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66-527: Fushun ( simplified Chinese : 抚 顺 ; traditional Chinese : 撫 順 ; pinyin : Fǔshùn , historically Fuxi ( 撫西 )) is a prefecture level city in Liaoning province, China, about 45 km (28 mi) east of Shenyang , with a total area of 11,272 km (4,352 sq mi), 714 km (276 sq mi) of which is the city proper. Situated on the Hun River ("muddy river"), it

132-443: A component—either a character or a sub-component called a radical —usually involves either a reduction in its total number of strokes , or an apparent streamlining of which strokes are chosen in what places—for example, the ⼓   ' WRAP ' radical used in the traditional character 沒 is simplified to ⼏   ' TABLE ' to form the simplified character 没 . By systematically simplifying radicals, large swaths of

198-434: A conversion table. While exercising such derivation, the following rules should be observed: Sample Derivations : The Series One List of Variant Characters reduces the number of total standard characters. First, amongst each set of variant characters sharing identical pronunciation and meaning, one character (usually the simplest in form) is elevated to the standard character set, and the rest are made obsolete. Then amongst

264-407: A few revised forms, and was implemented for official use by China's State Council on 5 June 2013. In Chinese, simplified characters are referred to by their official name 简化字 ; jiǎnhuàzì , or colloquially as 简体字 ; jiǎntǐzì . The latter term refers broadly to all character variants featuring simplifications of character form or structure, a practice which has always been present as

330-610: A newly coined phono-semantic compound : Removing radicals Only retaining single radicals Replacing with ancient forms or variants : Adopting ancient vulgar variants : Readopting abandoned phonetic-loan characters : Copying and modifying another traditional character : Based on 132 characters and 14 components listed in Chart 2 of the Complete List , the 1,753 derived characters found in Chart 3 can be created by systematically simplifying components using Chart 2 as

396-573: A part of the Chinese writing system. The official name tends to refer to the specific, systematic set published by the Chinese government, which includes not only simplifications of individual characters, but also a substantial reduction in the total number of characters through the merger of formerly distinct forms. According to Chinese palaeographer Qiu Xigui , the broadest trend in the evolution of Chinese characters over their history has been simplification, both in graphical shape ( 字形 ; zìxíng ),

462-588: A pit filled with about 800 bodies—largely infants, adults, and the elderly who were killed by the Japanese. The Ring of Life monument opened in 2013 and features an observation deck overseeing the city. This circular tower, 515-foot (approximately 157 meters) tall, cost over $ 15 million to build. It is covered with 12,000 LED lights. The city used to be home of the Chinese Super League (soccer) team of Liaoning FC at Leifeng Stadium . However, when

528-577: A popular attraction. It is located at Wang Hua District in Fushun. It was also in Fushun that the last emperor, Puyi , was imprisoned after the end of World War II. The Fushun War Criminal Prison is converted into a museum in 1986. Another war memorial, the Pingdingshan Tragedy Memorial Hall Ruins, tells the story of a massacre of Chinese people by the Japanese in 1931. It was rebuilt and expanded in 2007. It includes

594-572: A site known as Xingjing City, the origin of the Qing Dynasty, which is within today's Fushun. It was the first capital of the Late Jin dynasty, dating to 1616. The second site contains the Yongling tombs, where several members of the royal household are buried. In more recent times, Fushun was where Lei Feng was stationed as a soldier and died, and a memorial museum telling his life story is

660-553: A thriving center for fuel, power and raw materials and is also offering more and more opportunities in textiles and electronics. One of the world's largest open-pit coal mines, the West Open Mine , is located south of the city. Exploited from the 12th century, it was operated as an open pit mine during the 20th and early 21st centuries; however, as of 2015, the West Open pit, 1,000 feet deep, with an area of 4.2 square miles,

726-576: Is a great risk for FMG to run the non-coal business for whose management system is a very state-owned company style. Commercial retorting of oil shale in FMG started in 1991 with an oil shale retorting plant being established at that year. Fushun Mining Group owns geological reserve of high grade oil shale about 3.5 billion tons, of which exploitable reserve is 920 million tons. Among them, East Open Pit has oil shale reserve about(760 million tons) and West Open Pit has (160 million tons). At

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792-440: Is actually more complex than eliminated ones. An example is the character 搾 which is eliminated in favor of the variant form 榨 . The 扌   'HAND' with three strokes on the left of the eliminated 搾 is now seen as more complex, appearing as the ⽊   'TREE' radical 木 , with four strokes, in the chosen variant 榨 . Not all characters standardised in the simplified set consist of fewer strokes. For instance,

858-454: Is derived. Merging homophonous characters: Adapting cursive shapes ( 草書楷化 ): Replacing a component with a simple arbitrary symbol (such as 又 and 乂 ): Omitting entire components : Omitting components, then applying further alterations : Structural changes that preserve the basic shape Replacing the phonetic component of phono-semantic compounds : Replacing an uncommon phonetic component : Replacing entirely with

924-467: Is located in the second street, Xin Fu District. Location is close to Fushun's CBD. Transport is very convenient. All students come from this community. Because of the population's decline in current years there are not many students compared to 10 years ago. There were over 1000 students in the 1990S, while now around 200 students. Although the number of students has dropped, the quality of education,

990-813: Is now discouraged. A State Language Commission official cited "oversimplification" as the reason for restoring some characters. The language authority declared an open comment period until 31 August 2009, for feedback from the public. In 2013, the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters was published as a revision of the 1988 lists; it included a total of 8105 characters. It included 45 newly recognized standard characters that were previously considered variant forms, as well as official approval of 226 characters that had been simplified by analogy and had seen wide use but were not explicitly given in previous lists or documents. Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification , eventually arriving at

1056-675: Is one of the industrial and economic development hubs in Liaoning. The Ming first constructed Fushun walled city in 1384 after the division of the Yuan dynasty . "Fushun" is an abbreviation of the Chinese saying "to pacify the frontiers; to guide the Yi foreigners " ( 撫綏邊疆，順導夷民 ). The Jurchen (Manchu) leader Nurhachi married his granddaughter by his son Abatai to the Ming dynasty General Li Yongfang after Li surrendered Fushun in 1618 and defected to

1122-421: Is rated by the central government as an AAAA tourist attraction . Saer Hu Scenic Area covers some 268 km (103 sq mi). It includes the 110 km (42 sq mi) Dahuofang Reservoir, the largest man-made lake in northeast China. There are a number of historic and cultural sites. Fushun's success in applying for two UNESCO World Heritage sites is expected to attract more tourists. They include

1188-623: Is referred to as the " big seal script ". The traditional narrative, as also attested in the Shuowen Jiezi dictionary ( c.  100 AD ), is that the Qin small seal script that would later be imposed across China was originally derived from the Zhou big seal script with few modifications. However, the body of epigraphic evidence comparing the character forms used by scribes gives no indication of any real consolidation in character forms prior to

1254-547: Is used instead of 叠 in regions using traditional characters. The Chinese government stated that it wished to keep Chinese orthography stable. The Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese was published in 1988 and included 7000 simplified and unsimplified characters. Of these, half were also included in the revised List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese , which specified 2500 common characters and 1000 less common characters. In 2009,

1320-670: The Chinese language , with the other being traditional characters . Their mass standardization during the 20th century was part of an initiative by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to promote literacy, and their use in ordinary circumstances on the mainland has been encouraged by the Chinese government since the 1950s. They are the official forms used in mainland China and Singapore , while traditional characters are officially used in Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan . Simplification of

1386-617: The "Dot" stroke : The traditional components ⺥ and 爫 become ⺈ : The traditional component 奐 becomes 奂 : Fushun Mining Group With the Japanese victory over Imperial Russia and signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth , the South Manchuria branch (from Changchun to Lüshun ) of the China Far East Railway was transferred to Japanese control. South Manchuria Railway Company quickly expanded

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1452-459: The "external appearances of individual graphs", and in graphical form ( 字体 ; 字體 ; zìtǐ ), "overall changes in the distinguishing features of graphic[al] shape and calligraphic style, [...] in most cases refer[ring] to rather obvious and rather substantial changes". The initiatives following the founding of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) to universalize the use of their small seal script across

1518-482: The 1986 General List of Simplified Chinese Characters , hereafter the General List . All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Chart 1 and Chart 2 in the 1986 Complete List . Characters in both charts are structurally simplified based on similar set of principles. They are separated into two charts to clearly mark those in Chart 2 as 'usable as simplified character components', based on which Chart 3

1584-520: The 1986 mainland China revisions. Unlike in mainland China, Singapore parents have the option of registering their children's names in traditional characters. Malaysia also promulgated a set of simplified characters in 1981, though completely identical to the mainland Chinese set. They are used in Chinese-language schools. All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Charts 1 and 2 of

1650-652: The 8th most populous built up area in China after the Pearl River Delta conurbation of Guangzhou , Shenzhen , Dongguan , Foshan , Jiangmen , Zhongshan and Huizhou , then Shanghai - Suzhou , Beijing , Tianjin , Hangzhou - Shaoxing , Wuhan and Nanjing . Fushun consists of 4 districts, 1 county and 2 autonomous counties. Fushun belong to Temperate monsoon climate Fushun is a highly industrialized area and nicknamed "the City of Coal". It has developed as

1716-470: The Chinese government published a major revision to the list which included a total of 8300 characters. No new simplifications were introduced. In addition, slight modifications to the orthography of 44 characters to fit traditional calligraphic rules were initially proposed, but were not implemented due to negative public response. Also, the practice of unrestricted simplification of rare and archaic characters by analogy using simplified radicals or components

1782-680: The Kuomintang Government in 1946. In 1948, Fushun Coal Mine went under control of the China Communist Party and became one of industrial centers for People's Republic of China. The corporation consists of about 30 companies with about 28,000 employees. Although FMG has so many sub-companies, most of profit is mainly from Laohutai Coal Mine, West Open Pit, East Open Pit and Oil Shale Plant. Other subsidiaries like transporting company, machinery factory and machine repairing factory are under deficit according to

1848-580: The Qing. One of Li Yongfang's descendants was sentenced to death by the Qianlong emperor, but his life was spared when he helped suppress the Lin Shuangwen rebellion. Fushun was in ruins in the one-and-a-half centuries of early Qing . In 1783, the new walled city was completed southwest of the old city. In 1908, Fushun became the seat of Xingren County ( 興仁縣 , later renamed to Fushun County ). Fushun

1914-537: The advanced learning facilities and modern school are still evident. There are indoors gymnasium, big dance and musical instrument rooms. The play yard is all about synthetic surface track. The 44 middle school is actually changed in term of their learning and teaching's facilities, equipment and school's building. It represents new outlooks regarding middle-level education in a third-line city in China. Fushun has high mountains and thick woods. Houshi National Forest Park, about 55 km (34 mi) from downtown Fushun,

1980-446: The business focus is planned to be shift from coal mining industry to oil industry and paper making industry. Also according to the latest financing report, FMG have borrowed several billion RMB from several government banks to invest the oil processing industry and paper making industry. Moreover, FMG is also rich in coalbed methane resources that total around 8.9 billion cubic metres (310 billion cubic feet). However, there

2046-428: The character set are altered. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms that embody graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms. In addition, variant characters with identical pronunciation and meaning were reduced to a single standardized character, usually the simplest among all variants in form. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification and are thus identical between

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2112-407: The chosen variants, those that appear in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" are also simplified in character structure accordingly. Some examples follow: Sample reduction of equivalent variants : Ancient variants with simple structure are preferred : Simpler vulgar forms are also chosen : The chosen variant was already simplified in Chart 1 : In some instances, the chosen variant

2178-627: The city of Fushun was 40391 yuan in 2009 (ranked 21st out of all 58 cities and counties in Liaoning province). Fushun is rich in wood, coal, oil shale, iron, copper, magnesium, gold, marble, titanium, and marl resources. Fushun is known as "the capital of coal". The main coal and oil shale company is Fushun Mining Group , which produced about 6 million tons of coal in 2001, mainly blending coking coal and steam coal. The company also has coalbed methane resources of around 8.9 billion cubic meters. In addition, it owns geological reserves of high grade oil shale, about 3.5 billion tons , of which

2244-574: The city to Shenyang and Jilin Province. The seaports of Dalian and Yingkou are also nearby, 400 and 200 km (250 and 120 mi) away respectively, with good highway connections. The highest-ranked institution of higher education is the Liaoning University of Petroleum and Chemical Technology , ranked 123rd in China overall. Fushun No.1 High School and Fushun No.2 High School are major high schools in Fushun. The 44 middle school

2310-510: The commercial-scale production of shale oil began in Fushun with the construction of Fushun Coal Mine Temporary Oil Plant (Chinese: 撫順炭礦臨時製油工場 ; pinyin: Fǔshùn Tànkuàng Línshí Zhìyóu Gōngchǎng ) of South Manchurian Railway , aka the Western Refinery (Chinese: 西制油 ; pinyin: Xī Zhìyóu ), operating Fushun-type retorts. After World War II , shale oil production ceased, but 100 Fushun-type oil shale retorts and

2376-561: The commissioning of ATP Processor as Procom claimed that they had ATP Processor commissioning experience. Procom operated the first industrial ATP application in Gladstone, QLD Australia. In late August 2013 the first oil was produced from oil shale out of the ATP, but it is still very hard to have continuous running for ATP plant. Currently, FMG president is Li Qing who was the former vice director of Liaoning Coal Mining Administration. However,

2442-443: The control of the Japanese and with 30 years of development, Fushun area became highly industrialized. Fushun gained city status in 1937. As of the 2020 census, Fushun has a total population of 1,854,372 people, whom 8,192,848 lived in the built-up ( or metro ) area encompassing 8 out of 10 Shenyang urban districts (all but Shenbei Xin and Liaozhong not being conurbated yet) and the 4 Fushun urban districts. This makes Shenyang-Fushun

2508-473: The country's writing system as a serious impediment to its modernization. In 1916, a multi-part English-language article entitled "The Problem of the Chinese Language" co-authored by the Chinese linguist Yuen Ren Chao (1892–1982) and poet Hu Shih (1891–1962) has been identified as a turning point in the history of the Chinese script—as it was one of the first clear calls for China to move away from

2574-422: The decline of coal reserve, the coal production has great decreasing for recent years compared with its history records. According to the information announced by FMG, West Open Pit will be closed in 2019 and Laohutai Coal Mine be closed in 2026. The main coal products for these three coal mines include blending coking coal and steam coal which are high quality coal for steel making. To confront this situation,

2640-650: The discovery of Da Qing oil field in the 1960s. Sinopec , a shale oil producer during those times, shut down its oil shale operations in the beginning of the 1990s. At the same time, the Fushun Oil Shale Retorting Plant was established as a part of the Fushun Mining Group . It started production in 1992. In the same year, the China National Oil Shale Association was established in Fushun. At

2706-476: The early 20th century. In 1909, the educator and linguist Lufei Kui formally proposed the use of simplified characters in education for the first time. Over the following years—marked by the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that toppled the Qing dynasty , followed by growing social and political discontent that further erupted into the 1919 May Fourth Movement —many anti-imperialist intellectuals throughout China began to see

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2772-542: The end of 2006, the Fushun Mining Group operated the largest shale oil plant in the world, consisting of seven retorting units with 20 retorts in each unit, for a total 140 sets of Fushun type retorts. There are also two oil refineries. Fushun Petrochemical Company , a subsidiary of PetroChina , is building a refining and petrochemical complex in Fushun. Fushun is located 40 km (25 mi) from Shenyang Taoxian airport. Railways and highways connect

2838-633: The end of 2008, the company operated the largest oil shale plant in the world consisting eleven retorting units with 20 retorts in each unit, total 220 sets of Fushun-type retort . Annual oil shale processing capacity is designed to be 11 million tons of oil shale, and annual shale oil yields to be 330,000 tons. FMG is constructing the Alberta Taciuk processor (ATP) to treat small size oil shale (particulate oil shale) which can not be processed by Fushun retort. The 250 tonnes per hour ATP processor, scheduled to start operation at

2904-464: The end of 2010 , is engineered and constructed by cement and mineral equipment supplier, Polysius AG of the ThyssenKrupp and uses technology developed by UMATAC Industrial Processes, a Canadian subsidiary of Polysius AG. It seems that ATP Project like a Gordian Knot for FMG as which lasts more than 8 years. An Australian company named Procom had been invited since September 2012 to help FMG for

2970-475: The exploitable reserve is 920 million tons. Hydroelectric and thermal power are important locally available energy sources. Fushun has developed through the utilization of the abundant natural mineral deposits found in the area and is a nationally important heavy industrial base for petroleum, chemical, metallurgy machinery and construction material industries. New sectors also becoming prominent are electronics, light industry, weaving and spinning. In 1928,

3036-488: The financing report released by FMG in 2013.Since 2002, the development strategy of FMG is non-coal industry. Therefore, FMG invested heavily in non-coal industry such as shale oil retorting, paper making and oil processing. Fushun is known as "the capital of coal" for which once had great coal reserves. As a state-owned company, most of Fushun coal reserves are in the hands of FMG. FMG has three main coal mines including Laohutai Coal Mine, West Open Pit and East Open Pit. Due to

3102-634: The first official list of simplified forms was published, consisting of 324 characters collated by Peking University professor Qian Xuantong . However, fierce opposition within the KMT resulted in the list being rescinded in 1936. Work throughout the 1950s resulted in the 1956 promulgation of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme , a draft of 515 simplified characters and 54 simplified components, whose simplifications would be present in most compound characters. Over

3168-463: The first round—but was massively unpopular and never saw consistent use. The second round of simplifications was ultimately retracted officially in 1986, well after they had largely ceased to be used due to their unpopularity and the confusion they caused. In August 2009, China began collecting public comments for a revised list of simplified characters; the resulting List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters lists 8,105 characters, including

3234-475: The following decade, the Script Reform Committee deliberated on characters in the 1956 scheme, collecting public input regarding the recognizability of variants, and often approving forms in small batches. Parallel to simplification, there were also initiatives aimed at eliminating the use of characters entirely and replacing them with pinyin as an official Chinese alphabet, but this possibility

3300-459: The founding of the Qin. The Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that inherited the Qin administration coincided with the perfection of clerical script through the process of libian . Eastward spread of Western learning Though most closely associated with the People's Republic, the idea of a mass simplification of character forms first gained traction in China during

3366-466: The increased usage of 朙 was followed by proliferation of a third variant: 眀 , with 目 'eye' on the left—likely derived as a contraction of 朙 . Ultimately, 明 became the character's standard form. The Book of Han (111 AD) describes an earlier attempt made by King Xuan of Zhou ( d.  782 BC ) to unify character forms across the states of ancient China , with his chief chronicler having "[written] fifteen chapters describing" what

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3432-465: The left, with the 月 'Moon' component on the right. Li Si ( d.  208 BC ), the Chancellor of Qin, attempted to universalize the Qin small seal script across China following the wars that had politically unified the country for the first time. Li prescribed the 朙 form of the word for 'bright', but some scribes ignored this and continued to write the character as 明 . However,

3498-402: The most prominent Chinese authors of the 20th century, stated that "if Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die" ( 漢字不滅，中國必亡 ). During the 1930s and 1940s, discussions regarding simplification took place within the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party. Many members of the Chinese intelligentsia maintained that simplification would increase literacy rates throughout the country. In 1935,

3564-430: The public and quickly fell out of official use. It was ultimately formally rescinded in 1986. The second-round simplifications were unpopular in large part because most of the forms were completely new, in contrast to the familiar variants comprising the majority of the first round. With the rescission of the second round, work toward further character simplification largely came to an end. In 1986, authorities retracted

3630-465: The recently conquered parts of the empire is generally seen as being the first real attempt at script reform in Chinese history. Before the 20th century, variation in character shape on the part of scribes, which would continue with the later invention of woodblock printing , was ubiquitous. For example, prior to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) the character meaning 'bright' was written as either 明 or 朙 —with either 日 'Sun' or 囧 'window' on

3696-439: The related shale oil processing units were restored in 1949. In 1950, a total of 266 retorts were in operation, each with a capacity of 100–200 t (98–197 long tons; 110–220 short tons) of shale oil per day. In 1954, "Refinery No. 2" began production and in 1959 maximum annual shale oil production increased to 780,000 t (770,000 long tons; 860,000 short tons). From 1965 oil shale usage in Fushun started to decline with

3762-481: The same set of simplified characters as mainland China. The first round was promulgated by the Ministry of Education in 1969, consisting of 498 simplified characters derived from 502 traditional characters. A second round of 2287 simplified characters was promulgated in 1974. The second set contained 49 differences from the mainland China system; these were removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted

3828-467: The second round completely, though they had been largely fallen out of use within a year of their initial introduction. That year, the authorities also promulgated a final version of the General List of Simplified Chinese Characters . It was identical to the 1964 list save for 6 changes—including the restoration of 3 characters that had been simplified in the first round: 叠 , 覆 , 像 ; the form 疊

3894-546: The system inherited from Russia to staggering proportions, one of their actions were developing coal mines at Fushun. Under the control of Japanese, Fushun area became a highly industrialized area via 30 years development. After World War II , Fushun Coal Mine of the South Manchuria Railway Company was taken over by the Kuomintang and Fushun Mining Administration Bureau was established by

3960-1035: The team could not afford the rent at Leifeng Stadium it moved to Beijing , where it now plays out of Chaolai Soccer Base. Direct-administered municipalities . Sub-provincial cities as provincial capitals . Separate state-planning cities . Special economic-zone cities . Open coastal cities . Prefecture capital status established by Heilongjiang Province and not recognized by Ministry of Civil Affairs. Disputed by Oroqen Autonomous Banner , Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia as part of it. Only administers islands and waters in South China Sea and have no urban core comparable to typical cities in China. The claimed province of Taiwan no longer have any internal division announced by Ministry of Civil Affairs of PRC, due to lack of actual jurisdiction. See Template:Administrative divisions of Taiwan instead. Simplified Chinese characters Simplified Chinese characters are one of two standardized character sets widely used to write

4026-497: The traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. The Chinese government has never officially announced the completion of the simplification process after the bulk of characters were introduced by the 1960s. In the wake of the Cultural Revolution , a second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977—largely composed of entirely new variants intended to artificially lower the stroke count, in contrast to

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4092-833: The traditional character 強 , with 11 strokes is standardised as 强 , with 12 strokes, which is a variant character. Such characters do not constitute simplified characters. The new standardized character forms shown in the Characters for Publishing and revised through the Common Modern Characters list tend to adopt vulgar variant character forms. Since the new forms take vulgar variants, many characters now appear slightly simpler compared to old forms, and as such are often mistaken as structurally simplified characters. Some examples follow: The traditional component 釆 becomes 米 : The traditional component 囚 becomes 日 : The traditional "Break" stroke becomes

4158-522: The use of characters entirely. Instead, Chao proposed that the language be written with an alphabet, which he saw as more logical and efficient. The alphabetization and simplification campaigns would exist alongside one another among the Republican intelligentsia for the next several decades. Recent commentators have echoed some contemporary claims that Chinese characters were blamed for the economic problems in China during that time. Lu Xun , one of

4224-464: Was abandoned, confirmed by a speech given by Zhou Enlai in 1958. In 1965, the PRC published the List of Commonly Used Characters for Printing  [ zh ] (hereafter Characters for Printing ), which included standard printed forms for 6196 characters, including all of the forms from the 1956 scheme. A second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977, but was poorly received by

4290-433: Was exhausted and unstable. Total coal production in Fushun as a whole had fallen below 3 million tons, down from 18.3 million tons in 1962. Fushun has a major aluminum-reduction plant and factories producing automobiles, machinery, chemicals, cement, and rubber. The total GDP of the city of Fushun was 54.27 billion yuan in 2009 (ranked 4th out of the 58 cities and counties in Liaoning province). The GDP per capita of

4356-497: Was occupied by Russia until 1905 and by Japan until 1945. With the Japanese victory over Imperial Russia and signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth , the South Manchuria branch (from Changchun to Lüshun ) of the China Far East Railway was transferred to Japanese control. South Manchuria Railway Company quickly expanded the system inherited from Russia to staggering proportions. Coal mines were developed at Fushun. Under

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