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78-588: Kalibangān is a town located at 29°28′N 74°08′E  /  29.47°N 74.13°E  / 29.47; 74.13 on the left or southern banks of the Ghaggar ( Ghaggar-Hakra River ) in Tehsil Pilibangān, between Suratgarh and Hanumangarh in Hanumangarh District , Rajasthan , India 205 km from Bikaner . It is also identified as being established in the triangle of land at

156-402: A bathing place were found, suggesting ceremonial bath was a part of rituals. The lower town was also a fortified parallelogram, although only traces are now left. The fort was made of mud bricks (40 × 20 × 10 cm) and three or four structural phases have been recognized. It had gates in north and west. B. B. Lal wrote: "Well-regulated streets (were) oriented almost invariably along with

234-606: A channel of the Yamuna, along with a channel of the Sutlej may have flowed west some time between 47,000 BCE and 10,000 BCE, well before the beginnings of Indus Civilization. Analysis of sand grains using optically stimulated luminescence by Ajit Singh and others in 2017 indicated that the suggested paleochannel of the Ghaggar-Hakra is actually a former course of the Sutlej, which diverted to its present course before

312-577: A different source than the Indus, but this source stopped supplying sediments after ca. 10,000 years ago. Likewise, Dave et al. (2019) state that "[o]ur results disprove the proposed link between ancient settlements and large rivers from the Himalayas and indicate that the major palaeo-fluvial system traversing through this region ceased long before the establishment of the Harappan civilisation." During

390-413: A few are fully developed Harappan ones. Hetalben Sidhav notes that claims of a large number of Ghaggar-Hakra sites are politically motivated and exaggerated. While the Indus remained an active river, the Ghaggar-Hakra dried up, leaving many sites undisturbed, which explains why such a large number of sites has been found. Late in the 2nd millennium BCE the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system dried up , becoming

468-429: A kilometre (an area of a quarter square kilometre). On the western side is the smaller mound (KLB1), 9 meters high and known as the citadel. The Eastern mound, which is higher (12 meters) and bigger, is known as the lower city (KLB2). The excavation unexpectedly brought to light a twofold sequence of cultures, of which the upper one (Kalibangan I) belongs to the Harappan, showing the characteristic grid layout of

546-646: A large number of sites from the Mature Indus Valley Civilisation (2600-1900 BCE) are found along the middle course of the (dried-up) Hakra in Pakistan. Around 4,000 years ago, the Indus Valley Civilisation declined when the monsoons further diminished, and the Ghaggar-Hakra dried up, becoming a small seasonal river. Nineteenth and early 20th century scholars, but also some more recent authors, have suggested that

624-475: A metropolis and the lower one (Kalibangan II) was formerly called pre-Harappan but is now called "Early Harappan or antecedent Harappan". Other nearby sites belonging to IVC include Balu , Kunal , Banawali etc. This Early Harappan phase (also called Proto-Harappan Phase) at Kalibangan belongs to the Sothi-Siswal culture (see also Sothi site). Traces of pre-Harappan culture have been found only at

702-450: A ritualistic one. These altars suggest fire worship . It is the only Indus Valley Civilization site where there is no evidence to suggest the worship of the mother goddess . Within the fortified citadel complex, the southern half contained many (five or six) raised platforms of mud bricks, mutually separated by corridors. Stairs were attached to these platforms. Vandalism of these platforms by brick robbers makes it difficult to reconstruct

780-668: A sealing. The use of inscribed seals and the standardization of weights may have occurred during the Kot Diji period. Late Kot-Diji type pots were found as far as Burzahom in Jammu and Kashmir . There are obvious signs of extensive burns over the entire site, including both the lower habitation area and the high mound (the fortified town), which were also observed at other Early Harappan sites: Period III at Gumla, Period II at Amri, Period I at Naushero. Signs of cleavage were observed at Early Harappan phase Period I at Kalibangan. The cause of

858-525: A toy-cart, wheel and a broken bull; quem with mullers, a bone point, and copper celts, including an unusual axe, etc. Toy carts suggest carts were used for transportation in early phase of Kalibangan. B. B. Lal, former DG of ASI writes,"Kalibangan in Rajasthan ... has also shown that there occurred an earthquake around 2600 BC, which brought to an end the Early Indus settlement at the site.". This

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936-409: Is a parallelogram about 130 meters on the east–west axis and 260 meters on the north–south. Town planning was like that of Mohenjodaro or Harappa . The direction of houses and brick sizes was markedly different from that used in the Harappan phase (KLB-II). Within the walled area, the houses were also built of mud bricks of the same size as used in the fort wall; the use of burnt bricks

1014-564: Is a toy cart, which shows that the potter's wheel permitted the use of wheels for bullock carts. Glazed steatite beads were produced. There was a clear transition from the earlier Ravi pottery to what is commonly referred to as Kot Diji pottery. Red slip and black painted designs replaced polychrome decorations of the Ravi Phase. Then, there was a gradual transformation into what is commonly referred to as Harappa Phase pottery. Early Indus script may have appeared at Kot Diji on pottery and on

1092-600: Is an intermittent river in India and Pakistan that flows only during the monsoon season . The river is known as Ghaggar before the Ottu barrage at 29°29′15″N 74°53′33″E  /  29.4875°N 74.8925°E  / 29.4875; 74.8925 , and as Hakra downstream of the barrage in the Thar Desert . In pre-Harappan times the Ghaggar was a tributary of the Sutlej. It is still connected to this paleochannel of

1170-428: Is attested by a drain within the houses, remains of ovens and cylindrical pits, lined with lime plaster. Some burnt wedge shaped bricks have also been found. B. B. Lal , former DG of ASI writes, "Kalibangan in Rajasthan has given the evidence of the earliest ( c.  2800 BC ) ploughed agricultural field ever revealed through an excavation.". It has been found south east of the pre-Harappan settlement, outside

1248-533: Is classified as a separate archaeological culture / subculture. The site covers 2.6 hectares (6.4 acres). The earliest occupation of this site is termed 'Kot Dijian', which is pre-Harappan, or early formative Harappan. At the earliest layer, Kot Diji I (2605 BC), copper and bronze were not used. The houses and fortifications were made from unbaked mud-bricks. Lithic material, such as leaf-shaped chert arrowheads, shows parallels with Mundigak layers II-IV. The pottery seems to anticipate Harappan Ware. Later, bronze

1326-502: Is known for the numerous terracotta bangles found here. A number of seals have been found dating to this phase. Most noteworthy is a cylindrical seal, depicting a female figure between two male figures, fighting or threatening with spears. There is also a mixed person bull observing. They are of rectangular shape. A cylindrical graduated measuring rod and a clay ball with human figures are other notable finds. Peas and chickpeas were also found. Three systems of burial have been attested in

1404-740: Is perhaps the earliest archaeologically recorded earthquake. At least three pre-historic earthquakes affecting the Indus Valley Civilization at Dholavira in Khadir have been identified during 2900–1800 BC. KLB-I phase has left 1.6 meters of continuous deposits during five distinct structural strata, the last of which was destroyed perhaps by an earthquake and the site was abandoned around 2600 BCE, soon to be settled again by Harappans. At Kalibangan, fire altars have been discovered, similar to those found at Lothal which S.R. Rao thinks could have served no other purpose than

1482-412: Is reminiscent of altars, but the analogy may be coincidental, and these altars are perhaps intended for some specific (perhaps religious) purpose by the community as a whole. In some fire-altars remnants of animals have been found, which suggest a possibility of animal-sacrifice. The official website of ASI reports : "Besides the above two principle [ sic ] parts of the metropolis there

1560-876: Is the continuation of the Ghaggar River in India . The Hakra-channel is connected to paleochannels of the Sutlej and the Yamuna, which ended in the Nara River , a delta channel of the Indus River joining the sea via Sir Creek . The Sutlej changed its course about 8,000-10,000 years ago, leaving the Ghaggar-Hakra as a system of monsoon-fed rivers terminating in the Thar Desert. This Sutlej/Yamuna paleochannel streamed through Sindh , and its sign can be found in Sindh areas such as Khairpur , Nawabshah , Sanghar and Tharparkar . A large number of sites from

1638-678: Is the only river with hymns entirely dedicated to it: RV 6 .61, RV 7 .95 and RV 7 .96. It is mentioned as a divine and large river, which flows "from the mountains to the samudra," which some take as the Indian Ocean . The Rig Veda was composed during the latter part of the late Harappan period, and according to Shaffer, the reason for the predominance of the Sarasvati in the Rig Veda is the late Harappan (1900–1300 BCE) population shift eastwards to Haryana . The identification with

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1716-497: The Kot Diji culture (related to Sothi-Siswal). In this phase, the settlement was fortified, using dried mud bricks, from the beginning of occupation. This fort had been built twice in different periods. Earlier, fort wall had a thickness of 1.9 meters, which was raised to 3.7–4.1 meters during reconstruction in this phase. Brick size was 20 × 20 × 10 cm in both construction-phases. The citadel mound (smaller mound)

1794-695: The Rann of Kutch via the Nara river . Clift et al . (2012), using dating of zircon sand grains, have shown that subsurface river channels near the Indus Valley Civilisation sites in Cholistan immediately below the dry Ghaggar-Hakra bed show sediment affinity with the Beas River in the western sites and the Sutlej and the Yamuna in the eastern ones, suggesting that the Yamuna itself, or

1872-517: The Rig Vedic descriptions because "the snow-fed Satluj and Yamuna would strengthen [only the] lower Ghaggar. [The] upper Ghaggar would still be as puny as it is today." According to Rajesh Kocchar there are two Sarasvati rivers mentioned in the Rigveda. The older one described in the family books of the Rigveda, which he calls Naditama Sarasvati , drains into a samudra . The newer one described in

1950-540: The Sarasvati River is based on the mentions in Vedic texts, e.g. in the enumeration of the rivers in Rigveda 10.75 .05; the order is Ganga , Yamuna , Sarasvati, Sutudri , Parusni . Later Vedic texts record the river as disappearing at Vinasana (literally, "the disappearing") or Upamajjana, and in post-Vedic texts as joining both the Yamuna and Ganges as an invisible river at Prayaga (Allahabad). Some claim that

2028-523: The monsoon rains . It originates in the village of Dagshai in the Shivalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh at an elevation of 1,927 metres (6,322 ft) above mean sea level and flows through Punjab and Haryana states into Rajasthan ; just southwest of Sirsa, Haryana and by the side of Talwara Lake in Rajasthan. Dammed at Ottu barrage near Sirsa, Ghaggar feeds two irrigation canals that extend into Rajasthan. The main tributaries of

2106-502: The Bank of Ghaggar 1. Shows both Pre Harappan and Harappan phase 2. Evidence of furrowed land 3. Evidence of camel bones 4. Many houses had their own well 5. Kalibangan stand for black bangles 6. Evidence of wooden furrow Some early Kalibangan pottery has a close resemblance to the pottery of the Hakra ware in Cholistan , to other Early Harappan pottery from the Indus Valley Civilization and

2184-586: The Eurasian steppes, leading to a change of vegetation, triggering "higher mobility and transition to nomadic cattle breeding," These migrations eventually resulted in the Indo-Aryan migrations into South Asia. Most of the Harappan sites along the Ghaggar-Hakra are presently found in desert country, and have remained undisturbed since the end of the Indus Civilization. This contrasts with

2262-589: The Ghaggar are the Kaushalya river , Markanda , Sarsuti , Tangri and Chautang . The Kaushalya river is a tributary of Ghaggar river on the left side of Ghaggar-Hakra, it flows in the Panchkula district of Haryana state of India and converges with Ghaggar river near Pinjore just downstream of Kaushalya Dam . The Hakra is the dried-out channel of a river near Fort Abbas City in Pakistan that

2340-464: The Ghaggar-Hakra might be the defunct remains of a river, the Sarasvati , invoked in the orally transmitted collection of ancient Sanskrit hymns, the Rig Veda composed c.  1500 BCE to 1200 BCE. More recently, but writing before Giosan's 2012 publication and supposing a late Harappan diversion of the Sutlej and the Yamuna, several scholars have identified the old Ghaggar-Hakra River with

2418-445: The Ghaggar-Hakra might be the defunct remains of the Sarasvati River mentioned in the Rig Veda , fed by Himalayan-fed rivers, despite the fact that the Ghaggar-Hakra had dried up by that time. The basin consists of two parts, Khadir and Bangar . Bangar are the higher banks that are not flooded in rainy season, while khadar refers to the lower flood-prone area. The Ghaggar is an intermittent river in India , flowing during

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2496-464: The Ghaggar-Hakra was fed by Himalayan sources has also been contradicted by recent geophysical research, which shows that the Ghaggar-Hakra system, although having greater discharge in Harappan times which was enough to sustain human habitation, was not sourced by the glaciers and snows of the Himalayas , but rather by a system of perennial monsoon-fed rivers. In contrast to all Himalayan rivers in

2574-540: The IVC, the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system was not a large glacier-fed Himalayan river, but a monsoonal-fed river. The Indus Valley Civilisation prospered when the monsoons that fed the rivers diminished around 5,000 years ago, and a large number of sites from the Mature Indus Valley Civilisation (2600-1900 BCE) are found along the middle course of the (dried-up) Hakra in Pakistan. Around 4,000

2652-579: The Indus Valley Civilisation declined when the monsoons further diminished, and the Ghaggar-Hakra dried-up, becoming a small seasonal river. According to archaeologist Rita Wright, the large number of documented sites may be due to the ephemeral nature of the settlements, with the inhabitants frequently moving around in pursuit of water. According to archaeologist Shereen Ratnagar, many Ghaggar-Hakra sites in India are actually those of local cultures; some sites display contact with Harappan civilisation, but only

2730-534: The Indus Valley Civilization. Kalibangan is distinguished by its unique fire altars and "world's earliest attested ploughed field". It is around 2900 BC that the region of Kalibangan developed into what can be considered a planned city. Kalibangan was first excavated under the Directorship of B. B. Lal (ASI) between 1960-61 to 1969-70. Other excavation team members were B.K. Thapar , M.D. Khare, K.M. Shrivastava and S.P. Jain . The Kalibangan pre-historic site

2808-526: The Indus Valley sites known so far are actually located on the Ghaggar-Hakra river and its tributaries and not on the Indus river, some Indian archaeologists, such as S.P. Gupta, have proposed to use the term "Indus Sarasvati Civilization" to refer to the Harappan culture which is named, as is common in archaeology, after the first place where the culture was discovered. Romila Thapar terms the identification "controversial" and dismisses it, noticing that

2886-578: The Indus became a part of Pakistan and Indian, archaeologists were compelled to intensify the search for Harappan sites in India. Amlānand Ghosh (Ex. Director General, Archaeological Survey of India, or ASI) was the first person to recognise this site as Harappan and marked it out for excavations. Under the leadership of B. B. Lal (then Director General, ASI), Balkrishna (B.K.) Thapar , M. D. Khare, K. M. Shrivastava and S. P. Jain carried out excavations for 9 years (1960–9) in 9 successive excavation sessions. Two ancient mounds were excavated, spread over half

2964-515: The Mature Indus Valley Civilisation (2600-1900 BCE) are found along the middle course of the (dried-up) Hakra in Pakistan. IVC-sites have not been found further south than the middle of Bahawalpur district , and it has been assumed that the Hakra ended there in a series of terminal lakes. While there is general agreement that the river courses in the Indus Basin have frequently changed course,

3042-687: The Painted Gray Ware sites in the Ghaggar river valley indicates that during this period the Ghaggar river had already dried up. Since the 19th century, proposals have been made to identify the mythological Sarasvati River with the Ghaggar-Hakra River. The Sarasvati is often mentioned in the Rig Veda, which describes it as a mighty river located between the Indus and the Ganges, while later Vedic texts describe it as disappearing in

3120-581: The Rehman Dheri. Kot Diji and Amri are close to each other in Sindh, they earlier developed indigenous culture which had common elements, later they came in contact with Harappan culture and fully developed into Harappan culture. Earliest examples of artifacts belonging to this culture were found at Rehman Dheri, however, later excavations found the oldest example of this culture at Kunal. These are cultural ancestor to site at Harappa . These sites have pre-Harappan indigenous cultural levels, distinct from

3198-431: The Sutlej, and possibly the Yamuna, which ended in the Nara River , presently a delta channel of the Indus River joining the sea via Sir Creek . The Sutlej changed its course about 8,000-10,000 years ago, leaving the Ghaggar-Hakra as a system of monsoon-fed rivers terminating in the Thar Desert. The Indus Valley Civilisation prospered when the monsoons that fed the rivers diminished around 5,000 years ago, and

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3276-716: The Vedic Sarasvati River and the Chautang with the Drishadvati River . Gregory Possehl and Jane McIntosh refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River as "Sarasvati" throughout their respective 2002 and 2008 books on the Indus Civilisation, and Gregory Possehl states "Linguistic, archaeological, and historical data show that the Sarasvati of the Vedas is the modern Ghaggar or Hakra." Because most of

3354-495: The burial ground ~300 yards south-west of the citadel, where ~34 graves have been found : Robert Raikes has argued that Kalibangan was abandoned because the river dried up. Prof. B. B. Lal (retd. Director General of Archaeological Survey of India) supports this view by asserting: "Radiocarbon dates indicate that the Mature Harappan settlement at Kalibangan had to be abandoned sometime around 2650 BCE. And, as

3432-520: The cardinal directions, thus forming a grid-iron pattern. (At Kalibangan) even the widths of these streets were in a set ratio, i.e. if the narrowest lane was one unit in width, the other streets were twice, thrice and so on. (...) Such a town-planning was unknown in contemporary West Asia .". The lower town was 239 meters east to west, but north–south extent cannot be determined. 8 main roads have been recognized, 5 north–south and 3 east–west. Few more east–west roads are expected to be buried within

3510-490: The confluence of Drishadvati and Sarasvati Rivers . The prehistoric and pre- Mauryan character of Indus Valley civilization was first identified by Luigi Tessitori at this site. Kalibangan's excavation report was published in its entirety in 2003 by the Archaeological Survey of India , 34 years after the completion of excavations. The report concluded that Kalibangan was a major provincial capital of

3588-427: The culture of Harappa, these are at Banawali (level I), Kot Diji (level 3A), Amri (level II). Rehman Dheri also has a pre Kot Diji phase (RHD1 3300-28 BCE) which are not part of IVC culture. Kot Diji has two later phases that continue into and alongside Mature Harappan Phase (RHDII and RHDII 2500-2100 BCE). Fortified towns found here are dated as follows. Kot Diji culture' : Based on the pottery found here, it

3666-492: The descriptions of Sarasvati flowing through the "high mountains" does not tally with Ghaggar's course and suggests that Sarasvati is Haraxvati of Afghanistan which is also known as the Helmand river . Wilke suggests that the identification is problematic since the Ghaggar-Hakra river was already dried up at the time of the composition of the Vedas, let alone the migration of the Vedic people into northern India. The idea that

3744-453: The desert. Arguments have been made that the Ghaggar-Hakra was such a mighty river, due to tributaries which were supposed to receive snow melt waters from the Himalayas. Yet, more recent research shows that the Ghaggar-Hakra was monsoon-fed during Harappan times, and had already dried-up during Vedic times. The Sarasvati River is mentioned in all books of the Rigveda except the fourth . It

3822-545: The development of the Harappan Civilisation. The abandonment of this older course by the Sutlej started 15,000 years ago, and was complete by 8,000 years ago. Ajit Singh et al. conclude that the urban populations settled not along a perennial river, but a monsoon-fed seasonal river that was not subject to devastating floods. Khonde et al. (2017) confirm that the Great Rann of Kutch received sediments from

3900-587: The disruptions and/or abandonment of these sites toward the end of the Early Harappan phase remains unexplained. According to legends, the wall existed during Umayyad rule and later under the Abbasid rule. The Soomro tribe inhabited the fort and later the Samma tribe positioned large infantry formations inside the fort. The Mughal Emirs armed the walls of the fort with cannons and muskets. They were

3978-544: The distinguishing mark on pottery of this early Harappan phase characterized by six fabrics labelled A, B, C, D, E and F, which were later identified also at nearby site of Sothi belonging to Sothi-Siswal culture which is a subtype of Early Harappan Phase. Six fabrics of Kalibanagan ae as follows: Among the other finds of this Period are: small blades of chalcedony and agate, sometimes serrated or backed; beads of steatite, shell, carnelian, terracotta and copper; bangles of copper, shell and terracotta; terracotta objects like

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4056-410: The exact sequence of these changes and their dating have been problematic. Older publications have suggested that the Sutlej and the Yamuna drained into the Hakra well into Mature Harappan times, providing ample volume to the supply provided by the monsoon-fed Ghaggar. The Sutlej and Yamuna then changed course between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE, due to either tectonic events or "slightly altered gradients on

4134-689: The excavated materials here during 1961–69. In one gallery, Pre-Harappan finds are displayed, while Harappan finds are displayed in the other two galleries. Exposed Kalibangan ruins during the excavation of 1952–53 conducted by Archaeological Survey of India . "Harappa." Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/place/India/Harappa. Harappa, www.harappa.com/blog/kalibangan. Ghaggar-Hakra River 1 = ancient river 2 = today's river 3 = today's Thar Desert 4 = ancient shore 5 = today's shore 6 = today's town 7 = dried-up Hakra course, and pre-Harappan Sutlej paleochannels (Clift et al. (2012)) The Ghaggar-Hakra River

4212-460: The extremely flat plains," resulting in the drying-up of the Hakra in the Thar Desert . More recent publications have shown that the Sutlej and the Yamuna shifted course well before Harappan times, leaving the monsoon-fed Ghaggar-Hakra which dried-up during late Harappan times. The paleo-channel of the Sutlej was active until the end of the Ice Age, some 10,000-8,000 years ago, emptying into

4290-523: The first to renovate the entire structure. The Kalhora tribe later gained control of the fort, and finally the Talpurs saw the fort as a strategic asset especially during the reign of Mir Fatih Ali Khan Talpur , until they were defeated and overthrown by the British Empire, in 1843 AD. The first radiocarbon date from charcoal included in the mortar of a collapsed pillar lying overturned in

4368-505: The fort. "Kalibangan excavations in present western Rajasthan shows a ploughed field, the first site of this nature in the world. It shows a grid pattern of furrows, placed about 30 cm apart running east-west and other spaced about 190 cm apart running north-south, a pattern remarkably similar to the one practiced even now.". Even today, similar ploughing is used for two simultaneous crops in this region, esp. of mustard and gram. In order to preserve it, this excavated ploughed field area

4446-451: The heavy alluvium of the Indus and other large Panjab rivers that have obscured Harappan sites, including part of Mohenjo Daro . Painted Grey Ware sites ( c.  1000–600 BCE) have been found at former IVC-sites at the middle and upper Ghaggar-Hakra channel, and have also been found in the bed and not on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, which suggests that river was certainly dried up by this period. The sparse distribution of

4524-585: The hydrological evidence indicates, this abandonment took place on account of the drying up of the Sarasvati ( Ghaggar ). This latter part is duly established by the work of Raikes, an Italian hydrologist, and of his Indian collaborators". Kalibangan name translates to "black bangles" ("Kālā", in Punjabi, means black and "bangan" means bangles). A few miles downstream is the railway station and township named Pilibangā, which means Yellow Bangles . ASI set up an Archaeological Museum at Kālibangan in 1983 to store

4602-691: The lower levels of the western mound. According to archaeological evidence, the Indus Valley culture existed at the site from the proto-Harappan age (3500 BC – 2500 BC) to the Harappan age (2500 BC – 1750 BC). This earlier phase is labelled Kalibangan-I (KLB-I) or Period-I. Similarity of pottery relates Kalibangan-I with the Sothi-Siswal culture because a lot of this pottery was later discovered at Sothi village in North Western India. There are also links in Kalibangan to

4680-573: The number of late Harappan sites in the middle Ghaggar-Hakra channel and in the Indus valley diminished, while it expanded in the upper Ghaggar-Sutlej channels and in Saurashtra. The IVC-people migrated east toward the more humid regions of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, where the decentralised late Harappan phase took place. The same widespread aridification in the third millennium BCE also led to water shortages and ecological changes in

4758-489: The original shape of structures above them but unmistakable remnants of oval fire-pits of burnt bricks for have been found, with a sacrificial post (cylindrical or with rectangular cross-section, sometimes bricks were laid upon each other to construct such a post) in the middle of each pit and sacrificial terracotta cakes in all these fire-pits. Houses in the lower town also contain similar altars. Burnt charcoals have been found in these fire-pits. The structure of these fire-altars

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4836-478: The pottery of the Integration Era. Functionally, pottery can be classified into household pots, religious and burial purposes. Structurally, we have classes like plain and decorated wares. Some pots had Harappan inscriptions (undeciphered) on them. The best terracotta figure from Kalibangan is that a charging bull which is considered to signify the "realistic and powerful folk art of Harappan Age". The city

4914-517: The region that dug out wide valleys in their own sediments as the monsoon declined, no such valley exists between the Sutlej and the Yamuna , demonstrating that neither the Ghaggar-Hakra nor any other Sarasvati candidate in that region had a Himalayan source. Rajesh Kocchar further notes that, even if the Sutlej and the Yamuna had drained into the Ghaggar during Vedic period , it still would not fit

4992-528: The ridge of a steep narrow hill is well-preserved. The earliest site of this culture is Kunal (4000 BCE) in Haryana which is older than Rehman Dheri (3300 BCE). The type site , the first excavated site of this type of culture is Kot Diji. Rehman Dheri, which was considered oldest example of this culture, is now the second oldest example of this culture after Kunal was excavated and found to be older than Rehman Dher with similar older cultural artifacts then

5070-517: The riverbed at Sann (Eastern) Gate, Ranikot, confirms that at least this sector of the fort was built, or repaired, between the beginning of the 18th century and the beginning of 19th century, that is between the beginning of the Kalhoras and the beginning of the Talpurs rule. The present note, without positively solving the much debated issue of the age of the fort, points to a new line of research on

5148-430: The roads. Some central authority must be there to plan and regulate all this. The city was fortified. Like town planning, housing also followed the common pattern of other Harappan cities. Due to grid-pattern of town planning like a chess board, all houses opened out to at least two or three roads or lanes. Each house had a courtyard and 6–7 rooms on three sides, with a well in some houses. One house had stairs for going to

5226-450: The roof. Houses were built of 10 X 20 X 30 cm adobe bricks (same as those used in second structural phase of fort wall). Burnt bricks were used in drains, wells, bathing platforms and door-sills, besides fire-altar. Floors of rooms were built of thrashed fine mud, sometimes laid with mud bricks or terracotta cakes. One house had floors built of burnt tiles decorated with geometrical designs. Kalibangan 1953 A. Ghosh Situated in Rajasthan on

5304-568: The sanctity of the modern Ganges is directly related to its assumption of the holy, life-giving waters of the ancient Saraswati River. The Mahabharata says that the Sarasvati River dried up in a desert (at a place named Vinasana or Adarsana). Nineteenth and early 20th century scholars, such as orientalist Christian Lassen (1800–1876), philologist and Indologist Max Müller (1823–1900), archaeologist Aurel Stein (1862–1943), and geologist R. D. Oldham (1858–1936), had considered that

5382-410: The small seasonal river it is today, which affected the Harappan civilisation. Paleobotanical information documents the aridity that developed after the drying up of the river. The diminishing of the monsoons particular affected the Ghaggar-Hakra system, which became ephemeral and was largely abandoned, with the IVC reorganizing in local settlements some 4000 years ago. In the late Harappan period

5460-654: The tenth book of Rigveda as well as later Vedic texts, which he calls Vinasana Sarasvati , disappears in the sands. The Vinasana Sarasvati has been "accepted by all" to be the same as the Ghaggar-Hakra river. The description of the Naditama Sarasvati in the Rigveda matches the physical features of the Helmand River in Afghanistan, more precisely its tributary the Harut River , whose older name

5538-461: The topic, which deserves future work, in order to collect more organic material for absolute dating. An Acacia charcoal sample collected from the above exposed surface was sent to Groningen Radiocarbon Laboratory (NL) for AMS dating. It yielded the following result 160±30 uncal BP (GrA-44671). Although its calibration is rather problematic, given that the curve at this point is highly fluctuating with several interceptions, most probabilities indicate that

5616-664: The unexcavated remains. Second east–west road ran in a curved outline to meet the first at the north-eastern end (towards the river), where a gateway was provided. This road was an anomaly in the grid-pattern of straight roads. There were many lanes connected to specific housing complexes . Roads and lanes had widths in accurately determined proportions, like in other Harappan cities, ranging from 7.2 meters for main roads to 1.8 meters for narrow lanes. Fender posts were installed at street corners to prevent accidents. In second structural level, roads were laid with mud tiles. Drains from houses emptied into pits ( soakage jars ) beneath

5694-692: Was Harax atī in Avestan. Ganga and Yamuna, he takes to be small streams in its vicinity. When the Vedic people moved east into Punjab, they named the new rivers they encountered after the old rivers they knew from Helmand. Kot Diji The site is situated at the foot of the Rohri Hills , where Kot Diji Fort was built around 1790 by the Talpur dynasty ruler of the Upper Sindh, Mir Suhrab, who reigned from 1783 to 1830 AD. This fort built on

5772-411: Was also a third one-a moderate structure situated upwards of 80 m e. of the lower town containing four to five fire altars. This lonely structure may perhaps have been used for ritual purposes." Thus, fire-altars have been found in three groups: public altars in the citadel, household altars in lower town, and public altars in a third separate group. A short distance from fire altars, a well and remnants of

5850-449: Was discovered by Luigi Pio Tessitori , an Italian Indologist (1887–1919). He was doing some research in ancient Indian texts and was surprised by the character of ruins in that area. He sought help from Sir John Marshall of the Archaeological Survey of India . At that time the ASI was conducting excavations at Harappa, but they were unaware of the significance of the ruins. In fact, Tessitori

5928-502: Was refilled after excavation and the area was marked by concrete pillar posts. Early Harappan Phase pottery found at Kalibangan has been classified to make a datum line for ceramic studies in the Indian subcontinent , which is known as the six fabrics of Kalibanagan . Fabrics A, B, and D are grouped as redware , Fabric C pottery is violet and black and classified as subtype of black and red ware . Six fabrics of Kalibanagan refer to

6006-414: Was the first person to recognize that the ruins were 'Prehistoric' and pre- Mauryan . Luigi Pio Tessitori also pointed out the nature of the culture, but at that time it was not possible to guess that the ruins of Kalibangan lay within the Indus Valley Civilisation. He died five years before the Harappan culture was formally recognized. After India's independence, both the major Harappan cities together with

6084-813: Was used, but only for personal ornaments. Also, use of the potters wheel was already in evidence. The Early Harappan phase construction consists of two clearly defined areas. There is a citadel on high ground for the elites separated by a defensive wall with bastions at regular intervals. This area measures about 500 by 350 feet (150 m × 110 m). The outer area, or the city proper, consisted of houses of mud bricks on stone foundations. Pottery found from this site has designs with horizontal and wavy lines, or loops and simple triangular patterns. Other objects found are pots, pans, storage jars, toy carts, balls, bangles, beads, terracotta figurines of mother goddess and animals, bronze arrowheads, and well-fashioned stone implements. A particularly interesting find at Kot Diji

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