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80-571: Kenya has confirmed crude oil deposits of at least 750 million barrels. Originally Kenya partnered with Uganda to export that oil through a joint pipeline to Port Lamu on the Indian Ocean coast. When those plans fell through, Kenya announced it would build ts own pipeline from Lokichar to Lamu. The projected length of this pipeline is about 891 kilometres (554 mi) The pipeline would carry anywhere from 80,000 to 120,000 barrels of crude oil every 24 hours, using 50 MW of electricity. At that rate,

160-455: A continental shelf differs significantly from the geological definition. UNCLOS states that the shelf extends to the limit of the continental margin , but no less than 200 nmi (370 km; 230 mi) and no more than 350 nmi (650 km; 400 mi) from the baseline . Thus inhabited volcanic islands such as the Canaries , which have no actual continental shelf, nonetheless have

240-832: A distance where the depth of waters admitted of resource exploitation were claimed by the marine nations that signed the Convention on the Continental Shelf drawn up by the UN's International Law Commission in 1958. This was partly superseded by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The 1982 convention created the 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone, plus continental shelf rights for states with physical continental shelves that extend beyond that distance. The legal definition of

320-468: A global rise in sea level. Sea level also increases in the Indian Ocean, except in the south tropical Indian Ocean where it decreases, a pattern most likely caused by rising levels of greenhouse gases . Among the tropical oceans, the western Indian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentrations of phytoplankton blooms in summer, due to the strong monsoon winds. The monsoonal wind forcing leads to

400-534: A key role in early human migrations and the spread of civilizations. In modern times, it remains crucial for global trade, especially in oil and hydrocarbons. Environmental and geopolitical concerns in the region include the effects of climate change , piracy, and strategic disputes over island territories. The Indian Ocean has been known by its present name since at least 1515, when the Latin form Oceanus Orientalis Indicus ( lit.   ' Indian Eastern Ocean ' )

480-747: A maximum depth of 7,290 m (23,920 ft). All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere, the 90th meridian east , passes through the Ninety East Ridge . Within these waters are a number of islands. These include those controlled by surrounding countries, and independent island states and territories. Of the non-coastal islands, there are two broad clusters: one around Madagascar, and one south of India. A few other oceanic islands are scattered elsewhere. In contrast to

560-511: A multinational energy services company based in Aberdeen , Scotland , to carry out the FEED engineering for the pipeline. The design work is expected to take eight months. Until the pipeline is built, trucks carry 2,000 barrels per day to Lamu for export and international testing. In November 2018, Business Daily Africa reported that the government of Kenya was seeking 20 percent shareholding in

640-470: A period of six years, except for debris that gets indefinitely stuck in the centre of the gyre. The garbage patch in the Indian Ocean will, according to a 2012 study, decrease in size after several decades to vanish completely over centuries. Over several millennia, however, the global system of garbage patches will accumulate in the North Pacific. There are two amphidromes of opposite rotation in

720-790: A process of aridification began in the southwest Indian Ocean began around 4,000 years ago. Mammalian megafauna once widespread in the MPA was driven to near extinction in the early 20th century. Some species have been successfully recovered since then — the population of white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum simum ) increased from less than 20 individuals in 1895 to more than 17,000 as of 2013. Other species still depend on fenced areas and management programs, including black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis minor ), African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus ), cheetah ( Acynonix jubatus ), elephant ( Loxodonta africana ), and lion ( Panthera leo ). This biodiversity hotspot (and namesake ecoregion and "Endemic Bird Area")

800-464: A strong coastal and open ocean upwelling , which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for photosynthesis and phytoplankton production. These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and eventually the larger fish species. The Indian Ocean accounts for the second-largest share of the most economically valuable tuna catch. Its fish are of great and growing importance to

880-473: Is a patchwork of small forested areas, often with a unique assemblage of species within each, located within 200 km (120 mi) from the coast and covering a total area of c. 6,200 km (2,400 sq mi). It also encompasses coastal islands, including Zanzibar and Pemba, and Mafia. This area, one of the only two hotspots that are entirely arid, includes the Ethiopian Highlands ,

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960-593: Is also minimal, at less than 20 m (66 ft). Though the continental shelf is treated as a physiographic province of the ocean , it is not part of the deep ocean basin proper, but the flooded margins of the continent. Passive continental margins such as most of the Atlantic coasts have wide and shallow shelves, made of thick sedimentary wedges derived from long erosion of a neighboring continent. Active continental margins have narrow, relatively steep shelves, due to frequent earthquakes that move sediment to

1040-946: Is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea without ship lock through the Suez Canal , which is accessible via the Red Sea. The Arabian Sea is connected to the Persian Gulf by the Gulf of Oman and the Strait of Hormuz . In the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Bahrain separates Qatar from the Arabic Peninsula. Along the west coast of India, the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat are located in Gujarat in

1120-723: Is attested, named after India, which projects into it. It was earlier known as the Eastern Ocean , a term that was still in use during the mid-18th century, as opposed to the Western Ocean ( Atlantic ) before the Pacific was surmised. In modern times, the name Afro-Asian Ocean has occasionally been used. The Hindi name for the Ocean is हिंद महासागर ( Hind Mahāsāgar ; lit. transl.  Ocean of India ). Conversely, Chinese explorers (e.g., Zheng He during

1200-426: Is ecologically diverse, with important marine life and ecosystems like coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grass beds. It hosts a significant portion of the world's tuna catch and is home to endangered marine species. It faces challenges like overfishing and pollution , including a significant garbage patch . Historically, the Indian Ocean has been a hub of cultural and commercial exchange since ancient times. It played

1280-469: Is evidence that changing wind, rainfall, and regional ocean currents in a warming ocean are having an effect on some shelf seas. Improved data collection via Integrated Ocean Observing Systems in shelf sea regions is making identification of these changes possible. Continental shelves teem with life because of the sunlight available in shallow waters, in contrast to the biotic desert of the oceans' abyssal plain . The pelagic (water column) environment of

1360-479: Is intermediate between the gradients of the slope and the shelf. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea , the name continental shelf was given a legal definition as the stretch of the seabed adjacent to the shores of a particular country to which it belongs. The shelf usually ends at a point of increasing slope (called the shelf break ). The sea floor below the break is

1440-414: Is often cut with submarine canyons . The physical mechanisms involved in forming these canyons were not well understood until the 1960s. Continental shelves cover an area of about 27 million km (10 million sq mi), equal to about 7% of the surface area of the oceans. The width of the continental shelf varies considerably—it is not uncommon for an area to have virtually no shelf at all, particularly where

1520-469: Is projected to push the tropical Indian Ocean into a basin-wide near-permanent heatwave state by the end of the 21st century, where marine heatwaves are projected to increase from 20 days per year (during 1970–2000) to 220–250 days per year. South of the Equator (20–5°S), the Indian Ocean is gaining heat from June to October, during the austral winter, while it is losing heat from November to March, during

1600-571: Is the only ocean named after a country. It has an average depth of 3,741 m. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere . Unlike the Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is bordered by landmasses and an archipelago on three sides, making it more like an embayed ocean centered on the Indian Peninsula. Its coasts and shelves differ from other oceans, with distinct features, such as a narrower continental shelf . In terms of geology,

1680-748: The Arabian Peninsula in the Northern Hemisphere and north of the trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. The Indonesian Throughflow is a unique Equatorial connection to the Pacific. The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea, the violent Monsoon brings rain to

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1760-577: The East African Rift valley , the Socotra islands, as well as some small islands in the Red Sea and areas on the southern Arabic Peninsula. Endemic and threatened mammals include the dibatag ( Ammodorcas clarkei ) and Speke's gazelle ( Gazella spekei ); the Somali wild ass ( Equus africanus somaliensis ) and hamadryas baboon ( Papio hamadryas ). It also contains many reptiles. In Somalia,

1840-629: The Malacca , Sunda and Torres Straits . The Gulf of Carpentaria is located on the Australian north coast while the Great Australian Bight constitutes a large part of its southern coast. Several features make the Indian Ocean unique. It constitutes the core of the large-scale Tropical Warm Pool which, when interacting with the atmosphere, affects the climate both regionally and globally. Asia blocks heat export and prevents

1920-818: The Mascarene Basin the CDW becomes a deep western boundary current before it is met by a re-circulated branch of itself, the North Indian Deep Water. This mixed water partly flows north into the Somali Basin whilst most of it flows clockwise in the Mascarene Basin where an oscillating flow is produced by Rossby waves . Water circulation in the Indian Ocean is dominated by the Subtropical Anticyclonic Gyre,

2000-803: The Ming dynasty ) who traveled to the Indian Ocean during the 15th century called it the Western Oceans. In Ancient Greek geography , the Indian Ocean region known to the Greeks was called the Erythraean Sea . The borders of the Indian Ocean , as delineated by the International Hydrographic Organization in 1953 included the Southern Ocean but not the marginal seas along the northern rim but in 2002

2080-808: The Sea of Zanj is located north of Madagascar. On the northern coast of the Arabian Sea , Gulf of Aden is connected to the Red Sea by the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb . In the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Tadjoura is located in Djibouti and the Guardafui Channel separates Socotra island from the Horn of Africa. The northern end of the Red Sea terminates in the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Suez . The Indian Ocean

2160-431: The continental slope . Below the slope is the continental rise , which finally merges into the deep ocean floor, the abyssal plain . The continental shelf and the slope are part of the continental margin . The shelf area is commonly subdivided into the inner continental shelf , mid continental shelf , and outer continental shelf , each with their specific geomorphology and marine biology . The character of

2240-582: The runoff water to the Indian Ocean. Mainly in summer, this runoff flows into the Arabian Sea but also south across the Equator where it mixes with fresher seawater from the Indonesian Throughflow . This mixed freshwater joins the South Equatorial Current in the southern tropical Indian Ocean. Sea surface salinity is highest (more than 36  PSU ) in the Arabian Sea because evaporation exceeds precipitation there. In

2320-423: The "Hinge zone may represent the relict of continental and proto-oceanic crustal boundary formed during the rifting of India from Antarctica ." Australia, Indonesia, and India are the three countries with the longest shorelines and exclusive economic zones . The continental shelf makes up 15% of the Indian Ocean. More than two billion people live in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, compared to 1.7 billion for

2400-727: The Arabian Peninsula) and Limpopo rivers. After the breakup of East Gondwana and the formation of the Himalayas, the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers flow into the world's largest delta known as the Bengal delta or Sunderbans . Marginal seas , gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include: Along the east coast of Africa, the Mozambique Channel separates Madagascar from mainland Africa, while

2480-507: The Asian mainland. Other familiar bodies of water that overlie continental shelves are the North Sea and the Persian Gulf . The average width of continental shelves is about 80 km (50 mi). The depth of the shelf also varies, but is generally limited to water shallower than 100 m (330 ft). The slope of the shelf is usually quite low, on the order of 0.5°; vertical relief

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2560-541: The Atlantic and 2.7 billion for the Pacific (some countries border more than one ocean). The Indian Ocean drainage basin covers 21,100,000 km (8,100,000 sq mi), virtually identical to that of the Pacific Ocean and half that of the Atlantic basin, or 30% of its ocean surface (compared to 15% for the Pacific). The Indian Ocean drainage basin is divided into roughly 800 individual basins, half that of

2640-482: The Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is enclosed by major landmasses and an archipelago on three sides and does not stretch from pole to pole, and can be likened to an embayed ocean. It is centered on the Indian Peninsula. Although this subcontinent has played a significant role in its history, the Indian Ocean has foremostly been a cosmopolitan stage, interlinking diverse regions by innovations, trade, and religion since early in human history. The active margins of

2720-581: The Comoros. Although both species represent an order of lobe-finned fishes known from the Early Devonian (410 mya ) and though extinct 66 mya, they are morphologically distinct from their Devonian ancestors. Over millions of years, coelacanths evolved to inhabit different environments — lungs adapted for shallow, brackish waters evolved into gills adapted for deep marine waters. Of Earth's 36 biodiversity hotspots nine (or 25%) are located on

2800-483: The East India Coastal Current to the Arabian Sea from January to April. An Indian Ocean garbage patch was discovered in 2010 covering at least 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles). Riding the southern Indian Ocean Gyre , this vortex of plastic garbage constantly circulates the ocean from Australia to Africa, down the Mozambique Channel , and back to Australia in

2880-691: The IHO delimited the Southern Ocean separately, which removed waters south of 60°s from the Indian Ocean but included the northern marginal seas. Meridionally , the Indian Ocean is delimited from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian , running south from Cape Agulhas , South Africa, and from the Pacific Ocean by the meridian of 146°49'E, running south from South East Cape on the island of Tasmania in Australia. The northernmost extent of

2960-447: The Indian Ocean (including marginal seas) is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf . The Indian Ocean covers 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% of the world's oceans; its volume is 264,000,000 km (63,000,000 cu mi) or 19.8% of the world's oceans' volume; it has an average depth of 3,741 m (12,274 ft) and

3040-405: The Indian Ocean have an average width (horizontal distance from land to shelf break ) of 19 ± 0.61 km (11.81 ± 0.38 mi) with a maximum width of 175 km (109 mi). The passive margins have an average width of 47.6 ± 0.8 km (29.58 ± 0.50 mi). The average width of the slopes (horizontal distance from shelf break to foot of slope) of

3120-509: The Indian Ocean includes beaches and intertidal zones covering 3,000 km (1,200 sq mi) and 246 larger estuaries . Upwelling areas are small but important. The hypersaline salterns in India covers between 5,000–10,000 km (1,900–3,900 sq mi) and species adapted for this environment, such as Artemia salina and Dunaliella salina , are important to bird life. Coral reefs, sea grass beds, and mangrove forests are

3200-541: The Indian Ocean is the youngest of the major oceans, with active spreading ridges and features like seamounts and ridges formed by hotspots . The climate of the Indian Ocean is characterized by monsoons . It is the warmest ocean, with a significant impact on global climate due to its interaction with the atmosphere. Its waters are affected by the Indian Ocean Walker circulation , resulting in unique oceanic currents and upwelling patterns. The Indian Ocean

3280-481: The Indian Ocean region, or almost half of the world's mangrove habitat, of which 42,500 km (16,400 sq mi) is located in Indonesia, or 50% of mangroves in the Indian Ocean. Mangroves originated in the Indian Ocean region and have adapted to a wide range of its habitats but it is also where it suffers its biggest loss of habitat. In 2016, six new animal species were identified at hydrothermal vents in

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3360-730: The Indian Ocean, during the past six decades. The tuna catch rates have also declined 50–90% during the past half-century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species. Endangered and vulnerable marine mammals and turtles: 80% of the Indian Ocean is open ocean and includes nine large marine ecosystems : the Agulhas Current , Somali Coastal Current , Red Sea , Arabian Sea , Bay of Bengal , Gulf of Thailand , West Central Australian Shelf , Northwest Australian Shelf and Southwest Australian Shelf . Coral reefs cover c. 200,000 km (77,000 sq mi). The coasts of

3440-432: The Indian Ocean, probably caused by Rossby wave propagation. Icebergs drift as far north as 55° south latitude , similar to the Pacific but less than in the Atlantic where icebergs reach up to 45°S. The volume of iceberg loss in the Indian Ocean between 2004 and 2012 was 24  Gt . Since the 1960s, anthropogenic warming of the global ocean combined with contributions of freshwater from retreating land ice causes

3520-466: The Indian Ocean. While the Indian Ocean warmed at a rate of 1.2°C per century during 1950–2020, climate models predict accelerated warming, at a rate of 1.7 °C–3.8 °C per century during 2020–2100. Though the warming is basin-wide, maximum warming is in the northwestern Indian Ocean including the Arabian Sea, and reduced warming off the Sumatra and Java coasts in the southeast Indian Ocean. Global warming

3600-502: The Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . Some 80% of the total annual rainfall in India occurs during summer and the region is so dependent on this rainfall that many civilisations perished when

3680-536: The Monsoon failed in the past. The huge variability in the Indian Summer Monsoon has also occurred pre-historically, with a strong, wet phase 33,500–32,500 BP; a weak, dry phase 26,000–23,500 BC; and a very weak phase 17,000–15,000 BP, corresponding to a series of dramatic global events: Bølling–Allerød warming , Heinrich , and Younger Dryas . The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in

3760-668: The Pacific, of which 50% are located in Asia, 30% in Africa, and 20% in Australasia. The rivers of the Indian Ocean are shorter on average (740 km (460 mi)) than those of the other major oceans. The largest rivers are ( order 5 ) the Zambezi , Ganges - Brahmaputra , Indus , Jubba , and Murray rivers and (order 4) the Shatt al-Arab , Wadi Ad Dawasir (a dried-out river system on

3840-619: The Southeast Arabian Sea salinity drops to less than 34 PSU. It is the lowest (c. 33 PSU) in the Bay of Bengal because of river runoff and precipitation. The Indonesian Throughflow and precipitation results in lower salinity (34 PSU) along the Sumatran west coast. Monsoonal variation results in eastward transportation of saltier water from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal from June to September and in westerly transport by

3920-411: The Southwest Indian Ridge, from where it continues into the Mozambique Channel and Prince Edward Fracture Zone . North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C (72 °F), exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude , temperatures drop quickly. The Bay of Bengal contributes more than half (2,950 km or 710 cu mi) of

4000-399: The Southwest Indian Ridge: a "Hoff" crab, a "giant peltospirid" snail, a whelk-like snail, a limpet, a scaleworm and a polychaete worm. The West Indian Ocean coelacanth was discovered in the Indian Ocean off South Africa in the 1930s and in the late 1990s another species, the Indonesian coelacanth , was discovered off Sulawesi Island , Indonesia. Most extant coelacanths have been found in

4080-442: The austral summer. In 1999, the Indian Ocean Experiment showed that fossil fuel and biomass burning in South and Southeast Asia caused air pollution (also known as the Asian brown cloud ) that reach as far as the Intertropical Convergence Zone . This pollution has implications on both a local and global scale. Forty percent of the sediment of the Indian Ocean is found in the Indus and Ganges fans. The oceanic basins adjacent to

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4160-522: The available known reserves would last about 20 years. In November 2016, the British oil conglomerate, Tullow Oil Plc , indicated that it would sign an agreement with the Government of Kenya , before the end of 2016, which would pave the way for the construction of the 865 kilometres (537 mi) pipeline. The joint venture will involve African Oil Limited and Maersk Oil , two other companies with oil exploration rights in northwestern Kenya. The joint venture agreement (JDA) will be followed by studies on

4240-400: The bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea , and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the marine ecosystem. A study on the phytoplankton changes in the Indian Ocean indicates a decline of up to 20% in the marine plankton in

4320-534: The centre of the 1,500,000 km (580,000 sq mi) hotspot, the landscape is dominated by Acacia - Commiphora deciduous bushland, but also includes the Yeheb nut ( Cordeauxia edulus ) and species discovered more recently such as the Somali cyclamen ( Cyclamen somalense ), the only cyclamen outside the Mediterranean. Warsangli linnet ( Carduelis johannis ) is an endemic bird found only in northern Somalia. An unstable political situation and mismanagement has resulted in overgrazing which has produced one of

4400-567: The coast; sand is limited to shallow, wave-agitated waters, while silt and clays are deposited in quieter, deep water far offshore. These accumulate 15–40 centimetres (5.9–15.7 in) every millennium, much faster than deep-sea pelagic sediments . "Shelf seas" are the ocean waters on the continental shelf. Their motion is controlled by the combined influences of the tides , wind-forcing and brackish water formed from river inflows ( Regions of Freshwater Influence ). These regions can often be biologically highly productive due to mixing caused by

4480-506: The company that will own this pipeline through the Kenya Pipeline Company at an estimated cost of KSh22.6 billion (US$ 226 million). The construction cost of the pipeline has been revised down to US$ 1.1 billion (KSh113 billion), from US$ 2.1 billion (US$ 214 billion). Besides the construction of the pipeline, other related infrastructure including roads, to link to the pipeline will have to be built, at an estimated cost id US$ 1.9 billion (KSh194 billion). A final investment decision on pipeline plans

4560-452: The continental shelf and the abyssal plain , comprises a steep continental slope, surrounded by the flatter continental rise , in which sediment from the continent above cascades down the slope and accumulates as a pile of sediment at the base of the slope. Extending as far as 500 km (310 mi) from the slope, it consists of thick sediments deposited by turbidity currents from the shelf and slope. The continental rise 's gradient

4640-420: The continental shelf constitutes the neritic zone , and the benthic (sea floor) province of the shelf is the sublittoral zone . The shelves make up less than 10% of the ocean, and a rough estimate suggests that only about 30% of the continental shelf sea floor receives enough sunlight to allow benthic photosynthesis. Though the shelves are usually fertile, if anoxic conditions prevail during sedimentation,

4720-400: The continental shelves are 50.4–52.4 km (31.3–32.6 mi) for active and passive margins respectively, with a maximum width of 205.3–255.2 km (127.6–158.6 mi). In correspondence of the Shelf break , also known as Hinge zone, the Bouguer gravity ranges from 0 to 30 mGals that is unusual for a continental region of around 16 km thick sediments. It has been hypothesized that

4800-477: The continental slopes mostly contain terrigenous sediments. The ocean south of the polar front (roughly 50° south latitude ) is high in biologic productivity and dominated by non-stratified sediment composed mostly of siliceous oozes . Near the three major mid-ocean ridges the ocean floor is relatively young and therefore bare of sediment, except for the Southwest Indian Ridge due to its ultra-slow spreading rate. The ocean's currents are mainly controlled by

4880-418: The deep sea. The continental shelves are covered by terrigenous sediments ; that is, those derived from erosion of the continents. However, little of the sediment is from current rivers ; some 60–70% of the sediment on the world's shelves is relict sediment , deposited during the last ice age, when sea level was 100–120 m lower than it is now. Sediments usually become increasingly fine with distance from

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4960-433: The deposits may over geologic time become sources for fossil fuels . The continental shelf is the best understood part of the ocean floor, as it is relatively accessible. Most commercial exploitation of the sea, such as extraction of metallic ore, non-metallic ore, and hydrocarbons , takes place on the continental shelf. Sovereign rights over their continental shelves down to a depth of 100 m (330 ft) or to

5040-537: The eastern extension of which is blocked by the Southeast Indian Ridge and the 90°E Ridge. Madagascar and the Southwest Indian Ridge separate three cells south of Madagascar and off South Africa. North Atlantic Deep Water reaches into the Indian Ocean south of Africa at a depth of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) and flows north along the eastern continental slope of Africa. Deeper than NADW, Antarctic Bottom Water flows from Enderby Basin to Agulhas Basin across deep channels (<4,000 m (13,000 ft)) in

5120-436: The forward edge of an advancing oceanic plate dives beneath continental crust in an offshore subduction zone such as off the coast of Chile or the west coast of Sumatra . The largest shelf—the Siberian Shelf in the Arctic Ocean —stretches to 1,500 kilometers (930 mi) in width. The South China Sea lies over another extensive area of continental shelf, the Sunda Shelf , which joins Borneo , Sumatra, and Java to

5200-436: The islands of the Indian Ocean are textbook cases of evolutionary processes; the dung beetles , day geckos , and lemurs are all examples of adaptive radiation . Many bones (250 bones per square metre) of recently extinct vertebrates have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp in Mauritius, including bones of the Dodo bird ( Raphus cucullatus ) and Cylindraspis giant tortoise. An analysis of these remains suggests

5280-481: The margins of the Indian Ocean. The origin of this diversity is debated; the break-up of Gondwana can explain vicariance older than 100 mya, but the diversity on the younger, smaller islands must have required a Cenozoic dispersal from the rims of the Indian Ocean to the islands. A "reverse colonisation", from islands to continents, apparently occurred more recently; the chameleons , for example, first diversified on Madagascar and then colonised Africa. Several species on

5360-400: The monsoon. Two large gyres , one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise (including the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Return Current ), constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon (November–February), however, circulation is reversed north of 30°S and winds are weakened during winter and the transitional periods between

5440-438: The monsoons. The Indian Ocean contains the largest submarine fans of the world, the Bengal Fan and Indus Fan , and the largest areas of slope terraces and rift valleys . The inflow of deep water into the Indian Ocean is 11  Sv , most of which comes from the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW). The CDW enters the Indian Ocean through the Crozet and Madagascar basins and crosses the Southwest Indian Ridge at 30°S. In

5520-439: The most degraded hotspots where only c. 5 % of the original habitat remains. Continental shelf A continental shelf is a portion of a continent that is submerged under an area of relatively shallow water, known as a shelf sea . Much of these shelves were exposed by drops in sea level during glacial periods . The shelf surrounding an island is known as an insular shelf . The continental margin , between

5600-475: The most productive ecosystems of the Indian Ocean — coastal areas produce 20 tones of fish per square kilometre. These areas, however, are also being urbanised with populations often exceeding several thousand people per square kilometre and fishing techniques become more effective and often destructive beyond sustainable levels while the increase in sea surface temperature spreads coral bleaching. Mangroves covers 80,984 km (31,268 sq mi) in

5680-409: The northern end while the Laccadive Sea separates the Maldives from the southern tip of India. The Bay of Bengal is off the east coast of India. The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait separate Sri Lanka from India, while Adam's Bridge separates the two. The Andaman Sea is located between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Islands. In Indonesia, the so-called Indonesian Seaway is composed of

5760-708: The pipeline's technical requirements as well as its financing and ownership structure. Once the Joint Venture Agreement is executed, other studies can begin, including the Front End Engineering Design (FEED), the Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (ESIA) and "studies on pipeline financing and ownership”. The agreement was signed on 24 October 2017. It was expected that the construction of this pipeline would commence in 2018 and last until 2021. The construction cost

5840-400: The shallower waters and the enhanced current speeds. Despite covering only about 8% of Earth's ocean surface area, shelf seas support 15–20% of global primary productivity . In temperate continental shelf seas, three distinctive oceanographic regimes are found, as a consequence of the interplay between surface heating, lateral buoyancy gradients (due to river inflow), and turbulent mixing by

5920-428: The shelf changes dramatically at the shelf break, where the continental slope begins. With a few exceptions, the shelf break is located at a remarkably uniform depth of roughly 140 m (460 ft); this is likely a hallmark of past ice ages, when sea level was lower than it is now. The continental slope is much steeper than the shelf; the average angle is 3°, but it can be as low as 1° or as high as 10°. The slope

6000-519: The tides and to a lesser extent the wind. Indian Ocean shelf seas are dominated by major river systems, including the Ganges and Indus rivers. The shelf seas around New Zealand are complicated because the submerged continent of Zealandia creates wide plateaus. Shelf seas around Antarctica and the shores of the Arctic Ocean are influenced by sea ice production and polynya . There

6080-528: The ventilation of the Indian Ocean thermocline . That continent also drives the Indian Ocean monsoon , the strongest on Earth, which causes large-scale seasonal variations in ocean currents, including the reversal of the Somali Current and Indian Monsoon Current . Because of the Indian Ocean Walker circulation there are no continuous equatorial easterlies. Upwelling occurs near the Horn of Africa and

6160-626: The west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean , or Antarctica , depending on the definition in use. The Indian Ocean has large marginal, or regional seas, such as the Andaman Sea , the Arabian Sea , the Bay of Bengal , and the Laccadive Sea . Once called the Eastern Ocean, it is now named after India , which protrudes into it, and has been known by its current name since at least 1515. It

6240-487: The world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) (compared to 0.7 °C (33.3 °F) for the warm pool region) during 1901–2012. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming , and changes in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño (or the Indian Ocean Dipole ), events are a trigger to this strong warming in

6320-542: Was budgeted at KES:210 billion. In January 2018, TotalEnergies , announced its commitment to invest and become a shareholder in this pipeline, as well as in new oilfields in the Turkana exploration region. This represented a "change of mind" by the French oil conglomerate, which in 2016, strongly recommended against development of a pipeline along this route. In April 2018, the government of Kenya selected Wood Group Plc ,

6400-411: Was expected in 2019. 00°29′06″S 39°41′12″E  /  0.48500°S 39.68667°E  / -0.48500; 39.68667 Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi) or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth's surface . It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to

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