort dire, as the supply situation had already been low. Other factors also stacked up against the British. Eustace's force was outnumbered and outgunned. He possessed no regular British infantry and his four battalions were inexperienced Indian units, consisting mainly of young recruits. After repelling an infantry assault on 29th May,

8624-547: The frontier at the western end of the Khyber Pass and captured the town of Bagh . Bagh was strategically important to the British and Indians as it provided water to Landi Kotal , which was at the time garrisoned by just two companies of troops from the British Indian Army. Although initially considered a minor border infraction, this attack was actually part of the wider invasion plan. For whatever reason

8736-515: The government of Pakistan has only introduced Pashto at the primary levels in state-run schools. Taimur Khan remarks: "the dominant Urdu language squeezes and denies any space for Pashto language in the official and formal capacity. In this contact zone, Pashto language exists but in a subordinate and unofficial capacity". Some linguists have argued that Pashto is descended from Avestan or a variety very similar to it, while others have attempted to place it closer to Bactrian . However, neither position

8848-596: The grounds that attendance at the conference was confined to the belligerents . Further negotiations were scheduled, but before they could begin Habibullah was assassinated on 19 February 1919. This resulted in a power struggle as Habibullah's brother Nasrullah Khan proclaimed himself as Habibullah's successor, while in Kabul, Amanullah , Habibullah's third son (from his second wife), had also proclaimed himself amir . The Afghan army suspected Amanullah's complicity in

8960-568: The hands of the Ottomans aided Ottoman agents in their efforts at sedition, and in 1915 there was unrest amongst the Mohmands and then the Mahsuds . Notwithstanding these outbreaks, the frontier generally remained settled at a time when Britain could ill afford trouble. The Turko-German mission left Kabul in 1916. By that time, however, it had successfully convinced Habibullah that Afghanistan

9072-451: The initial assault, however, they were forced to stop their attack when they ran out of ammunition at 08.00 hours, and although a resupply was effected at 10.30 hours, it was not until 14.00 hours that the attack was resumed. By this time the troops were exposed to the heat of the day; nevertheless, after another barrage was called down, the Sikhs assaulted the Afghan line despite the heat and

9184-423: The initiative in the south; however, the situation in the centre of the war zone, around Kurram, remained desperate for the British. The Afghan forces in this area were under the command of General Nadir Khan and he possessed a force of some 14 battalions. Against this, the British at Thal, under Brigadier General Alexander Eustace , possessed only four battalions. To make matters worse, the only troops protecting

9296-753: The largely Persian-speaking Tajik population of Central Asia. This appears to be due to the large numbers of Persian-speakers in Arab-Islamic armies that invaded Central Asia and later Muslim governments in the region such as the Samanids . Persian was rooted into Central Asia by the Samanids. Eastern Iranian remains in large part a dialect continuum subject to common innovation. Traditional branches, such as "Northeastern", as well as Eastern Iranian itself, are better considered language areas rather than genetic groups. The languages are as follows: Avestan

9408-545: The largest Pashtun population of any city in the world. Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in India , Tajikistan , and northeastern Iran (primarily in South Khorasan Province to the east of Qaen , near the Afghan border). In India most ethnic Pashtun (Pathan) peoples speak the geographically native Hindi-Urdu language rather than Pashto, but there are small numbers of Pashto speakers, such as

9520-416: The leader of a more conservative element in Afghanistan, and his treatment rendered Amanullah's position as Amir somewhat tenuous. By April 1919, Amanullah realised that if he could not find a way to placate the conservatives, he would be unlikely to maintain his hold on power. Looking for a diversion from the internal strife in the Afghan court and sensing advantage in the rising civil unrest in India following

9632-481: The native elements of the lexicon are related to other Eastern Iranian languages . As noted by Josef Elfenbein, "Loanwords have been traced in Pashto as far back as the third century B.C., and include words from Greek and probably Old Persian". For instance, Georg Morgenstierne notes the Pashto word مېچن mečә́n i.e. a hand-mill as being derived from the Ancient Greek word μηχανή ( mēkhanḗ , i.e.

9744-460: The need for a buffer state in Central Asia irrelevant. The British also stopped arms sales from India to Afghanistan. But, as British influence declined, the Afghans were able to gain control of their own foreign affairs and in the aftermath emerged as a fully independent state. The British also made some political gains, most notably the reaffirmation of the Durand Line – which had long been

9856-458: The need to respond to the occupation of Bagh before it led to further unrest in Peshawar. In response to this the British Indian government declared war upon Afghanistan on 6th May and ordered a general mobilisation of the British and Indian forces. It was decided next that the two companies of Sikhs and Gurkhas that had been sent to Landi Kotal needed to be reinforced, however, the mobilisation process had only just begun and at that stage there

9968-421: The negotiations that by letting Afghanistan become independent, it would still be reliant on British military and economic aid, and thus accepted the treaty and the recognition of Afghanistan as an independent state. Despite this, British and Afghan diplomats often snubbed each other as a result of the war, which the British did not forget. In one occasion, as the Afghans attempted to open diplomatic ties to Italy ,

10080-409: The occasion and covered the last 18 miles (29 km) in under 12 hours and on 1st June they ran into a blocking force of tribesman that barred both the northern and southern approaches to Thal. Dyer attacked both ends with his artillery, while sending his infantry against the southern approach. Unable to withstand the attack, the tribesmen retreated and as a result the way through to Eustace's garrison

10192-462: The plan was not accepted until later. In 1937, it was eventually decided that should another war break out with Afghanistan, or in the event of a major tribal uprising, the RAF would take the offensive, while the ground forces would act defensively. During the course of the conflict, British aircraft losses included at least one plane crashed and two shot down. King Amanullah objected to the British about

10304-463: The possessed in the genitive construction, and adjectives come before the nouns they modify. Unlike most other Indo-Iranian languages, Pashto uses all three types of adpositions —prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions. *The retroflex rhotic or lateral, tends to be a lateral flap [ 𝼈 ] at the beginning of a syllable or other prosodic unit, and a regular flap [ ɽ ] or approximant [ ɻ ] elsewhere. In Pashto, most of

10416-502: The regulars, the Afghan command expected to call out the tribes, which could gather up to 20,000 or 30,000 Afridi fighters in the Khyber region alone. In stark contrast to the regulars, the tribal lashkars were probably the best troops that the Afghans had, being of excellent fighting quality, well armed, mainly with weapons that they had made themselves or stolen from the garrisons and with plenty of ammunition. In meeting this threat,

10528-483: The reply: "My guns will give an immediate reply, but your letter will be forwarded to the Divisional Commander". After this Dyer continued his attack and as Nadir Khan's force withdrew from the area, Dyer followed them up with cavalry and armoured cars from the 37th Lancers, while the RAF, using machine guns and iron bombs, attacked and dispersed about 400 tribesmen that were in the area and which posed

10640-490: The retreating enemy and to break up tribesmen as they attempted to form larger groups prior to launching an attack. The ability of the British to project airpower, even small scale raids, had considerable psychological effects. For example, the single-plane raid on the palace which took place on 24th May 1919, although producing little actual damage, nevertheless greatly affected the morale of Afghan citizens and contributed to bringing Amanullah to request an armistice. Indeed, as

10752-422: The situation in the city was under control and the threat of an uprising abated. By this stage more reinforcements were available and the garrison at Landi Kotal grew to brigade-size, with the arrival of the rest of the 1st Infantry Brigade under Brigadier G.D. Crocker. On 9 May the British and Indian troops launched an attack on the Afghans that had seized Bagh the previous week. The attack, however, failed when

10864-442: The status of an official language, with full rights to use in all aspects of government and education – despite the fact that the ethnically Pashtun royal family and bureaucrats mostly spoke Persian. Thus Pashto became a national language , a symbol for Pashtun nationalism . The constitutional assembly reaffirmed the status of Pashto as an official language in 1964 when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari . The lyrics of

10976-442: The subject if it is intransitive, but with the object if it is transitive. Verbs are inflected for present, simple past, past progressive, present perfect, and past perfect tenses. There is also an inflection for the subjunctive mood . Nouns and adjectives are inflected for two genders (masculine and feminine), two numbers (singular and plural), and four cases (direct, oblique, ablative, and vocative). The possessor precedes

11088-774: The time was potential rather than real. Moreover, the British were by far the largest supporters of the White movement in the Russian Civil War with the British contributing more arms to the Whites than all other nations combined. It was assumed in London that if the Whites won the Civil War, a new era in Anglo-Russian relations might possibly open as the victorious Whites might be grateful for British support, rendering

11200-487: The tribes inhabiting the lands west of the Indus River were part of Ariana . This was around the time when the area inhabited by the Pashtuns was governed by the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom . From the 3rd century CE onward, they are mostly referred to by the name Afghan ( Abgan ). Abdul Hai Habibi believed that the earliest modern Pashto work dates back to Amir Kror Suri of the early Ghurid period in

11312-404: The two official languages of Pakistan. Pashto has no official status at the federal level. On a provincial level, Pashto is the regional language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and north Balochistan . Yet, the primary medium of education in government schools in Pakistan is Urdu. The lack of importance given to Pashto and its neglect has caused growing resentment amongst Pashtuns. It is noted that Pashto

11424-586: The upper Tochi Valley were the disaffected North Waziristan Militia . Concerned that they would rise up against him if left to their own devices, Eustace gave the order to abandon the militia outposts, but in doing so, precipitated the desertion of many of the militiamen. This disaffection spread and the South Waziristan Militia in Wana turned on their officers and any men who had remained loyal and attacked them. The survivors, under Major Russell,

11536-418: The western Khyber without opposition and occupied Dacca, however, the British camp was poorly sited for defence and as a consequence they came under an intense long-range artillery barrage from Afghan artillery before Amanullah launched an infantry assault on them. This assault was defeated and the British launched a counter-attack the following day, however, they were unable to consolidate their position, and as

11648-476: The word-initial position. This phenomenon is however not apparent in Avestan, and remains absent from Ormuri-Parachi. A series of spirant consonants can be assumed to have been the first stage: *b > *β, *d > *ð, *g > *ɣ. The voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ has mostly been preserved. The labial member has been well-preserved too, but in most languages has shifted from a voiced bilabial fricative /β/ to

11760-467: Was a contributing force for Amanullah to call for an armistice in June. The Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 was signed on 8 August which resulted in the Afghans re-gaining dejure control of foreign affairs from Britain , and the Afghans recognizing the Durand Line as the border. The root cause of the Third Anglo-Afghan War took hold long before fighting commenced. For the British in India, Afghanistan

11872-677: Was a pragmatic leader who sided with Britain or Russia depending on Afghan interests. Despite considerable resentment over not being consulted on the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 (Convention of St. Petersburg), Afghanistan remained neutral during the First World War (1914–1918), resisting increasing pressure from the Ottoman Empire , which entered the conflict on the side of the Central Powers ;

11984-719: Was also in short supply, and the three frontier divisions each had a British field artillery brigade of the Royal Field Artillery with two batteries of 18-pounders and one battery of 4.5-inch howitzers , and an Indian mountain brigade with two batteries of 2.75-inch mountain guns . There were also two batteries of tractor-drawn 6-inch howitzers and two British mountain batteries of the Royal Garrison Artillery , which were reinforced with 3.7-inch mountain howitzers . However, most batteries had only four guns. Finally, there were also 15 pounder guns of

12096-640: Was an independent nation and that it should be beholden to no one. With the end of the First World War, Habibullah sought to obtain rewards from the British government for his assistance during the war. Looking for British recognition of Afghanistan's independence in foreign affairs, he demanded a seat at the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919. This request was denied by the viceroy, Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford , on

12208-399: Was cleared. During the siege, the British suffered 94 casualties, of which eight were killed, four died of wounds and 82 were wounded. Although limited in numbers and quality, airpower proved to be one of the greatest assets that the British possessed during this conflict. Not only did it allow them to extend their reach beyond the border and bomb Kabul, but it also enabled them to harass

12320-516: Was led by Nadir Khan , who began raising an army in Khost . His objective was to invade Waziristan and advance as far as Kurram , which were former territories of Afghanistan that were ceded during the creation of the Durand Line . Nadir Khan faced initial difficulties toward raising an army due to an uprising in Gardez , and lack of support toward the war across the border. Nadir Khan's suppression of

12432-426: Was only one battalion available for this, so on 7th May the 2nd Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry were brought up clandestinely through the Khyber Pass aboard a convoy of 37 lorries . Meanwhile, a cordon was thrown around Peshawar and demands were made for the population to hand over the uprising's ringleaders. Amid threats that the city's water supply would be cut, the inhabitants complied and by dawn on 8th May

12544-551: Was seen as a threat. The British worried about Russian intentions, concerned that an invasion of India could be launched by Tsarist forces through Afghanistan. This period became known as the Great Game . In an effort to negate this threat, the British made numerous attempts at imposing their will upon Kabul , and over the course of the 19th century fought two wars: the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842) and

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