171-572: Main five oceans division: Further subdivision: The Southern Ocean , also known as the Antarctic Ocean , comprises the southernmost waters of the world ocean , generally taken to be south of 60° S latitude and encircling Antarctica . With a size of 21,960,000 km (8,480,000 sq mi), it is the second-smallest of the five principal oceanic divisions, smaller than the Pacific , Atlantic and Indian oceans, and larger than
342-460: A Northwest Passage to "the Western and Southern Ocean of America ". Authors using "Southern Ocean" to name the waters encircling the unknown southern polar regions used varying limits. James Cook 's account of his second voyage implies New Caledonia borders it. Peacock's 1795 Geographical Dictionary said it lay "to the southward of America and Africa"; John Payne in 1796 used 40 degrees as
513-479: A flotilla led by Rodrigo Enrique de Colmenares arrived in Santa María. His objective was to find Nicuesa, who was also facing some difficulties in the north of Panamá. When de Colmenares learned about the recent events, he convinced the town's settlers that they should submit to the authority of Nicuesa, since their land was under his jurisdiction. Enrique de Colmenares invited two representatives, to be named by
684-410: A halocline . If a zone undergoes a strong, vertical chemistry gradient with depth, it contains a chemocline . Temperature and salinity control ocean water density. Colder and saltier water is denser, and this density plays a crucial role in regulating the global water circulation within the ocean. The halocline often coincides with the thermocline, and the combination produces a pronounced pycnocline ,
855-493: A mid-ocean ridge , which creates a long mountain range beneath the ocean. Together they form the global mid-oceanic ridge system that features the longest mountain range in the world. The longest continuous mountain range is 65,000 km (40,000 mi). This underwater mountain range is several times longer than the longest continental mountain range – the Andes . Oceanographers state that less than 20% of
1026-545: A page and squire to Don Pedro de Portocarrero, lord of Moguer . In 1500, motivated by his master after the news of Christopher Columbus 's voyages to the New World became known, he decided to embark on his first voyage to the Americas , along with Juan de la Cosa , on Rodrigo de Bastidas ' expedition. Bastidas had a license to bring back treasure for the king and queen, while keeping four-fifths for himself, under
1197-487: A Dios (the border between Honduras and Nicaragua ). The Gulf of Urabá became the border between the two territories: Nueva Andalucía to the east, governed by Alonso de Ojeda , and Veragua to the west, governed by Diego de Nicuesa . In 1509, wishing to escape his creditors in Santo Domingo , Balboa set sail as a stowaway, hiding inside a barrel together with his dog Leoncico , in the expedition commanded by
1368-524: A boundary between less dense surface water and dense deep water. Vasco N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez de Balboa Vasco Núñez de Balboa ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈbasko ˈnuɲeθ ðe βalˈβo.a] ; c. 1475 – around January 12–21, 1519) was a Spanish explorer , governor , and conquistador . He is best known for crossing the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean in 1513, becoming
1539-657: A captain in the Russian Imperial Navy ; Edward Bransfield , a captain in the Royal Navy ; and Nathaniel Palmer , an American sailor out of Stonington, Connecticut . It is certain that the expedition, led by von Bellingshausen and Lazarev on the ships Vostok and Mirny , reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) from Princess Martha Coast and recorded the sight of an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W / 69.35778°S 2.24722°W / -69.35778; -2.24722 that became known as
1710-478: A certain respect and fear among the natives. In a letter addressed to the King of Spain, he expressed, somewhat ironically, that he had to act as a conciliatory force during the course of his expeditions. He succeeded in planting corn , received fresh supplies from Hispaniola and Spain, and got his men accustomed to life as explorers in the new territories. Balboa managed to collect a great deal of gold, much of it from
1881-439: A few native guides, and a pack of dogs. Using a small brigantine and ten native canoes , they sailed along the coast and made landfall in cacique Careta's territory. On September 6, the expedition continued, now reinforced with 1,000 of Careta's men, and entered cacique Ponca's land. Ponca had reorganized and attacked, but he was defeated and forced to ally himself with Balboa. After a few days, and with several of Ponca's men,
SECTION 10
#17327659361922052-595: A gentle breeze on a pond causes ripples to form. A stronger gust blowing over the ocean causes larger waves as the moving air pushes against the raised ridges of water. The waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are travelling nearly matches the speed of the wind. In open water, when the wind blows continuously as happens in the Southern Hemisphere in the Roaring Forties , long, organized masses of water called swell roll across
2223-510: A greedy despot because of the restrictions he imposed on their appropriation of the natives' gold. Balboa took advantage of the situation, acting as the spokesman for the disgruntled settlers. He removed Fernández de Enciso from the position of alcalde mayor , using the following legal manoeuvre: Fernández de Enciso was now controlling an area in Veragua, to the west of the Gulf of Urabá; since he
2394-593: A group of soldiers commanded by Francisco Pizarro , who arrested him in the name of the governor and accused him of trying to usurp Pedrarias' power and create a separate government in the South Sea. Outraged, Balboa denied all charges and demanded that he be taken to Spain to stand trial. Pedrarias, together with Martin Enciso, ordered that the trial take place without delay. Balboa's trial began in January 1519 and on
2565-482: A kingdom to the south, where people were so rich that they ate and drank from plates and goblets made of gold, but that the conquerors would need at least a thousand men to defeat the tribes living inland and those on the coast of "the other sea". Balboa received the unexpected news of a new kingdom – rich in gold – with great interest. He returned to Santa María at the beginning of 1513 to recruit more men from Hispaniola. There he learned that Fernández de Enciso had told
2736-528: A note in the publication read: The Antarctic or Southern Ocean has been omitted from this publication as the majority of opinions received since the issue of the 2nd Edition in 1937 are to the effect that there exists no real justification for applying the term Ocean to this body of water, the northern limits of which are difficult to lay down owing to their seasonal change. The limits of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans have therefore been extended South to
2907-437: A planter and pig farmer. He was not successful in this enterprise, and ended up in debt, and was forced to abandon life on the island. In 1508, the king of Spain , Ferdinand II "The Catholic" , launched the conquest of Tierra Firme (the area roughly corresponding to the Isthmus of Panama ). He created two new territories in the region between El Cabo de la Vela (near the eastern border of Colombia) and El Cabo de Gracias
3078-469: A platform. The executioner beheaded Balboa and his four friends with an axe. Balboa's head did not come off clean on the first try; it took three. Their heads remained in public display for several days, as a sign of Pedrarias' might. The final location of Balboa's remains is unknown, partly because there is no record of what happened in Acla after the execution. Gaspar de Espinosa, Pedrarias' underling, sailed
3249-704: A policy known as the quinto real , or "royal fifth". In 1501, he crossed the Caribbean coasts from the east of Panama , along the Colombian coast, through the Gulf of Urabá toward Cabo de la Vela . The expedition continued to explore the north east of South America, until they realized they did not have enough men and sailed to Hispaniola . With his share of the earnings from this campaign, Balboa settled in Hispaniola in 1505, where he resided for several years as
3420-455: A result, the photic zone is the most biodiverse and the source of the food supply which sustains most of the ocean ecosystem . Ocean photosynthesis also produces half of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. Light can only penetrate a few hundred more meters; the rest of the deeper ocean is cold and dark (these zones are called mesopelagic and aphotic zones). The continental shelf is where
3591-496: A shallow area and this, coupled with a low pressure system, can raise the surface of the ocean dramatically above a typical high tide. The average depth of the oceans is about 4 km. More precisely the average depth is 3,688 meters (12,100 ft). Nearly half of the world's marine waters are over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. "Deep ocean," which is anything below 200 meters (660 ft), covers about 66% of Earth's surface. This figure does not include seas not connected to
SECTION 20
#17327659361923762-462: A squabble among the Spaniards, unsatisfied by the meager amounts of gold they were being allotted. Comogre's eldest son, Panquiaco, angered by the Spaniards' avarice, knocked over the scales used to measure gold and exclaimed: "If you are so hungry for gold that you leave your lands to cause strife in those of others, I shall show you a province where you can quell this hunger." Panquiaco told them of
3933-607: A standard with the image of the Virgin Mary in the other, walked knee-deep into the ocean, and claimed possession of the new sea and all adjoining lands in the name of the Spanish sovereigns. After traveling more than 110 km (68 mi), Balboa named the bay where they ended up San Miguel , because they arrived on September 29, the feast day of the archangel Michael . He named the new sea Mar del Sur , since they had traveled south to reach it. Balboa's main purpose in
4104-403: A wave-cut platform develops at the foot of the cliff and this has a protective effect, reducing further wave-erosion. Material worn from the margins of the land eventually ends up in the sea. Here it is subject to attrition as currents flowing parallel to the coast scour out channels and transport sand and pebbles away from their place of origin. Sediment carried to the sea by rivers settles on
4275-406: A zone undergoes dramatic changes in temperature with depth, it contains a thermocline , a distinct boundary between warmer surface water and colder deep water. In tropical regions, the thermocline is typically deeper compared to higher latitudes. Unlike polar waters , where solar energy input is limited, temperature stratification is less pronounced, and a distinct thermocline is often absent. This
4446-439: Is a bay , a small bay with a narrow inlet is a cove and a large bay may be referred to as a gulf . Coastlines are influenced by several factors including the strength of the waves arriving on the shore, the gradient of the land margin, the composition and hardness of the coastal rock, the inclination of the off-shore slope and the changes of the level of the land due to local uplift or submergence. Normally, waves roll towards
4617-743: Is about −2 °C (28 °F). In all parts of the ocean, deep ocean temperatures range between −2 °C (28 °F) and 5 °C (41 °F). Constant circulation of water in the ocean creates ocean currents . Those currents are caused by forces operating on the water, such as temperature and salinity differences, atmospheric circulation (wind), and the Coriolis effect . Tides create tidal currents, while wind and waves cause surface currents. The Gulf Stream , Kuroshio Current , Agulhas Current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current are all major ocean currents. Such currents transport massive amounts of water, gases, pollutants and heat to different parts of
4788-444: Is an important reference point for oceanography and geography, particularly as mean sea level . The ocean surface has globally little, but measurable topography , depending on the ocean's volumes. The ocean surface is a crucial interface for oceanic and atmospheric processes. Allowing interchange of particles, enriching the air and water, as well as grounds by some particles becoming sediments . This interchange has fertilized life in
4959-411: Is customarily divided into five principal oceans – listed below in descending order of area and volume: The ocean fills Earth's oceanic basins . Earth's oceanic basins cover different geologic provinces of Earth's oceanic crust as well as continental crust . As such it covers mainly Earth's structural basins , but also continental shelfs . In mid-ocean, magma is constantly being thrust through
5130-399: Is due to the fact that surface waters in polar latitudes are nearly as cold as deeper waters. Below the thermocline, water everywhere in the ocean is very cold, ranging from −1 °C to 3 °C. Because this deep and cold layer contains the bulk of ocean water, the average temperature of the world ocean is 3.9 °C. If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in salinity with depth, it contains
5301-456: Is irregular, unevenly dominating the Earth's surface . This leads to the distinction of the Earth's surface into a water and land hemisphere , as well as the division of the ocean into different oceans. Seawater covers about 361,000,000 km (139,000,000 sq mi) and the ocean's furthest pole of inaccessibility , known as " Point Nemo ", in a region known as spacecraft cemetery of
Southern Ocean - Misplaced Pages Continue
5472-454: Is produced and magma is forced up creating underwater mountains, some of which may form chains of volcanic islands near to deep trenches. Near some of the boundaries between the land and sea, the slightly denser oceanic plates slide beneath the continental plates and more subduction trenches are formed. As they grate together, the continental plates are deformed and buckle causing mountain building and seismic activity. Every ocean basin has
5643-407: Is pushed across the surface of the ocean by the wind, but this represents a transfer of energy and not horizontal movement of water. As waves approach land and move into shallow water , they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may bend ( refraction ) or wrap around rocks and headlands ( diffraction ). When the wave reaches a point where its deepest oscillations of the water contact
5814-423: Is reflected back out of the water. Red light is most easily absorbed and thus does not reach great depths, usually to less than 50 meters (164 ft). Blue light, in comparison, can penetrate up to 200 meters (656 ft). Second, water molecules and very tiny particles in ocean water preferentially scatter blue light more than light of other colors. Blue light scattering by water and tiny particles happens even in
5985-480: Is sometimes referred to as the World Ocean, global ocean or the great ocean . The concept of a continuous body of water with relatively unrestricted exchange between its components is critical in oceanography . The word ocean comes from the figure in classical antiquity , Oceanus ( / oʊ ˈ s iː ə n ə s / ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ὠκεανός Ōkeanós , pronounced [ɔːkeanós] ),
6156-457: Is the justice that the King and his lieutenant Pedro Arias de Ávila impose upon these men, traitors and usurpers of the Crown's territories." Balboa could not restrain his indignation and replied: "Lies, lies! Never have such crimes held a place in my heart, I have always loyally served the King, with no thought in my mind but to increase his dominions." Pedrarias observed the execution, hidden behind
6327-552: Is the open ocean's water column from the surface to the ocean floor. The water column is further divided into zones based on depth and the amount of light present. The photic zone starts at the surface and is defined to be "the depth at which light intensity is only 1% of the surface value" (approximately 200 m in the open ocean). This is the zone where photosynthesis can occur. In this process plants and microscopic algae (free floating phytoplankton ) use light, water, carbon dioxide, and nutrients to produce organic matter. As
6498-519: The Adventure , and reached 60° S by 177° W , whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on 20 December and Cook remained south of it for three days, compelled after reaching 67° 31′ S to stand north again in 135° W . A long detour to 47° 50′ S served to show that there was no land connection between New Zealand and Tierra del Fuego . Turning south again, Cook crossed
6669-540: The Alcalde Mayor of Nueva Andalucía, Martín Fernández de Enciso , whose mission it was to aid Alonso de Ojeda, his superior. Ojeda, together with 70 men, had founded the settlement of San Sebastián de Urabá in Nueva Andalucía, on the location where the city of Cartagena de Indias was later built. The settlers encountered resistance from natives living in the area, who used poisoned weapons, and Ojeda
6840-638: The Arctic Ocean . The maximum depth of the Southern Ocean, using the definition that it lies south of 60th parallel, was surveyed by the Five Deeps Expedition in early February 2019. The expedition's multibeam sonar team identified the deepest point at 60° 28' 46"S, 025° 32' 32"W, with a depth of 7,434 metres (24,390 ft). The expedition leader and chief submersible pilot Victor Vescovo , has proposed naming this deepest point
7011-586: The Fimbul Ice Shelf . On 30 January 1820, Bransfield sighted Trinity Peninsula , the northernmost point of the Antarctic mainland, while Palmer sighted the mainland in the area south of Trinity Peninsula in November 1820. Von Bellingshausen's expedition also discovered Peter I Island and Alexander I Island , the first islands to be discovered south of the circle. In December 1839, as part of
Southern Ocean - Misplaced Pages Continue
7182-691: The North Sea or the Red Sea . There is no sharp distinction between seas and oceans, though generally seas are smaller, and are often partly (as marginal seas ) or wholly (as inland seas ) bordered by land. The contemporary concept of the World Ocean was coined in the early 20th century by the Russian oceanographer Yuly Shokalsky to refer to the continuous ocean that covers and encircles most of Earth. The global, interconnected body of salt water
7353-701: The Royal Society to command the Transit of Venus expedition to Tahiti in 1769. The command of the expedition was given by the admiralty to Captain James Cook . Sailing in 1772 with Resolution , a vessel of 462 tons under his own command and Adventure of 336 tons under Captain Tobias Furneaux , Cook first searched in vain for Bouvet Island , then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to the westward in latitude 58° S , and then 30° eastward for
7524-481: The South Pacific Ocean , at 48°52.6′S 123°23.6′W / 48.8767°S 123.3933°W / -48.8767; -123.3933 ( Point Nemo ) . This point is roughly 2,688 km (1,670 mi) from the nearest land. There are different customs to subdivide the ocean and are adjourned by smaller bodies of water such as, seas , gulfs , bays , bights , and straits . The ocean
7695-625: The Strait of Magellan in 1520, assumed that the islands of Tierra del Fuego to the south were an extension of this unknown southern land. In 1564, Abraham Ortelius published his first map, Typus Orbis Terrarum , an eight-leaved wall map of the world, on which he identified the Regio Patalis with Locach as a northward extension of the Terra Australis , reaching as far as New Guinea . European geographers continued to connect
7866-592: The Thames Barrier is designed to protect London from a storm surge, while the failure of the dykes and levees around New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina created a humanitarian crisis in the United States. Most of the ocean is blue in color, but in some places the ocean is blue-green, green, or even yellow to brown. Blue ocean color is a result of several factors. First, water preferentially absorbs red light, which means that blue light remains and
8037-709: The United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the United States Navy (sometimes called "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed from Sydney, Australia, on the sloops-of-war USS Vincennes and USS Peacock , the brig USS Porpoise , the full-rigged ship Relief , and two schooners Sea Gull and USS Flying Fish . They sailed into the Antarctic Ocean, as it
8208-406: The coastline and structure of the world ocean. A global ocean has existed in one form or another on Earth for eons. Since its formation the ocean has taken many conditions and shapes with many past ocean divisions and potentially at times covering the whole globe. During colder climatic periods, more ice caps and glaciers form, and enough of the global water supply accumulates as ice to lessen
8379-591: The ocean floor , they begin to slow down. This pulls the crests closer together and increases the waves' height , which is called wave shoaling . When the ratio of the wave's height to the water depth increases above a certain limit, it " breaks ", toppling over in a mass of foaming water. This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the ocean under the influence of gravity. Earthquakes , volcanic eruptions or other major geological disturbances can set off waves that can lead to tsunamis in coastal areas which can be very dangerous. The ocean's surface
8550-744: The parallel 60° south latitude was discovered by the Englishman William Smith , who sighted Livingston Island on 19 February 1819. A few months later Smith returned to explore the other islands of the South Shetlands archipelago, landed on King George Island , and claimed the new territories for Britain. In the meantime, the Spanish Navy ship San Telmo sank in September 1819 when trying to cross Cape Horn. Parts of her wreckage were found months later by sealers on
8721-407: The "Factorian Deep", based on the name of the crewed submersible DSV Limiting Factor , in which he successfully visited the bottom for the first time on February 3, 2019. By way of his voyages in the 1770s, James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the globe. Yet, geographers have often disagreed on whether the Southern Ocean should be defined as a body of water bound by
SECTION 50
#17327659361928892-470: The "South Land" – described by a half legendary " sieur de Gonneyville " – resulted in the discovery of Bouvet Island in 54°10′ S, and in the navigation of 48° of longitude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in 55° S in 1730. In 1771, Yves Joseph Kerguelen sailed from France with instructions to proceed south from Mauritius in search of "a very large continent". He lighted upon a land in 50° S which he called South France, and believed to be
9063-607: The 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries. The Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla , who claimed having sighted "snow-covered mountains" beyond the 64° S in 1603, is recognized as the first explorer that discovered the continent of Antarctica, although he was ignored in his time. In 1606, Pedro Fernández de Quirós took possession for the king of Spain all of the lands he had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the New Hebrides ) and those he would discover "even to
9234-514: The 2002 edition the limits of oceans explicitly excluded the seas lying within each of them. The Great Australian Bight was unnamed in the 1928 edition, and delineated as shown in the figure above in the 1937 edition. It therefore encompassed former Southern Ocean waters—as designated in 1928—but was technically not inside any of the three adjacent oceans by 1937. In the 2002 draft edition, the IHO have designated "seas" as subdivisions within "oceans", so
9405-444: The 50 days had passed, Pizarro started preparations for the return to Hispaniola, when Enciso's ship arrived. Balboa had gained popularity among the crew because of his charisma and his knowledge of the region. By contrast Fernández de Enciso was not well liked by the men. Many disapproved of his order to return to San Sebastián, especially after discovering, once they had arrived, that the settlement had been completely destroyed and that
9576-492: The Antarctic Circle for the third time at 109° 30′ W before his progress was once again blocked by ice four days later at 71° 10′ S by 106° 54′ W . This point, reached on 30 January 1774, was the farthest south attained in the 18th century. With a great detour to the east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774, Cook started from New Zealand and crossed
9747-481: The Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did. In a voyage from 1822 to 1824, James Weddell commanded the 160-ton brig Jane , accompanied by his second ship Beaufoy captained by Matthew Brisbane. Together they sailed to the South Orkneys where sealing proved disappointing. They turned south in the hope of finding a better sealing ground. The season was unusually mild and tranquil, and on 20 February 1823
9918-555: The Antarctic Continent. Hydrographic Offices who issue separate publications dealing with this area are therefore left to decide their own northern limits (Great Britain uses Latitude of 55 South.) Instead, in the IHO 1953 publication, the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans were extended southward, the Indian and Pacific Oceans (which had not previously touched pre 1953, as per the first and second editions) now abutted at
10089-454: The Bight would have still been within the Southern Ocean in 1937 if the 2002 convention were in place then. To perform direct comparisons of current and former limits of oceans it is necessary to consider, or at least be aware of, how the 2002 change in IHO terminology for "seas" can affect the comparison. The Southern Ocean did not appear in the 1953 third edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas ,
10260-619: The CIA World Fact Book ) which already adopted the principle that seas are contained within oceans. This difference in practice is markedly seen for the Pacific Ocean in the adjacent figure. Thus, for example, previously the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand was not regarded by the IHO as part of the Pacific, but as of the 2002 draft edition it is. The new delineation of seas as subdivisions of oceans has avoided
10431-714: The Dabaibe region, along the Atrato river, for there was a rumour of the existence of a temple filled with vast riches there. However, this expedition turned out to be a failure, leaving Balboa wounded due to constant attacks by the region's natives. This setback, however, did not deter Balboa's ambitions of returning to explore the South Sea. Secretly, he arranged to recruit a contingent of men from Cuba . The ship carrying them berthed just outside Santa María, and its caretaker informed Balboa of their arrival, receiving in return 70 gold castellanos. Pedrarias, however, soon found out about
SECTION 60
#173276593619210602-442: The Earth's biosphere . Oceanic evaporation , as a phase of the water cycle, is the source of most rainfall (about 90%), causing a global cloud cover of 67% and a consistent oceanic cloud cover of 72%. Ocean temperatures affect climate and wind patterns that affect life on land. One of the most dramatic forms of weather occurs over the oceans: tropical cyclones (also called "typhoons" and "hurricanes" depending upon where
10773-440: The King instructed Pedrarias to show Balboa the greatest respect and to consult him on all matters pertaining to the conquest and government of Castilla de Oro. Because of all this, Pedrarias was to release and exonerate Balboa, lifting all charges brought up against him in the matter of the clandestine recruitment of an expeditionary party. At that point, the rivalry between Balboa and Pedrarias ceased abruptly, due in large part to
10944-456: The Moon are 20x stronger than the Moon's tidal forces on the Earth.) The primary effect of lunar tidal forces is to bulge Earth matter towards the near and far sides of the Earth, relative to the moon. The "perpendicular" sides, from which the Moon appears in line with the local horizon, experience "tidal troughs". Since it takes nearly 25 hours for the Earth to rotate under the Moon (accounting for
11115-403: The Moon's 28 day orbit around Earth), tides thus cycle over a course of 12.5 hours. However, the rocky continents pose obstacles for the tidal bulges, so the timing of tidal maxima may not actually align with the Moon in most localities on Earth, as the oceans are forced to "dodge" the continents. Timing and magnitude of tides vary widely across the Earth as a result of the continents. Thus, knowing
11286-471: The Moon's gravity, oceanic tides are also substantially modulated by the Sun's tidal forces, by the rotation of the Earth, and by the shape of the rocky continents blocking oceanic water flow. (Tidal forces vary more with distance than the "base" force of gravity: the Moon's tidal forces on Earth are more than double the Sun's, despite the latter's much stronger gravitational force on Earth. Earth's tidal forces upon
11457-400: The Moon's position does not allow a local to predict tide timings, instead requiring precomputed tide tables which account for the continents and the Sun, among others. During each tidal cycle, at any given place the tidal waters rise to maximum height, high tide, before ebbing away again to the minimum level, low tide. As the water recedes, it gradually reveals the foreshore , also known as
11628-474: The National Geographic web site have begun to reference the Southern Ocean. A radical shift from past IHO practices (1928–1953) was also seen in the 2002 draft edition when the IHO delineated "seas" as subdivisions within the boundaries of "oceans". While the IHO are often considered the authority for such conventions, the shift brought them into line with the practices of other publications (e.g.
11799-648: The Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases. Scientists believe that a sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation. This is called atmospheric escape . During planetary formation , Earth possibly had magma oceans . Subsequently, outgassing , volcanic activity and meteorite impacts , produced an early atmosphere of carbon dioxide , nitrogen and water vapor , according to current theories. The gases and
11970-590: The Pole". Francis Drake , like Spanish explorers before him, had speculated that there might be an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego. When Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire discovered the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615, they proved that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and not connected to the southern land, as previously thought. Subsequently, in 1642, Abel Tasman showed that even New Holland (Australia)
12141-663: The South Pacific without sighting land between 53° and 57° S to Tierra del Fuego; then, passing Cape Horn on 29 December, he rediscovered Roché Island renaming it Isle of Georgia , and discovered the South Sandwich Islands (named Sandwich Land by him), the only ice-clad land he had seen, before crossing the South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope between 55° and 60° . He thereby laid open
12312-496: The South Sea aboard the very ships that Balboa had commissioned. In 1520, Ferdinand Magellan renamed the sea the Pacific Ocean because of its calm waters. Although Balboa suffered a premature death and is alleged to have used dogs to commit brutal executions against indigenous people, his actions and deeds are remembered by history as the first European to cross America . Several parks and avenues throughout Panama bear
12483-408: The South Sea, but Pedrarias did everything possible to delay his departure. In light of the new relationship between them, Pedrarias could not stop him indefinitely, and he finally consented to let Balboa go on his new expedition, giving him license to explore for a year and a half. In 1519, Balboa moved to Acla with 300 men and, using the manpower of the natives and African slaves, managed to gather
12654-686: The Southern Ocean as extending as far north as South America, and confers great significance on the Antarctic Convergence , yet its description of the Indian Ocean contradicts this, describing the Indian Ocean as extending south to Antarctica. Other sources, such as the National Geographic Society , show the Atlantic , Pacific , and Indian oceans as extending to Antarctica on its maps, although articles on
12825-456: The Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of Australia (see § Australian standpoint ). The National Geographic Society recognized the ocean officially in June 2021. Prior to this, it depicted it in a typeface different from the other world oceans; instead, it shows the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans extending to Antarctica on both its print and online maps. Map publishers using
12996-557: The Southern Ocean was inspired by a belief in the existence of a Terra Australis – a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Eurasia and North Africa – which had existed since the times of Ptolemy . The rounding of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 by Bartolomeu Dias first brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and proved that there was an ocean separating Africa from any Antarctic land that might exist. Ferdinand Magellan , who passed through
13167-448: The Southern Ocean, in an open boat called James Caird , and then trekked over South Georgia to raise the alarm at the whaling station Grytviken . World ocean The ocean is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of Earth . In English , the term ocean also refers to any of the large bodies of water into which the world ocean is conventionally divided. The following names describe five different areas of
13338-508: The Southern Ocean. In Australia, cartographical authorities define the Southern Ocean as including the entire body of water between Antarctica and the south coasts of Australia and New Zealand, and up to 60°S elsewhere. Coastal maps of Tasmania and South Australia label the sea areas as Southern Ocean and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia is described as the point where the Indian and Southern Oceans meet. Exploration of
13509-741: The World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea . The deepest region of the ocean is at the Mariana Trench , located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern Mariana Islands . The maximum depth has been estimated to be 10,971 meters (35,994 ft). The British naval vessel Challenger II surveyed the trench in 1951 and named the deepest part of the trench the " Challenger Deep ". In 1960, the Trieste successfully reached
13680-421: The amounts in other parts of the water cycle. The reverse is true during warm periods. During the last ice age, glaciers covered almost one-third of Earth's land mass with the result being that the oceans were about 122 m (400 ft) lower than today. During the last global "warm spell," about 125,000 years ago, the seas were about 5.5 m (18 ft) higher than they are now. About three million years ago
13851-479: The atmosphere are thought to have accumulated over millions of years. After Earth's surface had significantly cooled, the water vapor over time would have condensed, forming Earth's first oceans. The early oceans might have been significantly hotter than today and appeared green due to high iron content. Geological evidence helps constrain the time frame for liquid water existing on Earth. A sample of pillow basalt (a type of rock formed during an underwater eruption)
14022-407: The bottom of the trench, manned by a crew of two men. Oceanographers classify the ocean into vertical and horizontal zones based on physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone consists of the water column of the open ocean, and can be divided into further regions categorized by light abundance and by depth. The ocean zones can be grouped by light penetration into (from top to bottom):
14193-451: The central mass of the southern continent. He was sent out again to complete the exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he renamed the Isle of Desolation, but which was ultimately named after him . The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain of Alexander Dalrymple , the brilliant and erratic hydrographer who was nominated by
14364-596: The change and some were planning to take up arms against Pedrarias, even as Balboa showed respect to the new colonial authorities. As soon as Pedrarias took charge, Gaspar de Espinosa had Balboa arrested and tried "in absentia", sentencing him to pay reparations to Fernández de Enciso and others. He was, however, found innocent of the charge of murdering Nicuesa, so he was freed shortly afterwards. Due to overpopulation in Santa María, Pedrarias called on several expeditionaries to search for new locations fit for settlement. Balboa requested of Pedrarias that he be allowed to explore
14535-490: The circulation substantially slowing or even passing a tipping point and collapsing outright. The latter would have adverse impacts on global weather and the function of marine ecosystems here, unfolding over centuries. The ongoing warming is already changing marine ecosystems here. Borders and names for oceans and seas were internationally agreed when the International Hydrographic Bureau ,
14706-516: The city, since he regarded his actions as a challenge to his authority in Veragua. A certain Lope de Olano, who was jailed together with other malcontents, persuaded Santa María's representatives that they would make a serious error in handing control over to Nicuesa, whom he described as cruel, greedy, and able to singlehandedly destroy the city's prosperity. With this evidence, Albites and del Corral fled to Darién ahead of Nicuesa, and informed Balboa and
14877-497: The coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of New Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian and Pacific oceans they sketched the outlines of the Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land was a leading motive of explorers in
15048-525: The colonial authorities what had happened at Santa María. After seeing that there would be no assistance from Hispaniola, Balboa sent Enrique de Colmenares directly to Spain to seek help. While the expedition to the South Sea (the name at the time of the Pacific Ocean ) was being organized in Santa María, some explorers travelled ten leagues (around 50 km or 30 miles) up the Atrato River toward
15219-509: The elder of the Titans in classical Greek mythology . Oceanus was believed by the ancient Greeks and Romans to be the divine personification of an enormous river encircling the world. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection. Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion,
15390-421: The end of 1512 and the first months of 1513, he arrived in a region dominated by the cacique Careta, whom he easily defeated and then befriended. Careta was baptized and became one of Balboa's chief allies. He ensured the survival of the settlers by promising to supply the Spaniards with food. Balboa then proceeded on his journey, arriving in the lands of Careta's neighbour and rival, cacique Ponca, who fled to
15561-578: The expedition entered the dense jungle on September 20, and, with some difficulty, arrived four days later in the lands of cacique Torecha, who ruled in the village of Cuarecuá. In this village, a fierce battle took place, during which Balboa's forces defeated Torecha, who was killed by one of Balboa's dogs. Torecha's followers decided to join the expedition. The group was by then exhausted and several men were badly wounded, so many decided to stay in Cuarecuá to regain their strength. The few men who continued
15732-404: The expedition was the search for the gold-rich kingdoms promised by Panquiaco. To this end, he crossed through the lands of caciques Coquera and Tumaco, defeating them easily and taking their riches of gold and pearls . He then learned that pearls were abundant in the islands ruled by Terarequí, a powerful and feared cacique . Balboa set out in several canoes towards these islands, even though it
15903-470: The expedition's chaplain, intoned the Te Deum , while the men erected stone pyramids, and engraved crosses on the barks of trees with their swords, to mark the place where the discovery of the South Sea was made. After the moment of discovery, the expedition descended from the mountain range towards the sea, arriving in the lands of cacique Chiapes, who was defeated after a brief battle and invited to join
16074-579: The expedition. From Chiapes' land, three groups departed in the search for routes to the coast. The group headed by Alonso Martín reached the shoreline two days later. They took a canoe for a short reconnaissance trip, thus becoming the first Europeans to navigate the Pacific Ocean off the coast of the New World. Back in Chiapes' domain, Martín informed Balboa, who, with 26 men, marched towards the coast. Once there, Balboa raised his hands, his sword in one and
16245-426: The fifteenth of that month, Espinosa sentenced him to death by decapitation. Four of Balboa's friends, Fernando de Argüello, Luis Botello, Hernán Muñoz, and Andrés Valderrábano, accused as accomplices, were sentenced to the same fate. The sentence was to be carried out in Acla, to show that the conspiracy had its roots in that colony. As Balboa and his friends were being led to the block, the town crier announced: "This
16416-424: The first European to lead an expedition to have seen or reached the Pacific from the New World . He traveled to the New World in 1500 and, after some exploration, settled on the island of Hispaniola . He founded the settlement of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in present-day Colombia in 1510, which was the first permanent European settlement on the mainland of the Americas (a settlement by Alonso de Ojeda
16587-403: The first permanent settlement on mainland American soil, and called it Santa María la Antigua del Darién . The victory of the Spanish over the natives and the founding of Santa María la Antigua del Darién, now located in a relatively calm region, earned Balboa authority and respect among his companions. They were increasingly hostile toward Alcalde Mayor Fernández de Enciso, whom they considered
16758-412: The formation of unusually high rogue waves . Most waves are less than 3 m (10 ft) high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above 25 meters (82 ft). The top of a wave is known as the crest, the lowest point between waves is the trough and the distance between the crests is the wavelength. The wave
16929-595: The intercession of Bishop de Quevedo and Isabel de Bobadilla , who arranged for Balboa's marriage to María de Peñalosa, one of Pedrarias' daughters, who was in Spain. Shortly thereafter, the bishop left for Spain and the marriage took place by proxy (they would never meet because she was in Spain and Balboa would never return to his homeland). The friendship between Pedrarias and Balboa lasted barely two years, but in that time Balboa came to show great filial affection toward his father-in-law. Balboa wished to continue exploring
17100-421: The interface between water and air is called swell – a term used in sailing , surfing and navigation . These motions profoundly affect ships on the surface of the ocean and the well-being of people on those ships who might suffer from sea sickness . Wind blowing over the surface of a body of water forms waves that are perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The friction between air and water caused by
17271-502: The interior, but returned empty handed. Balboa's request for men and supplies had been denied: Enciso's case was by then widely known in the Spanish court . Therefore, Balboa had no choice but to carry out his expedition with the few resources that he had on hand in Santa María. Using information given by various friendly caciques , Balboa started his journey across the Isthmus of Panama on September 1, 1513, together with 190 Spaniards,
17442-482: The intertidal zone. The difference in height between the high tide and low tide is known as the tidal range or tidal amplitude. When the sun and moon are aligned (full moon or new moon), the combined effect results in the higher "spring tides", while the sun and moon misaligning (half moons) result in lesser tidal ranges. In the open ocean tidal ranges are less than 1 meter, but in coastal areas these tidal ranges increase to more than 10 meters in some areas. Some of
17613-517: The island in 1775. Edmond Halley 's voyage in HMS ; Paramour for magnetic investigations in the South Atlantic met the pack ice in 52° S in January 1700, but that latitude (he reached 140 mi [230 km] off the north coast of South Georgia ) was his farthest south. A determined effort on the part of the French naval officer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier to discover
17784-521: The journey with Balboa entered the mountain range along the Chucunaque River the next day. According to information from the natives, one could see the South Sea from the summit of this range. Balboa went ahead and, before noon that day, September 25, he reached the summit and saw, far in the horizon, the waters of the undiscovered sea. The emotions were such that the others eagerly joined in to show their joy at Balboa's discovery. Andrés de Vera,
17955-573: The large number of enemy combatants, made a vow to the Virgen de la Antigua , venerated in Seville , that they would name a settlement in the region after her should they prevail. It was a difficult battle for both sides, but the Spanish were victorious. Cémaco, with his warriors, abandoned the town and headed for the jungle. The Spanish plundered the houses and gathered a treasure-trove of golden ornaments. Balboa kept his vow. In September 1510, he founded
18126-739: The largest tidal ranges in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy and Ungava Bay in Canada, reaching up to 16 meters. Other locations with record high tidal ranges include the Bristol Channel between England and Wales, Cook Inlet in Alaska, and the Río Gallegos in Argentina. Tides are not to be confused with storm surges , which can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in
18297-570: The local government, to travel with his flotilla and offer Nicuesa authority over the city. The two representatives were Diego de Albites and Diego del Corral. Enrique de Colmenares found Nicuesa near the town of Nombre de Dios , badly wounded and with few men remaining, on account of a skirmish with local natives. After his rescue, Governor Nicuesa heard about Balboa's exploits, the chieftain Cémaco's bounty, and Santa María's prosperity. He vowed that he would punish Balboa as soon as he gained control of
18468-417: The majority of Earth's surface. It includes the Pacific , Atlantic , Indian , Southern/Antarctic , and Arctic oceans. As a general term, "the ocean" and "the sea" are often interchangeable. Strictly speaking, a "sea" is a body of water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land. The word "sea" can also be used for many specific, much smaller bodies of seawater, such as
18639-688: The materials necessary to build new ships. He traveled to the Balsas River (Río Balsas), where he had four ships built. He travelled 74 km (46 mi) through the Pacific, surrounding the Pearl Islands and the coasts of Darién, up to Puerto Piñas , so named because of the large amounts of pineapples (piñas) he found there. He then returned to Acla, to continue the construction of sturdier ships. On his return, Pedrarias wrote warm letters urging Balboa to meet him as soon as possible. Balboa quickly obeyed. Halfway to Santa María, he encountered
18810-488: The meridian of South East Cape , and the southern limits of the Great Australian Bight and the Tasman Sea were moved northward. The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000. Of its 68 member nations, 28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents . The proposal for
18981-518: The most part south of 60° S , a lower southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. On 17 January 1773 the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached 67° 15' S by 39° 35' E , where their course was stopped by ice. Cook then turned northward to look for French Southern and Antarctic Lands , of the discovery of which he had received news at Cape Town , but from
19152-525: The mountains with his people, leaving his village open to plundering by the Spaniards and Careta's men. Days later, the expedition arrived in the lands of cacique Comogre, fertile but reportedly dangerous terrain. Balboa was received peacefully, and even invited to a feast in his honor; Comogre, like Careta, was then baptized. In 1513, Balboa wrote a lengthy letter to the King of Spain, requesting more men (who were already acclimatized) from Hispaniola, weapons, supplies, carpenters versed in shipbuilding, and all
19323-591: The municipal authorities of the governor's intentions. When Nicuesa arrived at the city's port, a mob appeared, and the ensuing disturbance prevented the governor from disembarking into the city. Nicuesa insisted on being received, no longer as governor, but as a simple soldier, but still the colonists did not allow him to disembark. He and 17 others were forced to board an unseaworthy boat with few supplies, and were put out to sea on March 1, 1511. The ship disappeared, leaving no trace of Nicuesa and his men. In this way, Balboa became governor ( gobernador ) of Veragua. With
19494-620: The name Southern Ocean won 18 votes, beating the alternative Antarctic Ocean . Half of the votes supported a definition of the ocean's northern limit at the 60th parallel south —with no land interruptions at this latitude—with the other 14 votes cast for other definitions, mostly the 50th parallel south , but a few for as far north as the 35th parallel south . Notably the Southern Ocean Observing System collates data from latitudes higher than 40 degrees south. A draft fourth edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas
19665-734: The name "Vasco Núñez de Balboa", and a number of monuments honour his discovery of the South Sea. The Panamanian currency is called the Balboa , and his likeness appears on the obverse of most Panamanian coins. His name is also attached to Panama City 's main port, Balboa (the Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal ) and the Balboa District within Panamá Province to which the Pearl Islands that he discovered belong, and
19836-505: The natives were already waiting for them, leading to a series of relentless attacks. Balboa suggested that the settlement of San Sebastián be moved to the region of Darién , to the west of the Gulf of Urabá, where the soil was more fertile and the natives presented less resistance. Fernández de Enciso gave serious consideration to this suggestion, and the regiment later went to Darién, where the native cacique (chieftain) Cémaco had 500 warriors waiting, ready for battle. The Spanish, fearing
20007-473: The necessary materials for the building of a shipyard . In a subsequent letter, from 1515, he said the "Indians who had been like sheep had become like lions." He would refer to his humanitarian policies regarding the natives, while at the same time recommending extreme severity in dealing with cannibals and violent tribes. It was in Comogre's lands that Balboa first heard of "the other sea". It started with
20178-525: The need to interrupt the northern boundary of the Southern Ocean where intersected by Drake Passage which includes all of the waters from South America to the Antarctic coast, nor interrupt it for the Scotia Sea , which also extends below the 60th parallel south. The new delineation of seas has also meant that the long-time named seas around Antarctica, excluded from the 1953 edition (the 1953 map did not even extend that far south), are automatically part of
20349-466: The north coast of Livingston Island ( South Shetlands ). It is unknown if some survivor managed to be the first to set foot on these Antarctic islands. The first confirmed sighting of mainland Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various sources, three men all sighted the ice shelf or the continent within days or months of each other: Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen ,
20520-431: The northern limit; the 1827 Edinburgh Gazetteer used 50 degrees. The Family Magazine in 1835 divided the "Great Southern Ocean" into the "Southern Ocean" and the "Antarctick [ sic ] Ocean" along the Antarctic Circle, with the northern limit of the Southern Ocean being lines joining Cape Horn, the Cape of Good Hope, Van Diemen's Land and the south of New Zealand. The United Kingdom's South Australia Act 1834 described
20691-584: The ocean and its definition as the waters south of the 60th parallel south in its 2000 revisions, but this has not been formally adopted, due to continuing impasses about some of the content, such as the naming dispute over the Sea of Japan . The 2000 IHO definition was circulated as a draft edition in 2002, and is used by some within the IHO and other organizations, such as the CIA World Factbook and Merriam-Webster . The Australian Government regards
20862-408: The ocean faces many environmental threats, such as marine pollution , overfishing , and the effects of climate change . Those effects include ocean warming , ocean acidification and sea level rise . The continental shelf and coastal waters are most affected by human activity. The terms "the ocean" or "the sea" used without specification refer to the interconnected body of salt water covering
21033-423: The ocean meets dry land. It is more shallow, with a depth of a few hundred meters or less. Human activity often has negative impacts on marine life within the continental shelf. Ocean temperatures depend on the amount of solar radiation reaching the ocean surface. In the tropics, surface temperatures can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F). Near the poles where sea ice forms, the temperature in equilibrium
21204-621: The ocean's northern limit ceased to abut land masses. In the second edition, the Southern Ocean then extended from Antarctica northward to latitude 40°S between Cape Agulhas in Africa (long. 20°E) and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia (long. 115°E), and extended to latitude 55°S between Auckland Island of New Zealand (165 or 166°E east) and Cape Horn in South America (67°W). As is discussed in more detail below, prior to
21375-508: The ocean, on land and air. All these processes and components together make up ocean surface ecosystems . Tides are the regular rise and fall in water level experienced by oceans, primarily driven by the Moon 's gravitational tidal forces upon the Earth. Tidal forces affect all matter on Earth, but only fluids like the ocean demonstrate the effects on human timescales. (For example, tidal forces acting on rock may produce tidal locking between two planetary bodies.) Though primarily driven by
21546-469: The ocean. If the wind dies down, the wave formation is reduced, but already-formed waves continue to travel in their original direction until they meet land. The size of the waves depends on the fetch , the distance that the wind has blown over the water and the strength and duration of that wind. When waves meet others coming from different directions, interference between the two can produce broken, irregular seas. Constructive interference can lead to
21717-493: The ocean: Pacific , Atlantic , Indian , Antarctic/Southern , and Arctic . The ocean contains 97% of Earth's water and is the primary component of Earth's hydrosphere and is thereby essential to life on Earth. The ocean influences climate and weather patterns, the carbon cycle , and the water cycle by acting as a huge heat reservoir . Ocean scientists split the ocean into vertical and horizontal zones based on physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone
21888-419: The oceans absorb CO 2 from the atmosphere , a higher concentration leads to ocean acidification (a drop in pH value ). The ocean provides many benefits to humans such as ecosystem services , access to seafood and other marine resources , and a means of transport . The ocean is known to be the habitat of over 230,000 species , but may hold considerably more – perhaps over two million species. Yet,
22059-425: The oceans could have been up to 50 m (165 ft) higher. The entire ocean, containing 97% of Earth's water, spans 70.8% of Earth 's surface, making it Earth's global ocean or world ocean . This makes Earth, along with its vibrant hydrosphere a "water world" or " ocean world ", particularly in Earth's early history when the ocean is thought to have possibly covered Earth completely. The ocean's shape
22230-434: The oceans have been mapped. The zone where land meets sea is known as the coast , and the part between the lowest spring tides and the upper limit reached by splashing waves is the shore . A beach is the accumulation of sand or shingle on the shore. A headland is a point of land jutting out into the sea and a larger promontory is known as a cape . The indentation of a coastline, especially between two headlands,
22401-537: The oceans may have always been on the Earth since the beginning of the planet's formation. In this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its current luminosity . The origin of Earth's oceans is unknown. Oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean eon and may have been the cause for the emergence of life . Plate tectonics , post-glacial rebound , and sea level rise continually change
22572-441: The ornaments worn by native women, and the rest obtained by violence. The Italian historian Peter Martyr d'Anghiera in his De orbe novo decades describes Balboa unleashing his dogs to kill 40 natives for their apparent sodomy. The writer Genny Beeman believes that this was a persecution of the natives for breaking the gender binary, since the natives had been assigned male at birth but were taking on female gender roles. At
22743-491: The other new sea names within the "Southern Ocean", such as the " Cosmonauts Sea ") and Merriam-Webster , scientists and nations – and even by some within the IHO. Some nations' hydrographic offices have defined their own boundaries; the United Kingdom used the 55th parallel south for example. Other organisations favour more northerly limits for the Southern Ocean. For example, Encyclopædia Britannica describes
22914-451: The photic zone, the mesopelagic zone and the aphotic deep ocean zone: The pelagic part of the aphotic zone can be further divided into vertical regions according to depth and temperature: Distinct boundaries between ocean surface waters and deep waters can be drawn based on the properties of the water. These boundaries are called thermoclines (temperature), haloclines (salinity), chemoclines (chemistry), and pycnoclines (density). If
23085-418: The power of a storm wave impacting on the foot of a cliff has a shattering effect as air in cracks and crevices is compressed and then expands rapidly with release of pressure. At the same time, sand and pebbles have an erosive effect as they are thrown against the rocks. This tends to undercut the cliff, and normal weathering processes such as the action of frost follows, causing further destruction. Gradually,
23256-511: The precursor to the IHO, convened the First International Conference on 24 July 1919. The IHO then published these in its Limits of Oceans and Seas , the first edition being 1928. Since the first edition, the limits of the Southern Ocean have moved progressively southward; since 1953, it has been omitted from the official publication and left to local hydrographic offices to determine their own limits. The IHO included
23427-625: The previous year at San Sebastián de Urabá had already been abandoned). Balboa was born in Jerez de los Caballeros , Spain . He was a descendant of the Lord mason of the castle of Balboa , on the borders of León and Galicia. His mother was the Lady de Badajoz, and his father was the hidalgo (nobleman), Nuño Arias de Balboa. Little is known of Vasco's early childhood except that he was the third of four boys in his family. During his adolescence, he served as
23598-537: The regions of Teoca, Pacra, Bugue Bugue, Bononaima, and Chorizo, defeating some by force and befriending others through diplomacy. A particularly bloody battle took place against the cacique Tubanamá, whom Balboa eventually defeated. In December, the expedition arrived back in the Caribbean coast, by the Gulf of San Blas , a strip of land ruled by cacique Pocorosa. From there, he headed to the lands of Comogre, to find that his elderly ally had died. His son, Panquiaco,
23769-469: The rough determination of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned latitude 10° too far east and did not see it. He turned south again and was stopped by ice in 61° 52′ S by 95° E and continued eastward nearly on the parallel of 60° S to 147° E . On 16 March, the approaching winter drove him northward for rest to New Zealand and the tropical islands of the Pacific. In November 1773, Cook left New Zealand, having parted company with
23940-505: The same ship were two representatives from Balboa, who were to inform the colonial authorities of the situation, and request more men and supplies to continue the conquest of Veragua. Balboa continued defeating various tribes and befriending others, exploring rivers, mountains, and sickly swamps, while always searching for gold and slaves and enlarging his territory. He was able to quell revolts among his men who challenged this authority, and through force, diplomacy, and negotiation, he earned
24111-455: The seabed between adjoining plates to form mid-oceanic ridges and here convection currents within the mantle tend to drive the two plates apart. Parallel to these ridges and nearer the coasts, one oceanic plate may slide beneath another oceanic plate in a process known as subduction . Deep trenches are formed here and the process is accompanied by friction as the plates grind together. The movement proceeds in jerks which cause earthquakes, heat
24282-407: The seabed causing deltas to form in estuaries. All these materials move back and forth under the influence of waves, tides and currents. Dredging removes material and deepens channels but may have unexpected effects elsewhere on the coastline. Governments make efforts to prevent flooding of the land by the building of breakwaters , seawalls , dykes and levees and other sea defences. For instance,
24453-463: The seasonally fluctuating Antarctic Convergence - an oceanic zone where cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer Subantarctic waters, or not defined at all, with its waters instead treated as the southern limits of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) finally settled the debate after the full importance of Southern Ocean overturning circulation had been ascertained, and
24624-442: The ship, and threatened to leave him at the first uninhabited island they encountered. He later reconsidered this and decided that Balboa's knowledge of that region, which he had explored eight years before, would be of great utility. This, in addition to the crew's pleas for his life, left Fernández de Enciso with no choice but to spare Balboa and keep him aboard. Moreover, both agreed on removing Nicuesa as governor of Veragua. After
24795-584: The ship; furious, he had Balboa arrested, took away all his men and was planning to lock him up in a wooden cage. He was held back from doing this by Bishop de Quevedo, who appealed to him not to abuse his power on Balboa. Luckily for Balboa, around that time the Spanish Crown would finally recognize his valuable services. The king bestowed on him the titles of " Adelantado of the South Seas" and " Gobernador of Panama and Coiba ". On top of this,
24966-401: The shore at the rate of six to eight per minute and these are known as constructive waves as they tend to move material up the beach and have little erosive effect. Storm waves arrive on shore in rapid succession and are known as destructive waves as the swash moves beach material seawards. Under their influence, the sand and shingle on the beach is ground together and abraded. Around high tide,
25137-406: The situation. Pedrarias arrived from Arbolancha, Spain with an expedition of 1,500 men and 17 ships, thereby ensuring that Balboa's requests to the crown for more men and supplies were met. This would be to that date the largest and most complete expedition to leave Spain for the New World . Pedrarias was accompanied on this expedition by Gaspar de Espinosa , who held the office of alcalde mayor ;
25308-552: The south, and South America, Africa, Australia, and Broughton Island, New Zealand to the north. The detailed land-limits used were from Cape Horn in Chile eastward to Cape Agulhas in Africa, then further eastward to the southern coast of mainland Australia to Cape Leeuwin , Western Australia . From Cape Leeuwin, the limit then followed eastward along the coast of mainland Australia to Cape Otway , Victoria , then southward across Bass Strait to Cape Wickham , King Island , along
25479-456: The system forms). As the world's ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere , it is integral to life on Earth, forms part of the carbon cycle and water cycle , and – as a huge heat reservoir – influences climate and weather patterns. The motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or wind waves , are the partial and alternate rising and falling of the ocean surface. The series of mechanical waves that propagate along
25650-487: The term Southern Ocean now defines the body of water which lies south of the northern limit of that circulation. The Southern Ocean overturning circulation is important because it makes up the second half of the global thermohaline circulation , after the better known Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC). Much like AMOC, it has also been substantially affected by climate change , in ways that have increased ocean stratification , and which may also result in
25821-460: The term Southern Ocean on their maps include Hema Maps and GeoNova. "Southern Ocean" is an obsolete name for the Pacific Ocean or South Pacific, coined by the Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa , the first European to discover the Pacific, who approached it from the north in Panama . The "South Seas" is a less archaic synonym. A 1745 British Act of Parliament established a prize for discovering
25992-454: The title of governor came absolute authority in Santa María and all of Veragua. One of Balboa's first acts as governor was the trial of Fernández de Enciso, accused of usurping the governor's authority. Fernández de Enciso was sentenced to prison and his possessions were confiscated. He was to remain imprisoned only for a short time. Balboa set him free under the condition that he return immediately to Hispaniola and from there to Spain. With him on
26163-669: The travellers, among them Isabel de Bobadilla, Pedrarias' wife. More than 500 men died from starvation or due to the inclemencies of the weather soon after reaching Darién. Fernández de Oviedo was to note that knights covered in silk and brocade, who distinguished themselves valiantly in the Italian Wars , would die, consumed by hunger and fever, due to the nature of the tropical jungle. Balboa received Pedrarias and his representatives in July 1514 and accepted resignedly his replacement as governor and mayor. The settlers, however, did not like
26334-417: The treasure to the king, as the law required. The accusations of Fernández de Enciso, whom Balboa had deposed, and the removal and disappearance of Governor Ojeda, forced the king to name Pedro Arias de Ávila as governor of the newly created province of Castilla de Oro . Arias, better known as Pedrarias Dávila and who would later become notorious for his cruelty, took control of Veragua and managed to calm
26505-570: The two ships reached latitude 74°15' S and longitude 34°16'45″ W the southernmost position any ship had ever reached up to that time. A few icebergs were sighted but there was still no sight of land, leading Weddell to theorize that the sea continued as far as the South Pole. Another two days' sailing would have brought him to Coat's Land (to the east of the Weddell Sea ) but Weddell decided to turn back. The first land south of
26676-434: The very clearest ocean water, and is similar to blue light scattering in the sky . Ocean water represents the largest body of water within the global water cycle (oceans contain 97% of Earth's water ). Evaporation from the ocean moves water into the atmosphere to later rain back down onto land and the ocean. Oceans have a significant effect on the biosphere . The ocean as a whole is thought to cover approximately 90% of
26847-482: The very same Martín Fernández de Enciso whom Balboa had forced into exile, now as Chief Constable ( Alguacil Mayor ); the royal officer and chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés ; as well as several captains, among them Juan de Ayora, Pedrarias's lieutenant. There were also several clerics, most notably the Franciscan friar Juan de Quevedo , appointed bishop of Santa María. There were also women among
27018-523: The waters forming the southern limit of the new province of South Australia as "the Southern Ocean". The Colony of Victoria 's Legislative Council Act 1881 delimited part of the division of Bairnsdale as "along the New South Wales boundary to the Southern ocean". In the 1928 first edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas , the Southern Ocean was delineated by land-based limits: Antarctica to
27189-502: The way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a habitable southern continent. Cook's most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the 60th parallel , and he convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically inaccessible and without economic value. Voyagers rounding Cape Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but so far as can be ascertained none of them before 1770 reached
27360-566: The west coast of King Island, then the remainder of the way south across Bass Strait to Cape Grim , Tasmania . The limit then followed the west coast of Tasmania southward to the South East Cape and then went eastward to Broughton Island, New Zealand, before returning to Cape Horn. The northern limits of the Southern Ocean were moved southward in the IHO's 1937 second edition of the Limits of Oceans and Seas . From this edition, much of
27531-476: The world, and from the surface into the deep ocean. All this has impacts on the global climate system . Ocean water contains dissolved gases, including oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen . An exchange of these gases occurs at the ocean's surface. The solubility of these gases depends on the temperature and salinity of the water. The carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is rising due to CO 2 emissions , mainly from fossil fuel combustion. As
27702-449: Was changed. A reservation had also been lodged by Australia regarding the Southern Ocean limits. Effectively, the third edition—which did not delineate the Southern Ocean leaving delineation to local hydrographic offices—has yet to be superseded. Despite this, the fourth edition definition has partial de facto usage by many nations, scientists, and organisations such as the U.S. (the CIA World Factbook uses "Southern Ocean", but none of
27873-465: Was circulated to IHO member states in August 2002 (sometimes referred to as the "2000 edition" as it summarized the progress to 2000). It has yet to be published due to 'areas of concern' by several countries relating to various naming issues around the world – primarily the Sea of Japan naming dispute – and there have been various changes, 60 seas were given new names, and even the name of the publication
28044-492: Was injured in the leg. A short time later, Ojeda sailed for Hispaniola, leaving the colony under the supervision of Francisco Pizarro , who, at that time, was only a soldier waiting for Enciso's expedition to arrive. Ojeda asked Pizarro to leave some men in the settlement for 50 days and, if no help arrived at the end of that time, to use all possible means to get back to Hispaniola. Before the expedition arrived at San Sebastián de Urabá, Fernández de Enciso discovered Balboa aboard
28215-585: Was later named the Ross Ice Shelf . Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and HMS Terror . The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914, led by Ernest Shackleton , set out to cross the continent via the pole, but their ship, Endurance , was trapped and crushed by pack ice before they even landed. The expedition members survived after an epic journey on sledges over pack ice to Elephant Island . Then Shackleton and five others crossed
28386-444: Was now the chieftain. From there, he crossed the lands of Ponca and Careta, arriving in Santa María on January 19, 1514, with a treasure in cotton goods, more than 100,000 castellanos worth of gold, to say nothing of the pearls. All this did not compare to the magnitude of the discovery of the South Sea on behalf of Spain. Balboa commanded Pedro de Arbolancha to set sail for Spain with news of this discovery. He also sent one fifth of
28557-722: Was recovered from the Isua Greenstone Belt and provides evidence that water existed on Earth 3.8 billion years ago. In the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt , Quebec , Canada, rocks dated at 3.8 billion years old by one study and 4.28 billion years old by another show evidence of the presence of water at these ages. If oceans existed earlier than this, any geological evidence either has yet to be discovered, or has since been destroyed by geological processes like crustal recycling . However, in August 2020, researchers reported that sufficient water to fill
28728-486: Was separated by sea from any continuous southern continent. The visit to South Georgia by Anthony de la Roché in 1675 was the first-ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic Convergence , i.e. in the Southern Ocean/Antarctic. Soon after the voyage cartographers started to depict " Roché Island ", honouring the discoverer. James Cook was aware of la Roché's discovery when surveying and mapping
28899-490: Was substituting for Alonso de Ojeda, his mandate was illegitimate, because the governor of Veragua was Diego de Nicuesa, not Ojeda; therefore, Fernández de Enciso should be deposed and arrested. After Fernández de Enciso's ouster , a more open government was established and a municipal council was elected (the first in the Americas). Two alcaldes were appointed: Martín Samudio and Vasco Núñez de Balboa. Shortly after this,
29070-449: Was the beginning of October and the weather conditions were not favorable. He was barely able to make out the islands, and named the largest one Isla Rica (Rich Island, today known as Isla del Rey ). He named the entire group Archipiélago de las Perlas , which they are still called today. In November, Balboa decided to return to Santa María but by a different route to further expand his territory and procure more gold. He passed through
29241-523: Was then known, and reported the discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands " on 25 January 1840. That part of Antarctica was later named " Wilkes Land ", a name it maintains to this day. Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named for him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that
#191808