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109-534: The dam is situated 23 km (14 mi) northwest of Bozova , Şanlıurfa Province, on state road D-875 from Bozova to Adıyaman . Centerpiece of the 22 dams on the Euphrates and the Tigris , which comprise the integrated, multi-sector, Southeastern Anatolia Project ( Turkish : Güney Doğu Anadolu Projesi , known as GAP), it is one of the world's largest dams . The Atatürk Dam, one of the five operational dams on

218-520: A battle against the Turks in the year prior, motivating the abandonment, whereas another states that the Mongols themselves caused the damage during the abandonment. The Mongols are also variously stated to either have simply walled up the gates but otherwise left what remained intact or to have pillaged the city for building materials before burning down the remnants. One major reason for the abandonment

327-538: A different name from his ancient consort Ningal ), the "lord with his dogs" (identified as a localised version of the god Nergal ), Tar'atha (identified with the Syrian goddess Atargatis ), Gadlat (an Arabian goddess), and perhaps Shamash. Though Sin had in the past been the only major deity in Harran, he was by this point only the most important of several different ancient gods. The pagans of Harran became an issue in

436-541: A few years as a major urban center. Mongol control of Harran was immediately contested by the Sultanate of Rum and the Mamluk Sultanate . The Mongols decided to abandon Harran in 1271, deporting the population to the nearby cities of Mardin and Mosul . Accounts differ concerning the reason for the abandonment and the state in which the city was left. One account states that the city had been damaged in

545-746: A long siege lasting from the winter of 610 BC to early 609 BC, Harran was captured by the Babylonians and Medes, ending the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Ekhulkhul was destroyed by the Medes at this time and was neglected for many years but was eventually restored by the Neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus ( r.  556–539 BC), who was from Harran. The city itself was also significantly revitalised in Nabonidus's reign. After

654-715: A peace treaty was sealed in the Ekhulkhul between Mari and the Yaminites , an Amorite tribe. Further treaties signed that invoke Sin of Harran include a 14th-century BC treaty between Šuppiluliuma I of the Hittites and Shattiwaza of Mitanni , and an 8th-century BC treaty between the Assyrian king Ashur-nirari V and Mati'ilu of Arpad . Harran grew into a major Mesopotamian cultural, commercial and religious center. In addition to its religious importance, Harran

763-534: A population of 96,072. The Harran district ranks 857th among 872 districts in Turkey, and last among the districts of the Şanlıurfa Province , by socioeconomic development. As of 2009, Harran has a low unemployment rate (2.73%; 753rd among all districts), a low literacy rate (55.16%; 865th among all districts) and a high population increase rate (64.23%; 7th among all districts). Harran's possibilities for development are subject to several limiting factors, including

872-756: A provincial capital often second in importance only to the Assyrian capital of Assur itself. During the collapse of the Assyrian Empire, Harran briefly served as the final capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (612–609 BC). The city continued to be prominent after the fall of Assyria and experienced varying degrees of foreign cultural influence during its time under the Neo-Babylonian (609–539 BC), Achaemenid (539–330 BC), Macedonian (330–312 BC) and Seleucid (312–132 BC) empires. During classical antiquity Harran

981-550: A temporary settlement by local nomadic societies. One of the major semi-nomadic tribes that have continuously lived in and around Harran since the Middle Ages and still today are the Nmēr , descendants of the medieval Numayrid lords of the city. By the 1840s, Harran had once more become a semi-permanent village settlement, although the inhabitants spent the summer months encamped outside the village to avoid vermin in their houses. By

1090-488: A third. Syria and Iraq claim to be suffering severe water shortages due to the GAP development. Both countries allege that Turkey is intentionally withholding supplies from its downstream neighbors, turning water into a weapon. Turkey denies these claims, and insists it has always supplied its southern neighbors with the promised minimum of 500 m/s (18,000 cu ft/s). It argues that Iraq and Syria in fact benefit from

1199-459: A usurper proclaimed king by the Oracle of Nusku from Harran, managed to rally widespread support in the empire before he was defeated. The reign of Esarhaddon in particular marked the rise of the Ekhulkhul into one of the most prominent religious sanctuaries in the ancient Near East , a position it would retain for centuries. The Neo-Assyrian Empire was defeated in the late seventh century BC by

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1308-569: Is 542 m (1,778 ft), and the minimum operation level is 526 m (1,726 ft) amsl. Some 10 towns and 156 villages of three provinces are located around the Lake Atatürk Dam. The lake provides a fisheries and recreation site. For transportation purposes, several ferries have been operated in the reservoir. The reservoir lake is called "sea" by local people. About 90% of Euphrates' total annual flow originates in Turkey , while

1417-470: Is a municipality and district of Şanlıurfa Province , Turkey . Its area is 1,329 km , and its population is 52,680 (2022). It is 38 km from the city of Şanlıurfa . There are 88 neighbourhoods in Bozova District: This article about a Southeastern Anatolia region of Turkey location is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Harran Harran

1526-469: Is a municipality and district of Şanlıurfa Province , Turkey . Its area is 904 km , and its population is 96,072 (2022). It is approximately 40 kilometres (25 miles) southeast of Urfa and 20 kilometres (12 miles) from the Syrian border crossing at Akçakale . Harran was founded at some point between the 25th and 20th centuries BC, possibly as a merchant colony by Sumerian traders from Ur . Over

1635-469: Is curiously stated to have consulted the female moon deity Luna . The oracles warned the emperor of impending disaster but Julian proceeded anyway and was killed in the war. Harran was the only city in the Roman Empire to declare citywide mourning after Julian's death. Later sources indicate that the deities worshipped by the pagans of Harran in late antiquity included Sin, Bat-Nikkal (consort of Sin;

1744-460: Is expected to in the future once more transform Harran into an important local center. Economic issues caused by the Syrian civil war across the nearby Syrian border has recently caused many Harranian families to migrate elsewhere for work, such as to the cities Urfa (ancient Edessa), Adıyaman and Gaziantep . The Harran Castle is a large brick fortress of unknown date, though ancient Greek inscriptions found at one of its gates suggest that it

1853-462: Is higher up the water table than Harran and as more wells were constructed in Edessa, those in Harran gradually dried up. Harran was in the 12th century still renowned for its ancient origins; a now lost work by Hammad al-Harrani made the claim that Harran had been the first city founded after the great flood . Despite the threat of water scarcity , Harran continued to be an important town under

1962-431: Is its ancient burial mound , spread over a large area and partially surviving intact at the center of the city's archaeological site. The burial mound preserves inscriptions and architectural elements from several different cultures and appears to have been in continuous use from the 3rd century BC to the 13th century AD. The burial mound may be older than Harran itself since ceramic dated to c. 5000 BC has been found at

2071-505: Is located in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, approximately 40 kilometres (25 miles) southeast of Urfa. Harran is situated 360 metres (1,180 feet) above sea level, which is the lowest point in the surrounding lowland region. Harran has a hot and dry climate. The precipitation rate is rarely more than 40 centimetres. During the summer, Harran experiences significant temperature differences between

2180-534: Is not seen elsewhere in Turkey and is rare in the rest of the world. Houses similar to the modern beehive houses have long been present in Harran; the earliest known buildings from Harran appear to have been circular and Assyrian reliefs from the 7th century BC depict domed buildings architecturally similar to the present beehive houses. They have not been consistently present on the site, instead being built, ruined, forgotten and rebuilt multiple times throughout Harran's history. Beehive houses were recorded at Harran by

2289-490: Is noted that the walls of Harran were in poor condition. This issue was not rectified until repairs conducted in the reign of Justinian I ( r.  527–565 ). From the time of the Christianization of Mesopotamia and Syria until long into the Middle Ages, Harran developed a rivalry with the nearby city of Edessa due to the cities having polarised attitudes concerning Christianity. Whereas Edessa adopted

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2398-413: Is recorded to have launched an expedition to conquer the region around Harran and secure the trade routes there from hostile forces. After the fall of Shamshi-Adad I 's kingdom in the early 18th century BC, Harran was an independent city-state for a time; archives from Mari from the time of Zimri-Lim ( r.  1775–1761 ) record that Harran in his time was ruled by a king named Asdi-Takim . Harran

2507-814: Is rendered as ܚܳܪܳܢ ( hrn ) in Aramaic , חָרָן ( Ḥaran ) in Hebrew , حَرَّان ( Ḥarrân ) in Arabic , حران ( Harrān ) in Ottoman Turkish , and Harran in modern Turkish . The ancient Assyrians called the city Huzirina . Ḫarrānu was Hellenised to Kárrhai (Kάρραι) in the Hellenistic period . The Romans later Latinised the Greek name into Carrhae . Due to the prominence of both Harran and Carrhae in historical literary sources, some scholars use

2616-606: The Book of Genesis as the town where Abraham and his family stopped on their way from Ur of the Chaldees to Canaan . The last pagan Roman emperor, Julian ( r.  361–363 ) intentionally avoided the Christian Edessa and instead stopped at Harran in 363 to consult the oracles of the moon temple on his upcoming Persian campaign . Although it is known that Sin was still worshipped at Harran in this time Julian

2725-650: The 11–13th centuries when the region surrounding Harran experienced considerable political turmoil. The castle has recently been partially excavated and reconstructed with the support of the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism . Harran was the site of the oldest mosque built in Anatolia, known as the Grand Mosque or Paradise Mosque. The mosque was built by the Umayyad caliph Marwan II in 744–750, at

2834-504: The 1270s. The Mamluks repaired the castle at some point, most likely in the 1330s or 1340s, and it became the seat of a local military governor, but there was otherwise little effort spent on trying to revive the city. By this point Harran was no longer on any of the major trade routes. A small village-sized settlement sprung up at the site, probably in the immediate vicinity of the castle. The space within Harran's city walls gradually filled up with dirt and sand through natural means. Over

2943-527: The 12th century, Harran at times fell under the influence of the County of Edessa , a short-lived crusader state . There is no record of the crusaders ever conquering Harran but the Harran Castle preserves remnants of a Christian chapel with distinct crusader architecture, perhaps suggesting a peaceful crusader presence. The growth of Edessa under Christian rule contributed to the decline of Harran. Edessa

3052-428: The 12th-century explorer Ibn Jubayr but not by the 17th-century explorer Evliya Çelebi . The majority of the present beehive houses in Harran date to the early twentieth century and none have been standing for longer than since the mid-19th century. The architecture of the beehive houses has subtly changed since the twentieth century; photographs from that time show the houses erected on the grounds like tents whereas

3161-518: The Bishop of Harran, Stephen, to persecute the pagans of Harran. Many who refused to convert to Christianity, including the governor Acindynus , were executed. By this time, the Christians and pagans of Harran lived in separate quarters of the city. Maurice's persecution of the pagans of Harran had little effect on the strength of the pagan community and Harran remained a largely pagan city. When

3270-497: The Euphrates as of 2008, was preceded by Keban and Karakaya dams upstream and followed by Birecik and the Karkamış dams downstream. Two more dams on the river have been under construction. The dam embankment is 169 m high (554 ft) and 1,820 m long (5,970 ft). The hydroelectric power plant (HEPP) has a total installed power capacity of 2,400 MW and generates 8,900 GW·h electricity annually. The total cost of

3379-465: The Euphrates entirely for a month to begin filling up the reservoir. Turkey had notified Syria and Iraq by November 1989 of her decision to fill the reservoir over a period of one month explaining the technical reasons and providing a detailed program for making up for the losses. The downstream neighbors protested vehemently. At this point, the Atatürk Dam has cut the flow from the Euphrates by about

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3488-626: The Euphrates-Tigris river system is the protocol annexed to the 1946 Treaty of Friendship and Good Neighborly Relations between Iraq and Turkey. The protocol provided the control and management of the Euphrates and the Tigris depending to a large extent on the regulations of flow in Turkish source areas. Turkey agreed to begin monitoring the two border-crossing rivers and to share related data with Iraq. In 1980, Turkey and Iraq further specified

3597-660: The Harranians to aid him against Mu'awiya I , the first Umayyad caliph, but the Harranians instead sided with Mu'awiya at the Battle of Siffin in the same year. In response, it is said that Ali enacted a brutal massacre in Harran, exterminating most of the inhabitants. Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), Harran was renovated and prospered once more. In 717, Caliph Umar II founded the first Muslim university at Harran, bringing many scholars from other cities in

3706-592: The Islamic period. The city retained a highly heterogenous population that practiced many different religions. Some adopted syncretistic faiths tolerable by the Muslims, others continued to honor the old deities of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria, and some primarily worshipped the stars and planets. The Harranian pagans considered themselves the heirs of ancient star-worshipping civilizations such as Babylonia, Greece, India, Persia and Egypt. In addition to pagans, Harran

3815-739: The Islamic period. It flourished as a center of science and learning and was the site of both the first Islamic university (the Harran University ) and the oldest mosque in Anatolia (the Harran Grand Mosque  [ tr ] ). Harran twice served as a capital city in the Middle Ages, first briefly under the Umayyad Caliphate (744–750) and later under the Numayrid Emirate (990–1081). The city

3924-614: The Karkamış Dams downstream the Atatürk Dam are constructed for the purpose of harnessing the waters released from large-scale dams and HEPPs. Nearly 4,760 km (1,840 sq mi) of arable land in the Şanlıurfa - Harran and Mardin - Ceylanpınar plains in upper Mesopotamia is being irrigated via gravity-flow with water diverted from the Atatürk Dam through the Şanlıurfa Tunnels system, which consists of two parallel tunnels, each 26.4 km (16.4 mi) long and 7.62 m (25.0 ft) in diameter. The flow rate of water through

4033-583: The Khwarazmians by the Ayyubids in 1240 by An-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. Harran was captured by the Mongol Empire under Hulagu Khan in 1259 or 1260 through the peaceful surrender of its governor. The Harran Castle, as was traditional placed under a different governor, continued to resist for some time until one of the towers were breached. Under the Mongols, Harran continued to flourish for

4142-532: The Umayyads. The move of the capital to Harran caused some outrage; the Banu Kalb tribe saw it as an abandonment of Syria and under Yazid ibn Khalid al-Qasri besieged the former capital of Damascus before being suppressed. Harran did not continue to function as a capital under the succeeding Abbasid Caliphate , though the city enjoyed some special privileges. When Al-Mansur ( r.  754–775 ) ordered

4251-414: The amount of productive land and the relatively limited area reserved for urban development. In his seyahatnâme from the 17th century, Evliya Çelebi mentioned that the vicinity of Harran was inhabited by Bedouins of Qays and Mawali tribes. The local culture is predominantly Arabic in terms of lifestyle, clothing and food. Harran has close social, cultural, commercial and urban relations with Urfa,

4360-411: The ancient ruins since the 1950s, newer houses constructed in Harran are mostly concrete structures with no architectural relation to the beehive houses. Concrete houses have been built both alongside beehive houses and outside the ancient city walls. The majority of the population of Harran today live in a more newly constructed village about 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) from the old city center. Harran

4469-419: The ancient walls they only produced brackish water and were thus only useful for providing water to animals. The water at Harran had perhaps been contaminated from seeping saltpeter from its ancient ruins. Since the middle of the 20th century, Harran has re-transitioned into a permanently inhabited settlement due to local advancements in irrigation and agriculture. Particularly important in this development

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4578-551: The armies of the Rashidun Caliphate , led by the general Iyad ibn Ghanm , besieged Harran in the winter of 639–640 it was the pagans of the city who negotiated its peaceful surrender. Ibn Ghanm is recorded to have given the pagans of Harran a new moon temple after the capture of the city. Harran under Islamic rule became one of the most important settlements in the Diyar Mudar district. In 657, Caliph Ali asked

4687-732: The biggest of a series of 19 power plants of the GAP project. It consists of eight Francis turbine and generator groups of 300 MW each, supplied by Sulzer Escher Wyss and ABB Asea Brown Boveri respectively. The up to 7.25-metre-diameter (23.8 ft) steel pressure pipes (penstocks) with a total weight of 26.600 tons were supplied and installed by the German NOELL company (today DSD NOELL ). The power plant's first two power units came on line in 1992 and it became fully operational in December 1993. The HEPP can generate 8,900 GWh of electricity annually. Its capacity makes up around one third of

4796-498: The book " protected under Islamic law). Unable to claim that they were, the people of Harran instead claimed that they were " Sabians ", a mysterious religious group also protected according to the Quran but who no one at the time knew who they were. Upon being inquired who their prophet was, the Harranians claimed that their prophet was the legendary Hellenistic figure Hermes Trismegistus . There were many Islamic writers who saw through

4905-517: The border between the ancient Mesopotamian and Anatolian cultures. The earliest known settlements in the region surrounding Harran date to 10000–8000 BC and settlements in its close vicinity are known to have existed by 6000 BC. The region initially shifted between the control of the Sumerians and Hittites before being occupied by ancient Semitic-speaking people around 2750 BC. The earliest written records concerning Harran suggest that

5014-435: The caliphate (including Alexandria ) and installing them in Harran. Harran was made the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate under its last caliph, Marwan II , from 744 to 750. The reason for Marwan moving his court to Harran is not known, but might be either to better monitor the troublesome eastern provinces of the caliphate or due to the anti-Christian sentiment of the city's pagan population, who had never been disloyal to

5123-434: The capital of Assur itself. In the 10th century, Harran was one of the few cities, along with Assur, to be exempt from needing to pay tribute to the Assyrian king and in the 9th and 8th centuries BC, Harran was made the seat of the turtanu , the Assyrian commander-in-chief. Since Harran was the sacred city of the moon-god, many Mesopotamian kings travelled there to receive the blessing and confirmation of their rule from

5232-511: The centuries, few structures remained above the soil; the castle survived owing to its position on a hill and its continued usage. The remnants of the mosque were also kept clear due to its religious and historical significance. Under the Ottoman Empire , which captured the region in the early 16th century, Harran was the capital of a nahiyah (a local administrative unit composed of a group of villages). The demolished Harran University

5341-485: The city from paying the tribute he demanded from Edessa on account of Harran not being Christian like his enemies but rather a stronghold of the "old religion". The endurance of paganism at Harran in the Christian late Roman Empire is likely only explainable through the pagans there offering regular bribes to church officials and civil administrators in the region. In 590, Emperor Maurice ( r.  582–602 ) ordered

5450-469: The city from the earliest documents mentioning it and has remained in continuous use and largely unchanged since ancient times. Harran is mentioned in early cuneiform records of the Sumerians and Hittites as 𒌷𒊮𒆜 ( URU.ŠÀ.KASKAL ), sometimes shortened to 𒆜 ( KASKAL ), transliterated as Ḫarrānu ( m ). Ḫarrānu literally means "journey", "caravan" or "crossroad". It is often interpreted as "caravan path" or "intersection of routes and travel". Harran

5559-521: The city itself was founded c. 2500 –2000 BC as a merchant outpost by traders from the Sumerian city of Ur . Harran was from early on associated with the Mesopotamian moon-god Nanna (later known as Sin) and soon became regarded as a sacred city of the moon. The Ekhulkhul ("Temple of Rejoicing"), Harran's great moon temple, was already present in the city by c. 2000 BC. Sin

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5668-572: The city steadily declined in importance. Harran was captured by Khwarazmians in 1237, driven from their homeland following the fall of the Khwarazmian Empire , but the castle was retained and fortified by the Ayyubid ruler As-Salih Ayyub though he soon had to give it up to broker a deal with the Khwarazmians for military aid against Badr al-Din Lu'lu' of Mosul. Harran was later regained from

5777-510: The city was Sin's son Nusku , the god of light. Although next to nothing is known of the architecture and layout of Harran prior to the Middle Ages, the city is believed to have been designed according to a vaguely moon-shaped plan since Medieval sources allude to this. What kind of moon shape is meant by the sources is not clear. The religious authorities of Harran, speaking on behalf of Sin, were considered suitable guarantors and signatories in political treaties. Already c. 2000 BC,

5886-550: The city's religious officials and in turn renovated and expanded Harran and its temples. The Ekhulkhul was renovated twice in the Neo-Assyrian period by the kings Shalmaneser III ( r.  859–824 BC) and Ashurbanipal ( r.  669–631  BC). Prophecies made by prophets and oracles of the moon cult of Harran were held in high regard; in the 670s BC the Harranians correctly prophesied that Esarhaddon ( r.  681–669  BC) would conquer Egypt and Sasi ,

5995-486: The claims of Harranians and still considered them to be pagans and not Sabians, and thus lacking any special right to toleration or protection. In 933, the Harranian pagans were ordered through a decree to convert to Islam, but a visitor to the city in the following year found that there were still pagan religious leaders operating a remaining public temple. Toleration of the pagans at Harran appears to have been renewed in

6104-666: The collapse of the Seleucid Empire, Harran became part of the Kingdom of Osroene in 132 BC, ruled by the Nabatean Arab Abgarid dynasty and most frequently a vassal state of the Parthian Empire . Abgarid rule may have encouraged the local moon cult; the moon was important in both the ancient Bedouin and Nabatean Arab religions. From the first century BC until the end of antiquity, Harran

6213-529: The compound name "Carrhae-Harran" for the ancient city. Under the Byzantine Empire , the city continued to be called Carrhae (Kάρραι) but was also sometimes referred to as Hellenopolis (Eλληνóπoλις), "city of the pagan Greeks", in reference to the strong pagan traditions there. Harran is situated at an important geographical crossroad, both between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and at

6322-473: The converted moon temple. The castle being on the site of the ancient temple is further supported by its higher elevation whereas the mosque is further supported by the finds of Babylonian inscriptions and four stelae of Nabonidus among its ruins. These inscriptions and stelae directly mention the Elkhulkhul. Additionally, the remains of an ancient altar with moon iconography have also been recovered from

6431-445: The country's cotton production, the region developed to the leader in Turkey. The Atatürk Reservoir , extending over an area of 817 km (315 sq mi) with a water volume of 48.7 km (63,400 million cu yd), ranks third in size in Turkey after Lake Van and Lake Tuz . The reservoir water level touched 535 m (1,755 ft) amsl in 1994. Since then, it varies between 526 and 537 m amsl. The full reservoir level

6540-443: The course of its early history, Harran rapidly grew into a major Mesopotamian cultural, commercial and religious center. It was made a religiously and politically influential city through its association with the moon-god Sin ; many prominent Mesopotamian rulers consulted with and renovated the moon-temple of Ekhulkhul in Harran. Harran came under Assyrian rule under Adad-nirari I ( r.  1305–1274  BC) and became

6649-473: The dam project was about US$ 1,250,000,000. The dam was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish one-million- lira banknotes of 1995–2005 and of the 1 new lira banknote of 2005–2009. The initial development project for the southeastern region of Turkey was presented in 1970. As the objectives for regional development have changed significantly and the ambitions have grown in the 1970s, the original plan underwent major modifications. The most important change in

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6758-573: The days and nights. There are 136 neighbourhoods in Harran District: In its most prosperous periods in ancient and medieval history Harran was probably home to around 10,000–20,000 residents. As a result of Harran's retransition into a permanent settlement over the course of the late 20th century and early 21st century, the city and surrounding district has experienced a rapid population increase. Despite this, Harran retains predominantly rural characteristics. As of 2022, Harran had

6867-463: The destruction of the walls of all cities in northern Mesopotamia, Harran was a notable exception. The Harran University underwent its golden age in the 8th century, particularly under the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid ( r.  786–809 ). Many prominent scholars of this time were educated at the university in subjects such as mathematics, philosophy, medicine and astrology. The university

6976-716: The fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, Harran was successively under the control of the Achaemenid (539–330 BC), Macedonian (330–312 BC) and Seleucid (312–132 BC) empires. Under the Seleucids, Harran largely functioned as a military colony and from the time of the Macedonian conquest onwards, many Greeks settled in Harran. Under the centuries of Hellenic control, Harran gradually underwent some Hellenization of its culture. After

7085-604: The increasingly Christianised late Roman Empire. As late as the early 5th century, the theologian Theodoret wrote that Harran was "a barbarous place, full of the thorns of paganism". At the Second Council of Ephesus (449), the Bishop of Harran , Stephen, was accused of accepting bribes from pagans to let them practice their rituals in peace. Harran was briefly captured by the Sasanian king Khosrow I in 549, who exempted

7194-408: The last moon temples were closed and destroyed. The precise date when this happened and the events surrounding it are unknown, perhaps coinciding with the city falling under the control of the Fatimid Caliphate in 1038 through the submission of the Numayrid ruler Shabīb ibn Waththāb , or more likely with a failed anti-Uqaylid rebellion in 1083. Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad reported that a Sabian temple

7303-415: The late 10th century. The power of the Abbasid Caliphate and its vassals in the region around Harran (the Hamdanid dynasty ) declined at the end of the 10th century. A new local Arab dynasty emerged during this time, the Numayrid dynasty , who ruled a small realm with Harran as its capital from 990 to 1081. The toleration of paganism at Harran was at last revoked for the final time in the 11th century and

7412-534: The many cultures that have inhabited Harran constructed them is not known. The walls were most likely constructed under either Roman or Byzantine rule. Inscriptions in both Greek and Syriac have been discovered during excavations of parts of the walls. The walls of Harran resemble those of the nearby Edessa, though are slightly smaller. They are vaguely elliptical in layout, normally around 3 metres (9.8 feet) thick and approximately 4.5 kilometres (2.8 miles) long and 5 metres (16 feet) high. Before they fell into ruin,

7521-449: The middle of the 20th century, Harran comprised about a hundred houses, inhabited by semi-settled nomadic Arabs, most of whom still did not stay at the site for the duration of the entire year. The city's ancient water systems had long fallen into disrepair and Harran in the 20th century had only a single source of drinking water, Jacob's Well, about 1.6 kilometres (0.99 miles) west of its walls. Although six wells were still operational within

7630-429: The mountains of eastern Anatolia and flowing southwards to Syria and Iraq , the Euphrates and the Tigris are very irregular rivers, used to cause great problems each year with droughts in summer and flooding in winter. The water of the Euphrates River is regulated by means of large reservoirs of the Keban and Atatürk Dams. However, the waters released from the HEPPs of those dams also need to be regulated. The Birecik and

7739-400: The nature of the earlier protocol by forming a joint committee on technical issues, which Syria joined later in 1982 as well. Turkey unilaterally guaranteed to allow 15.75 km/year (500 m/s) of water across the border to Syria without any formal agreement on the sharing of the Euphrates water. Mid-January 1990, when the first phase of the dam was completed, Turkey held back the flow of

7848-414: The new religion very early, Harran remained a pagan stronghold for centuries and became the largest center of pagan cults in eastern Syria. Harran was still overwhelmingly pagan in the 4th century, to the degree that the bishop appointed to Harran in 361 refused to reside in the city and instead lived in Edessa. Despite its paganism, Harran was a site of interest to Christians since the city is mentioned in

7957-465: The newly established Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Medes . The Assyrian capital of Nineveh fell in 612 BC but the remnants of the Assyrian army, led by Crown Prince Aššur-uballiṭ II , rallied at Harran. Harran is therefore typically regarded as the short-lived final capital of ancient Assyria. Aššur-uballiṭ II underwent a coronation ceremony at Harran, being invested with rulership by Sin. After

8066-466: The nomadic lifestyle of the locals since they can be built and dismantled rapidly, like a tent, but also efficiently resist both heat and cold. Because of the weak materials used for plastering the beehive houses require repair every 1–3 years. Their walls are usually 50–60 centimetres thick and their domes are about 20–30 centimetres thick. The domes have an opening at the top which provides natural air circulation and ventilation. This feature, combined with

8175-615: The oldest extant buildings in Harran is a beehive complex that today serves as the Harran Culture House ( Harran Kültür Evi ), a local museum and restaurant. The Culture House building was originally built c. 1800 but fell into ruins at some point and was rebuilt for tourism purposes in 1999. The museum showcases artefacts as well as traditional jewelry and clothes from the region surrounding Harran. Since prohibitions relating to conservation of historical monuments has hindered locals from gathering building materials from

8284-467: The present conical domes are built on larger cubical bases. Since wood is rare in the region around Harran owing to its climate, locals have traditionally built houses from materials they could easily gather such as stone, brick and mud. The modern beehive houses were constructed by locals who learnt how to build them by examining excavated ancient buildings and used bricks gathered from the ruins as building material. The beehive houses were compatible with

8393-556: The project was abandoning the Middle Karababa Dam design, and adopting the design of the Atatürk Dam to increase the storage and power generation capacities of the dam. Dolsar Engineering and ATA Construction, two prominent Turkish companies, signed for the building of the dam. The construction of the cofferdam began in 1985 and was completed in 1987. The fill work for the main dam lasted from 1987 to 1990. The Atatürk Dam, listed in international construction publications as

8502-536: The regulated water by the dams as they protect all three riparian countries from seasonal droughts and floods. Two damaging earthquakes of M w 5.5 and M w 5.1 occurred in the town of Samsat near the Atatürk Reservoir in 2017 and 2018, respectively. The spatio-temporal evolution of seismicity and its source properties in relation to the temporal water-level variations and the stresses resulting from surface loading and pore-pressure diffusion shows

8611-502: The remaining part is added in Syria , but nothing is contributed further downstream in Iraq. In general, the stream varies greatly in its flow from season to season and year to year. As an example, the annual flow at the border with Syria ranged from 15.3 km (3.7 cu mi) in 1961 to 42.7 km (10.2 cu mi) in 1963. One of the most important legal texts on the waters of

8720-418: The ruins of the mosque. As a result, the mosque enjoys more scholarly support as the most likely site of the ancient temple. The old town of Harran is still largely surrounded by Harran's ancient city walls. Though they are in generally poor condition, some stretches are well-preserved in good condition and give an idea of how the settlement once looked. The exact date of the current walls and which of

8829-554: The rule of the Ayyubid Sultanate , which followed the Zengids. Saladin ( r.  1174–1193 ) at some point enlarged Harran's Grand Mosque  [ tr ] and thereafter granted Harran to his brother Al-Adil I (later sultan 1200–1218). Al-Adil later gave Harran to his son Al-Kamil (later sultan 1218–1238). Harran was then under the rule of Al-Kamil's brother Al-Ashraf Musa 1202–1228/1229, after whose death

8938-599: The scholar Thābit ibn Qurra in the late 9th century, who could have learnt Neoplatonism in Baghdad. Alternatively, Neoplatonism might have been brought to Harran as early as the 6th century by Neoplatonists such as Simplicius of Cilicia , who fled persecution in the Byzantine Empire. The local Harranian religion continued to develop as a blend of ancient Mesopotamian religion and Neoplatonism and Harran remained notorious for its strong pagan traditions long into

9047-412: The site. The precise location of the ancient great Ekhulkhul temple is unknown and no certain archaeological evidence of it has yet been found. It is likely that one of the major medieval buildings of Harran displaced the Elkhulkhul and were constructed on top of it, either the Harran Castle or the Grand Mosque. Writings from the Islamic period contradictingly claim that the castle or the mosque were

9156-400: The start of the detailed geodetic monitoring in 1992. The maximum horizontal (radial) deformation measured is about 2.9 m (9.5 ft). The permeation grouting work was carried out by subcontractor Solétanche Bachy and the rehabilitation work for the post-tensioning of the dam crest with ground anchors by Vorspann System Losinger International (VSL). The HEPP of the Atatürk Dam is

9265-403: The temple of Sin. Harran, along with the nearby cities of Nisibis and Hatra , were captured by the Sasanian king Ardashir I in 238–240 but was swiftly retaken by Emperor Gordian III . Later in 296, Harran was also the site of a battle where the future emperor Galerius suffered a crushing defeat against the Sasanian king Narseh . In the writings of Ammianus Marcellinus (359), it

9374-427: The thick walls, provide relatively good indoor conditions throughout the year, even in the extreme summer heat. As of a count conducted in 2002, Harran had 2,760 beehive houses though the number in the old town has since declined to a few dozen. Some of the beehive houses remained inhabited until the 1980s but they are today mainly used as store houses and barns and have been under conservation since 1979. One of

9483-467: The time the city was his capital. The masonry of the mosque indicates that it was restored several times throughout its history. Measuring 104 by 107 metres (341 ft × 351 ft) at its height, the mosque has fallen into ruin over the centuries and little of it remains standing today. Remaining portions include the eastern wall, the mihrab , a fountain, and the 33.3-metre (109-foot) tall minaret . Another important historical monument in Harran

9592-470: The total capacity of the GAP project. During the periods of low demand for electricity, only one of the eight units of the HEPP is in operation while in times of high demand, all the eight units are in operation. Hence, depending upon the energy demand and the state of the interconnected system, the amount of water to be released from the HEPP might vary between 200 and 2,000 m/s in one day. Originating in

9701-410: The tunnels is about 328 m/s (11,600 cu ft/s), which makes one-third of the total flow of the Euphrates. The tunnels are the largest in the world, in terms of length and flow rate, built for irrigation purposes. The first tunnel was completed in 1995 and the other in 1996. The reservoir behind the dam will irrigate another 406,000 ha by pumping for a total of 882,000 ha. The Atatürk Dam and

9810-480: The walls had 187 bastions and 6–8 gates, most of which are in ruined condition today. Only one of the medieval gates of Harran, the Aleppo Gate, remain standing today. The walls were once surrounded by a great moat filled with water. Harran mainly attracts attention today due to the distinctive vernacular architecture of the houses in its old town, known as beehive houses ( kümbets ). This building type

9919-456: The water-level and seismicity rate are anti-correlated in this dam, which is explained by the stabilization effect of the gravitational induced stress imposed by water loading on the local faults. The overall effective stress in the seismogenic zone increased over decades due to pore-pressure diffusion, explaining the enhanced background seismicity during recent years. Bozova Bozova ( Ottoman Turkish : بوزاووه Kurdish : Hewenge )

10028-450: The world's largest construction site, was completed in a world record time of around 50 months. The rock-fill dam undergoes deformations that are regularly and systematically monitored since 1990 with different types of sensors. It is estimated that the central portion of the dam crest has settled by around 7 m (23 ft) since the end of the construction. Settlement of the dam crest up to 4.3 m (14 ft) has been measured since

10137-465: The worst military defeats in Roman history. Osroene (and thus also Harran) first came under Roman control as a result of the wars of Lucius Verus and Avidius Cassius in 162–166 AD. Harran gained colonial status under Emperor Septimius Severus in 195. Sources from Roman times describe Harran as a fortified garrison town. In 217, the Roman emperor Caracalla was murdered in Harran while visiting

10246-527: The Şanlıurfa Tunnel system are two major components of the GAP project. Irrigation started in the Harran Plain in the spring of 1995. The impact of the irrigation on the economy of the region is significant. In ninety percent of the irrigated area, cotton is planted. Irrigation expansion within the Harran plains also increased Southeastern Anatolia's cotton production from 164,000 to 400,000 metric tons in 2001, or nearly sixty percent. With almost 50% share of

10355-456: Was a Turkish district until 1946, after when it was downgraded to a sub-district of the Akçakale district. It regained its status as a district in 1987. Today, it is a major local tourist spot. The town is particularly famous for its unique beehive houses , which are reminiscent of buildings that were already present at Harran in ancient Mesopotamian times. The name Harran is recorded for

10464-475: Was a major deity in Ur, which also housed his main temple, but Harran's devotion to the moon can perhaps also be explained by its geography and climate. According to Donald Frew, the sun was a natural enemy in the hot and desolate landscape surrounding Harran whereas the night (and thus the moon) were more comforting. The sun-god Shamash is however also thought to have had a temple in Harran. Another prominent deity in

10573-475: Was also an important site for translations of documents from Syriac and Greek into Arabic and Harran flourished as a center of science and learning. Al-Rashid furthermore supplied Harran with a new water supply, constructing a canal from the Balikh River . At some point, Neoplatonism was introduced to Harranian intellectuals, though the precise timing is not clear. It might have been brought to Harran by

10682-400: Was also home to Muslims, Christians, Jews, Samaritans , Zoroastrians , Manicheans , and other groups. In 830, Harun al-Rashid's son Al-Ma'mun ( r.  813–833 ) arrived at Harran with an army on his way to raid in the Byzantine Empire and intended to destroy the city due to its large pagan population. Al-Ma'mun asked the populace if they were Muslims, Christians or Jews (" people of

10791-460: Was also important due to its strategic placement on an intersection of trade routes. Because Harran had an abundance of goods that passed through its region, it often became a target for raids. In the 19th century BC, the lands surrounding Harran were occupied by confederations of semi-nomadic tribes. In the following century the Amorite king Shamshi-Adad I ( r.  1808–1776  BC)

10900-473: Was conquered by the Mongol Empire in 1260 but was largely destroyed and left abandoned in 1271. Although Harran was kept as a military outpost under some later regimes, it has over the last five centuries mainly been used as a temporary settlement by local nomadic societies. Harran transitioned back into a semi-permanent village settlement in the 1840s, but has only recently grown into a permanent town through advancements in local irrigation and agriculture. Harran

11009-670: Was destroyed by the Uqaylid dynasty governor Yahya ibn as-Shatir, who conquered Harran in 1081. In 1059, the Harran Castle , presumably constructed in Byzantine times, was rebuilt and strengthened by the Numayrid ruler Manīʿ ibn Shabīb . By the 1180s, Harran was fully devoted to Islam with little to no traces of its former moon cult. In the late 11th and early 12th century, political control in northern Mesopotamia and Syria

11118-428: Was founded at some point during Byzantine rule (4th–7th centuries). It is also possible that it was built under Muslim rule in the 9th century. If it was not built in the 9th century, it is likely to at least have been expanded in the early Islamic period. Before its fall into ruin, the castle was a three-story structure. It was probably initially a palace but was converted into a more castle-like militaristic building in

11227-684: Was fragmented. Harran was an important city to the various local Muslim rulers as a counterweight to the nearby crusader states . Numayrid control of Harran came to an end in 1081 when the city was captured by the Uqaylid dynasty. It was then under the control of various Turkish princes; first Jikirmish of Mosul (1102–1106), then the Artuqids of Mardin (1106–1127) and then the Zengid dynasty , which captured Harran under Imad al-Din Zengi in 1127. In

11336-479: Was later incorporated into the Mitanni kingdom in the 16th century BC. Harran was conquered from Mitanni by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari I ( r.  1305–1274  BC). The city would not be firmly incorporated into Middle Assyrian Empire until the 1100s BC, before which it was often occupied by Arameans . Under Assyria, Harran grew into a fortified provincial capital second in importance only to

11445-419: Was likely the decreasing water supply. It was impossible to sustain the population size of Harran with its water storage systems in disrepair and its wells no longer producing enough water. Another possible reason for the abandonment was the difficulty to retain and defend Harran and the little strategic value offered by the city in return. Harran was regained from the Mongols by the Mamluk Sultanate later in

11554-542: Was often contested between the Roman and Parthian (later Sasanian ) empires. In 53 BC Harran was the site of the Battle of Carrhae , one of the worst military defeats in Roman history. The Harranian moon cult of Sin proved to be enduring and lasted long into the Middle Ages , known to have existed as late as the 11th century AD. Harran was captured by the Rashidun Caliphate in 640 and remained an important city in

11663-491: Was repaired under the Ottoman sultan Selim I ( r.  1512–1520 ) though it again declined in importance after his reign. The Ottomans continued to use the castle, and also built a new smaller mosque in the southern part of the city, but Harran gradually declined over the course of Ottoman rule and was eventually entirely abandoned as a permanent settlement. Harran has over the last five hundred years mainly been used as

11772-581: Was the Turkish Southeastern Anatolia Project , launched in the 1970s, which through irrigation efforts transformed the formerly dry desert plains surrounding Harran into productive agricultural fields. Harran received its own plan for future development in 1992. The ruins of the ancient city were placed on the Tentative list of World Heritage Sites in Turkey in 2000. Accelerated economic and demographic growth in Harran

11881-544: Was typically located near or on the border of the Roman (later Byzantine) and Parthian (later Sasanian ) empires. Harran frequently changed hands between the two empires but was in practice often more or less independent. In 53 BC, the city was the site of the Battle of Carrhae between the Romans and Parthians, in which the Parthian general Surena defeated and killed the Roman triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus , one of

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