90-577: Khao Lak ( Thai : เขาหลัก , pronounced [kʰǎw làk] ) is a small village in Phang Nga province, located South of the main mountain. Tour operators like to use the popular name as location for a series of other villages, now tourist-oriented, mainly in the Takua Pa District of Phang Nga Province , Thailand . The name "Khao Lak" literally translated means 'Main Mountain'. This
180-623: A dominant language in all aspects of society in Thailand, Thai initially saw gradual and later widespread adoption as a second language among the country's minority ethnic groups from the mid-late Ayutthaya period onward. Ethnic minorities today are predominantly bilingual, speaking Thai alongside their native language or dialect. Standard Thai is classified as one of the Chiang Saen languages—others being Northern Thai , Southern Thai and numerous smaller languages, which together with
270-430: A wave shoaling process described below. A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas. On April 1, 1946, the 8.6 M w Aleutian Islands earthquake occurred with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ). It generated a tsunami which inundated Hilo on the island of Hawaii with a 14-metre high (46 ft) surge. Between 165 and 173 were killed. The area where
360-427: A few minutes at a time. The Tauredunum event was a large tsunami on Lake Geneva in 563 CE, caused by sedimentary deposits destabilised by a landslide. In the 1950s, it was discovered that tsunamis larger than had previously been believed possible can be caused by giant submarine landslides . These large volumes of rapidly displaced water transfer energy at a faster rate than the water can absorb. Their existence
450-533: A four-way distinction among stops and affricates . The maximal four-way occurred in labials ( /p pʰ b ʔb/ ) and denti-alveolars ( /t tʰ d ʔd/ ); the three-way distinction among velars ( /k kʰ ɡ/ ) and palatals ( /tɕ tɕʰ dʑ/ ), with the glottalized member of each set apparently missing. The major change between old and modern Thai was due to voicing distinction losses and the concomitant tone split . This may have happened between about 1300 and 1600 CE, possibly occurring at different times in different parts of
540-432: A huge wave. As the tsunami approaches the coast and the waters become shallow, wave shoaling compresses the wave and its speed decreases below 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph). Its wavelength diminishes to less than 20 kilometres (12 mi) and its amplitude grows enormously—in accord with Green's law . Since the wave still has the same very long period , the tsunami may take minutes to reach full height. Except for
630-541: A large problem of awareness and preparedness, as exemplified by the eruption and collapse of Anak Krakatoa in 2018 , which killed 426 and injured thousands when no warning was available. It is still regarded that lateral landslides and ocean-entering pyroclastic currents are most likely to generate the largest and most hazardous waves from volcanism; however, field investigation of the Tongan event , as well as developments in numerical modelling methods, currently aim to expand
720-538: A massive landslide from Monte Toc entered the reservoir behind the Vajont Dam in Italy. The resulting wave surged over the 262-metre (860 ft)-high dam by 250 metres (820 ft) and destroyed several towns. Around 2,000 people died. Scientists named these waves megatsunamis . Some geologists claim that large landslides from volcanic islands, e.g. Cumbre Vieja on La Palma ( Cumbre Vieja tsunami hazard ) in
810-577: A reference sea level. A large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving over a period of hours, with significant time between the wave crests. The first wave to reach the shore may not have the highest run-up. About 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, but they are possible wherever there are large bodies of water, including lakes. However, tsunami interactions with shorelines and the seafloor topography are extremely complex, which leaves some countries more vulnerable than others. For example,
900-462: A ridge and a trough. In the case of a propagating wave like a tsunami, either may be the first to arrive. If the first part to arrive at the shore is the ridge, a massive breaking wave or sudden flooding will be the first effect noticed on land. However, if the first part to arrive is a trough, a drawback will occur as the shoreline recedes dramatically, exposing normally submerged areas. The drawback can exceed hundreds of metres, and people unaware of
990-467: A significant tsunami, such as the 1977 Sumba and 1933 Sanriku events. Tsunamis have a small wave height offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometres long, whereas normal ocean waves have a wavelength of only 30 or 40 metres), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about 300 millimetres (12 in) above the normal sea surface. They grow in height when they reach shallower water, in
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#17328019123511080-419: A source of income. Rubber plantations provide raw materials for various products, and palm oil plantations are also an important economic factor. Additionally, fruit plantations, especially for exotic fruits like mangosteen , rambutan , and durian , have become established. Today, tourism has become the main source of income for the region, significantly shaping Khao Lak's economic landscape. However, during
1170-530: A syllable that formerly began with a voiceless consonant (including glottalized stops). An additional complication is that formerly voiceless unaspirated stops/affricates (original /p t k tɕ ʔb ʔd/ ) also caused original tone 1 to lower, but had no such effect on original tones 2 or 3. The above consonant mergers and tone splits account for the complex relationship between spelling and sound in modern Thai. Modern "low"-class consonants were voiced in Old Thai, and
1260-655: A transoceanic tsunami has not occurred within recorded history. Susceptible locations are believed to be the Big Island of Hawaii , Fogo in the Cape Verde Islands , La Reunion in the Indian Ocean , and Cumbre Vieja on the island of La Palma in the Canary Islands ; along with other volcanic ocean islands. This is because large masses of relatively unconsolidated volcanic material occurs on
1350-445: A tsunami can be calculated by obtaining the square root of the depth of the water in metres multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity (approximated to 10 m/s ). For example, if the Pacific Ocean is considered to have a depth of 5000 metres, the velocity of a tsunami would be √ 5000 × 10 = √ 50000 ≈ 224 metres per second (730 ft/s), which equates to a speed of about 806 kilometres per hour (501 mph). This
1440-434: A tsunami can be generated when thrust faults associated with convergent or destructive plate boundaries move abruptly, resulting in water displacement, owing to the vertical component of movement involved. Movement on normal (extensional) faults can also cause displacement of the seabed, but only the largest of such events (typically related to flexure in the outer trench swell ) cause enough displacement to give rise to
1530-473: A tsunami, which is that of an extraordinarily high tidal bore . Tsunamis and tides both produce waves of water that move inland, but in the case of a tsunami, the inland movement of water may be much greater, giving the impression of an incredibly high and forceful tide. In recent years, the term "tidal wave" has fallen out of favour, especially in the scientific community, because the causes of tsunamis have nothing to do with those of tides , which are produced by
1620-450: A victim. Jane Holland (née Attenborough) the elder daughter of the film director and actor Richard Attenborough perished in the tsunami with several members of her family. Former President of Finland Sauli Niinistö and his adult son survived by clinging to a power pole. Since the 2004 tsunami, an early-warning system has been installed along the affected coastline. In April 2012, it received its most recent test following an earthquake off
1710-467: Is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake . Earthquakes , volcanic eruptions and underwater explosions (including detonations, landslides , glacier calvings , meteorite impacts and other disturbances) above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. Unlike normal ocean waves, which are generated by wind , or tides , which are in turn generated by
1800-620: Is also accustomed to tsunamis, with earthquakes of varying magnitudes regularly occurring off the coast of the island. Tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the Mediterranean Sea and parts of Europe. Of historical and current (with regard to risk assumptions) importance are the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami (which was caused by the Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault ), the 1783 Calabrian earthquakes , each causing several tens of thousands of deaths and
1890-562: Is also used to refer to the phenomenon because the waves most often are generated by seismic activity such as earthquakes. Prior to the rise of the use of the term tsunami in English, scientists generally encouraged the use of the term seismic sea wave rather than tidal wave . However, like tidal wave , seismic sea wave is not a completely accurate term, as forces other than earthquakes—including underwater landslides , volcanic eruptions, underwater explosions, land or ice slumping into
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#17328019123511980-506: Is based on the register of the educated classes by Central Thai and ethnic minorities in the area along the ring surrounding the Metropolis . In addition to Central Thai, Thailand is home to other related Tai languages . Although most linguists classify these dialects as related but distinct languages, native speakers often identify them as regional variants or dialects of the "same" Thai language, or as "different kinds of Thai". As
2070-557: Is based on the dialect of the central Thai people, and it is written in the Thai script . Hlai languages Kam-Sui languages Kra languages Be language Northern Tai languages Central Tai languages Khamti language Tai Lue language Shan language others Northern Thai language Thai language Southern Thai language Tai Yo language Phuthai language Lao language (PDR Lao, Isan language ) Thai has undergone various historical sound changes. Some of
2160-496: Is designed to help accurately forecast the passage of tsunamis across oceans as well as how tsunami waves interact with shorelines. The term "tsunami" is a borrowing from the Japanese tsunami 津波 , meaning "harbour wave." For the plural, one can either follow ordinary English practice and add an s , or use an invariable plural as in the Japanese. Some English speakers alter the word's initial / ts / to an / s / by dropping
2250-591: Is easily accessible by road. Regular bus services and taxis connect these two popular tourist destinations. Samui: The island of Samui is located approximately 300 kilometers northeast of Khao Lak. Travel between these locations typically involves a combination of road and ferry travel, or a flight from or to Samui Airport. Krabi: Krabi is around 150 kilometers to the southeast of Khao Lak. Regular bus services, taxis, and private car hires are available for this journey. Beach boundaries are fluid, and vary with local prejudices, official government pronouncements, and
2340-546: Is known for its tranquil beaches, lush tropical landscapes, and as a departure point for diving trips to the Similan Islands . Distances to Other Thai Cities Bangkok: Bangkok , the capital city of Thailand, is roughly 760 kilometers north of Khao Lak. Travel options include flights to Phuket followed by a road journey, or direct buses and trains to nearby areas with connecting transportation to Khao Lak. Phuket : Being only 60 kilometers south of Khao Lak, Phuket
2430-510: Is mostly warm all year round with temperatures averaging around 28 °C to 32 °C. In the dry season it is not uncommon for Khao Lak to go without rain for around six weeks at a time. This is the main tourist season when the weather is more settled. During this time the wind generally comes from the East, meaning the town is sheltered by its position on the Western side of the mountains near
2520-515: Is not favoured by the scientific community because it might give the false impression of a causal relationship between tides and tsunamis. Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves, with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called " wave train ". Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormous, and they can affect entire ocean basins. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami
2610-791: Is now Shakespear Regional Park at the tip of the Whangaparāoa Peninsula in the Auckland Region of New Zealand ; the attempt failed. There has been considerable speculation about the possibility of using nuclear weapons to cause tsunamis near an enemy coastline. Nuclear testing in the Pacific Proving Ground by the United States generated poor results. In Operation Crossroads in July 1946, two 20-kilotonne-of-TNT (84 TJ) bombs were detonated, one in
2700-426: Is the formula used for calculating the velocity of shallow-water waves. Even the deep ocean is shallow in this sense because a tsunami wave is so long (horizontally from crest to crest) by comparison. The reason for the Japanese name "harbour wave" is that sometimes a village's fishermen would sail out, and encounter no unusual waves while out at sea fishing, and come back to land to find their village devastated by
2790-486: Is the language of television, education, news reporting, and all forms of media. A recent research found that the speakers of the Northern Thai language (also known as Phasa Mueang or Kham Mueang) have become so few, as most people in northern Thailand now invariably speak Standard Thai, so that they are now using mostly Central Thai words and only seasoning their speech with the "Kham Mueang" accent. Standard Thai
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2880-430: The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa , and the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption . Over 20% of all fatalities caused by volcanism during the past 250 years are estimated to have been caused by volcanogenic tsunamis. Debate has persisted over the origins and source mechanisms of these types of tsunamis, such as those generated by Krakatoa in 1883, and they remain lesser understood than their seismic relatives. This poses
2970-688: The 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami. The tsunami claimed more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the deadliest natural disasters in modern Europe. The Storegga Slide in the Norwegian Sea and some examples of tsunamis affecting the British Isles refer to landslide and meteotsunamis , predominantly and less to earthquake-induced waves. As early as 426 BC the Greek historian Thucydides inquired in his book History of
3060-413: The Canary Islands , may be able to generate megatsunamis that can cross oceans, but this is disputed by many others. In general, landslides generate displacements mainly in the shallower parts of the coastline, and there is conjecture about the nature of large landslides that enter the water. This has been shown to subsequently affect water in enclosed bays and lakes, but a landslide large enough to cause
3150-621: The Covid pandemic , there was an increased focus on agriculture. This emphasis has helped stabilize the economy in a time of uncertainty and showcases the diversity and adaptability of the economic sectors in Khao Lak. The lush area around Khao Lak was once called Takola. Artifacts dating back to 1,400 years show evidence it was a significant coastal town and trading post of the ancient Maritime Silk Route . In 1987, over nine huts were found inside cashew nut trees of Khao Lak Resort, which are one of
3240-530: The gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun , a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water from a large event. Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or sea waves because their wavelength is far longer. Rather than appearing as a breaking wave , a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide . For this reason, it is often referred to as a tidal wave , although this usage
3330-427: The "t," since English does not natively permit /ts/ at the beginning of words, though the original Japanese pronunciation is /ts/ . The term has become commonly accepted in English, although its literal Japanese meaning is not necessarily descriptive of the waves, which do not occur only in harbours. Tsunamis are sometimes referred to as tidal waves . This once-popular term derives from the most common appearance of
3420-818: The Great Lakes, the Aegean Sea, the English Channel, and the Balearic Islands, where they are common enough to have a local name, rissaga . In Sicily they are called marubbio and in Nagasaki Bay, they are called abiki . Some examples of destructive meteotsunamis include 31 March 1979 at Nagasaki and 15 June 2006 at Menorca, the latter causing damage in the tens of millions of euros. Meteotsunamis should not be confused with storm surges , which are local increases in sea level associated with
3510-555: The Khmer system first before the Thai borrowed. Old Thai had a three-way tone distinction on "live syllables" (those not ending in a stop), with no possible distinction on "dead syllables" (those ending in a stop, i.e. either /p/, /t/, /k/ or the glottal stop that automatically closes syllables otherwise ending in a short vowel). There was a two-way voiced vs. voiceless distinction among all fricative and sonorant consonants, and up to
3600-577: The Khuk Khak Sub-district ( tambon ) of the Takua Pa District ( amphoe ) of Phang Nga Province. The Takua Pa District is divided into eight sub-districts. The village of Ban Khao Lak does not fall within the Khuk Khak sub-district, the area commonly thought of as "Khao Lak". The weather in Khao Lak can be separated into two distinct seasons. The dry season between November and April, and the monsoon season from May to October. Khao Lak
3690-677: The Northwestern Tai and Lao-Phutai languages, form the Southwestern branch of Tai languages . The Tai languages are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family , which encompasses a large number of indigenous languages spoken in an arc from Hainan and Guangxi south through Laos and Northern Vietnam to the Cambodian border. Standard Thai is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout Thailand. The standard
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3780-540: The Pacific coasts of the United States and Mexico lie adjacent to each other, but the United States has recorded ten tsunamis in the region since 1788, while Mexico has recorded twenty-five since 1732. Similarly, Japan has had more than a hundred tsunamis in recorded history, while the neighbouring island of Taiwan has registered only two, in 1781 and 1867. All waves have a positive and negative peak; that is,
3870-597: The Peloponnesian War about the causes of tsunami, and was the first to argue that ocean earthquakes must be the cause. The oldest human record of a tsunami dates back to 479 BC , in the Greek colony of Potidaea , thought to be triggered by an earthquake. The tsunami may have saved the colony from an invasion by the Achaemenid Empire . The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in
3960-491: The Thai-speaking area. All voiced–voiceless pairs of consonants lost the voicing distinction: However, in the process of these mergers, the former distinction of voice was transferred into a new set of tonal distinctions. In essence, every tone in Old Thai split into two new tones, with a lower-pitched tone corresponding to a syllable that formerly began with a voiced consonant, and a higher-pitched tone corresponding to
4050-450: The air over and one underwater within the shallow waters of the 50-metre (164 ft) deep lagoon at Bikini Atoll . The bombs detonated about 6 km (3.7 mi; 3.2 nmi) from the nearest island, where the waves were no higher than 3 to 4 m (9.8 to 13.1 ft) when they reached the shoreline. Other underwater tests, mainly Operation Hardtack I /Wahoo in deep water and Operation Hardtack I/Umbrella in shallow water, confirmed
4140-412: The coast of Sumatra. Audible warning sirens alerted the local population to the possibility of a tsunami roughly 2 hours before estimated landfall, allowing the populace to move to higher ground inland. The 2012 film The Impossible is based on the true story of the family of María Belón , who survived the 2004 tsunami, and was also filmed in Khao Lak. The Khao Lak region falls almost entirely within
4230-623: The coast. In the monsoon season however the wind changes direction and comes from the West where it reflects off of the mountains and causes strong winds, waves and storm like conditions in the area. Thai language Thai , or Central Thai (historically Siamese ; Thai: ภาษาไทย ), is a Tai language of the Kra–Dai language family spoken by the Central Thai , Mon , Lao Wiang , Phuan people in Central Thailand and
4320-413: The danger sometimes remain near the shore to satisfy their curiosity or to collect fish from the exposed seabed. A typical wave period for a damaging tsunami is about twelve minutes. Thus, the sea recedes in the drawback phase, with areas well below sea level exposed after three minutes. For the next six minutes, the wave trough builds into a ridge which may flood the coast, and destruction ensues. During
4410-455: The deep ocean has a much larger wavelength of up to 200 kilometres (120 mi). Such a wave travels at well over 800 kilometres per hour (500 mph), but owing to the enormous wavelength the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete a cycle and has an amplitude of only about 1 metre (3.3 ft). This makes tsunamis difficult to detect over deep water, where ships are unable to feel their passage. The velocity of
4500-494: The earthquake occurred is where the Pacific Ocean floor is subducting (or being pushed downwards) under Alaska. Examples of tsunamis originating at locations away from convergent boundaries include Storegga about 8,000 years ago, Grand Banks in 1929, and Papua New Guinea in 1998 (Tappin, 2001). The Grand Banks and Papua New Guinea tsunamis came from earthquakes which destabilised sediments, causing them to flow into
4590-408: The earthquake. At the point where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen. The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus ( Res Gestae 26.10.15–19) described the typical sequence of a tsunami, including an incipient earthquake, the sudden retreat of
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#17328019123514680-566: The effects of the waves have ensured that replanting and maintenance of the coastal vegetation have become a priority in the reconstruction of the landscape. The force of the tsunami beached Thai navy boat 813 (Tor 813) almost 1.25 kilometres (0.78 miles) inland from Bang Niang Beach. It was on patrol, guarding Bhumi Jensen , a grandson of the king, as he was jet skiing in front of La Flora Resort. Despite rescue efforts, he could not be saved. His mother, Princess Ubol Ratana , and sister survived by fleeing to an upper story of La Flora. The area in which
4770-406: The flanks and in some cases detachment planes are believed to be developing. However, there is growing controversy about how dangerous these slopes actually are. Other than by landslides or sector collapse , volcanoes may be able to generate waves by pyroclastic flow submergence, caldera collapse, or underwater explosions. Tsunamis have been triggered by a number of volcanic eruptions, including
4860-494: The gravitational pull of the moon and sun rather than the displacement of water. Although the meanings of "tidal" include "resembling" or "having the form or character of" tides, use of the term tidal wave is discouraged by geologists and oceanographers. A 1969 episode of the TV crime show Hawaii Five-O entitled "Forty Feet High and It Kills!" used the terms "tsunami" and "tidal wave" interchangeably. The term seismic sea wave
4950-409: The harbour at Halifax , Nova Scotia , Canada . There have been studies of the potential for the use of explosives to induce tsunamis as a tectonic weapon . As early as World War II (1939–1945), consideration of the use of conventional explosives was explored, and New Zealand's military forces initiated Project Seal , which attempted to create small tsunamis with explosives in the area of what
5040-557: The intensity of tsunamis were the Sieberg - Ambraseys scale (1962), used in the Mediterranean Sea and the Imamura-Iida intensity scale (1963), used in the Pacific Ocean. The latter scale was modified by Soloviev (1972), who calculated the tsunami intensity " I " according to the formula: where H a v {\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}} is the "tsunami height" in metres, averaged along
5130-562: The intensively studied tsunamis in 2004 and 2011, a new 12-point scale was proposed, the Integrated Tsunami Intensity Scale (ITIS-2012), intended to match as closely as possible to the modified ESI2007 and EMS earthquake intensity scales. The first scale that genuinely calculated a magnitude for a tsunami, rather than an intensity at a particular location was the ML scale proposed by Murty & Loomis based on
5220-528: The local patois as pronounced in Guangdong Ayutthaya , the old capital of Thailand from 1351 - 1767 A.D., was from the beginning a bilingual society, speaking Thai and Khmer . Bilingualism must have been strengthened and maintained for some time by the great number of Khmer-speaking captives the Thais took from Angkor Thom after their victories in 1369, 1388 and 1431. Gradually toward the end of
5310-483: The low barometric pressure of passing tropical cyclones, nor should they be confused with setup, the temporary local raising of sea level caused by strong on-shore winds. Storm surges and setup are also dangerous causes of coastal flooding in severe weather but their dynamics are completely unrelated to tsunami waves. They are unable to propagate beyond their sources, as waves do. The accidental Halifax Explosion in 1917 triggered an 18-metre (59 ft) high tsunami in
5400-500: The marketing efforts of local resorts. It is generally accepted that Khao Lak beaches include (from south to north): Taken together, these beaches stretch for some 25 kilometres (16 miles) along the Andaman Sea. All beaches are public, as are all beaches in Thailand. Since the tsunami, Khao Lak's infrastructure and economy have bounced back. Coastal resorts have been reconstructed or repaired, and new ones have been built or are in
5490-424: The most beautiful areas of forest where species of Thai wildlife are a common sight. Khao Lak was mentioned for the first time in 1988 in the second edition of Traveller Handbuch Thailand by Stefan Loose Verlag . Khao Lak was the coastal area of Thailand hardest hit by the tsunami resulting from the 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . Many people died including many foreign tourists . The final death toll
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#17328019123515580-551: The most significant changes occurred during the evolution from Old Thai to modern Thai. The Thai writing system has an eight-century history and many of these changes, especially in consonants and tones, are evidenced in the modern orthography . According to a Chinese source, during the Ming dynasty , Yingya Shenglan (1405–1433), Ma Huan reported on the language of the Xiānluó (暹羅) or Ayutthaya Kingdom, saying that it somewhat resembled
5670-683: The name Khao Lak has now grown to enclose many other villages in the area, mostly on the Northern side of the mountain in the Khukkhak sub-district of Takuapa district. Khao Lak is a series of villages, now tourist-oriented, mainly in the Takua Pa District and partly in the Thai Mueang District of Phang Nga Province, Thailand. It is located on the Andaman Sea coastline, approximately 60 kilometers north of Phuket. The region
5760-636: The nearest coastline, with the tsunami height defined as the rise of the water level above the normal tidal level at the time of occurrence of the tsunami. This scale, known as the Soloviev-Imamura tsunami intensity scale , is used in the global tsunami catalogues compiled by the NGDC/NOAA and the Novosibirsk Tsunami Laboratory as the main parameter for the size of the tsunami. This formula yields: In 2013, following
5850-405: The next six minutes, the wave changes from a ridge to a trough, and the flood waters recede in a second drawback. Victims and debris may be swept into the ocean. The process repeats with succeeding waves. As with earthquakes, several attempts have been made to set up scales of tsunami intensity or magnitude to allow comparison between different events. The first scales used routinely to measure
5940-856: The ocean and generate a tsunami. They dissipated before travelling transoceanic distances. The cause of the Storegga sediment failure is unknown. Possibilities include an overloading of the sediments, an earthquake or a release of gas hydrates (methane etc.). The 1960 Valdivia earthquake ( M w 9.5), 1964 Alaska earthquake ( M w 9.2), 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake ( M w 9.2), and 2011 Tōhoku earthquake ( M w 9.0) are recent examples of powerful megathrust earthquakes that generated tsunamis (known as teletsunamis ) that can cross entire oceans. Smaller ( M w 4.2) earthquakes in Japan can trigger tsunamis (called local and regional tsunamis) that can devastate stretches of coastline, but can do so in only
6030-437: The ocean, meteorite impacts, and the weather when the atmospheric pressure changes very rapidly—can generate such waves by displacing water. The use of the term tsunami for waves created by landslides entering bodies of water has become internationally widespread in both scientific and popular literature, although such waves are distinct in origin from large waves generated by earthquakes. This distinction sometimes leads to
6120-582: The patrol boat lies has been renovated and includes a museum dedicated to the events of 26 December. Others among the casualties were well-known Finnish musician and TV host Aki Sirkesalo and his family, and Imre von Polgar, guitarist for the Swedish rock band, The Watermelon Men. Almost four years old at the time, a young girl was swept away at Khao Lak and remained the subject of a media-covered intensive search despite being formally identified in August 2005 as
6210-415: The period, a language shift took place. Khmer fell out of use. Both Thai and Khmer descendants whose great-grand parents or earlier ancestors were bilingual came to use only Thai. In the process of language shift, an abundance of Khmer elements were transferred into Thai and permeated all aspects of the language. Consequently, the Thai of the late Ayutthaya Period which later became Ratanakosin or Bangkok Thai,
6300-482: The possibility of a meteorite causing a tsunami is debated. Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquake that are associated with the Earth's crustal deformation; when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position. More specifically,
6390-433: The potential energy. Difficulties in calculating the potential energy of the tsunami mean that this scale is rarely used. Abe introduced the tsunami magnitude scale M t {\displaystyle {\mathit {M}}_{t}} , calculated from, where h is the maximum tsunami-wave amplitude (in m) measured by a tide gauge at a distance R from the epicentre, a , b and D are constants used to make
6480-478: The process of being built. In 2016, there were reportedly 7,822 hotel rooms at 104 registered accommodations. Occupancy rates range from 70 to 90 percent during the high season period (November–March). Over time, the economy in the Khao Lak region has evolved and changed. In the past, the tin mining played a significant role as an economic sector. Today, other industries have come to the forefront. Shrimp farms contribute to food production, while fishing continues to be
6570-605: The results. Analysis of the effects of shallow and deep underwater explosions indicate that the energy of the explosions does not easily generate the kind of deep, all-ocean waveforms typical of tsunamis because most of the energy creates steam , causes vertical fountains above the water, and creates compressional waveforms. Tsunamis are hallmarked by permanent large vertical displacements of very large volumes of water which do not occur in explosions. Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic explosions, glacier calvings, and bolides . They cause damage by two mechanisms:
6660-492: The royal vocabulary according to their immediate environment. Thai and Pali, the latter from Theravada Buddhism, were added to the vocabulary. An investigation of the Ayutthaya Rajasap reveals that three languages, Thai, Khmer and Khmero-Indic were at work closely both in formulaic expressions and in normal discourse. In fact, Khmero-Indic may be classified in the same category as Khmer because Indic had been adapted to
6750-426: The sea and a following gigantic wave, after the 365 AD tsunami devastated Alexandria . The principal generation mechanism of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea. This displacement of water is usually caused by earthquakes, but can also be attributed to landslides, volcanic eruptions, glacier calvings or more rarely by meteorites and nuclear tests. However,
6840-400: The smashing force of a wall of water travelling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining off the land and carrying a large amount of debris with it, even with waves that do not appear to be large. While everyday wind waves have a wavelength (from crest to crest) of about 100 metres (330 ft) and a height of roughly 2 metres (6.6 ft), a tsunami in
6930-535: The terminology "low" reflects the lower tone variants that resulted. Modern "mid"-class consonants were voiceless unaspirated stops or affricates in Old Thai—precisely the class that triggered lowering in original tone 1 but not tones 2 or 3. Modern "high"-class consonants were the remaining voiceless consonants in Old Thai (voiceless fricatives, voiceless sonorants, voiceless aspirated stops). The three most common tone "marks" (the lack of any tone mark, as well as
7020-594: The three tones of Old Thai were split have since merged into five in standard Thai, with the lower variant of former tone 2 merging with the higher variant of former tone 3, becoming the modern "falling" tone. หม ม หน น, ณ หญ ญ หง ง ป ผ พ, ภ บ ฏ, ต ฐ, ถ ท, ธ ฎ, ด จ ฉ ช Tsunami A tsunami ( /( t ) s uː ˈ n ɑː m i , ( t ) s ʊ ˈ -/ (t)soo- NAH -mee, (t)suu- ; from Japanese : 津波 , lit. 'harbour wave', pronounced [tsɯnami] )
7110-457: The transoceanic reach of significant seismic tsunamis, and 2) that the force that displaces the water is sustained over some length of time such that meteotsunamis cannot be modelled as having been caused instantaneously. In spite of their lower energies, on shorelines where they can be amplified by resonance, they are sometimes powerful enough to cause localised damage and potential for loss of life. They have been documented in many places, including
7200-423: The two marks termed mai ek and mai tho ) represent the three tones of Old Thai, and the complex relationship between tone mark and actual tone is due to the various tonal changes since then. Since the tone split, the tones have changed in actual representation to the point that the former relationship between lower and higher tonal variants has been completely obscured. Furthermore, the six tones that resulted after
7290-447: The understanding of the other source mechanisms. Some meteorological conditions, especially rapid changes in barometric pressure, as seen with the passing of a front, can displace bodies of water enough to cause trains of waves with wavelengths. These are comparable to seismic tsunamis, but usually with lower energies. Essentially, they are dynamically equivalent to seismic tsunamis, the only differences being 1) that meteotsunamis lack
7380-508: The urban/rural divide, is partly mutually intelligible with Lao , Isan , and some fellow Thai topolects . These languages are written with slightly different scripts, but are linguistically similar and effectively form a dialect continuum . Thai language is spoken by over 69 million people (2020). Moreover, most Thais in the northern (Lanna) and the northeastern (Isan) parts of the country today are bilingual speakers of Central Thai and their respective regional dialects because Central Thai
7470-457: The use of other terms for landslide-generated waves, including landslide-triggered tsunami , displacement wave , non-seismic wave , impact wave , and, simply, giant wave . While Japan may have the longest recorded history of tsunamis, the sheer destruction caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami event mark it as the most devastating of its kind in modern times, killing around 230,000 people. The Sumatran region
7560-555: The vast majority of Thai Chinese enclaves throughout the country. It is the sole official language of Thailand . Thai is the most spoken of over 60 languages of Thailand by both number of native and overall speakers. Over half of its vocabulary is derived from or borrowed from Pali , Sanskrit , Mon and Old Khmer . It is a tonal and analytic language . Thai has a complex orthography and system of relational markers . Spoken Thai, depending on standard sociolinguistic factors such as age, gender, class, spatial proximity, and
7650-399: The very largest tsunamis, the approaching wave does not break , but rather appears like a fast-moving tidal bore . Open bays and coastlines adjacent to very deep water may shape the tsunami further into a step-like wave with a steep-breaking front. When the tsunami's wave peak reaches the shore, the resulting temporary rise in sea level is termed run up . Run up is measured in metres above
7740-453: Was a thorough mixture of Thai and Khmer. There were more Khmer words in use than Tai cognates. Khmer grammatical rules were used actively to coin new disyllabic and polysyllabic words and phrases. Khmer expressions, sayings, and proverbs were expressed in Thai through transference. Thais borrowed both the Royal vocabulary and rules to enlarge the vocabulary from Khmer. The Thais later developed
7830-576: Was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history, with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean . The Ancient Greek historian Thucydides suggested in his 5th century BC History of the Peloponnesian War that tsunamis were related to submarine earthquakes , but the understanding of tsunamis remained slim until the 20th century, and much remains unknown. Major areas of current research include determining why some large earthquakes do not generate tsunamis while other smaller ones do. This ongoing research
7920-521: Was confirmed in 1958, when a giant landslide in Lituya Bay , Alaska, caused the highest wave ever recorded, which had a height of 524 metres (1,719 ft). The wave did not travel far as it struck land almost immediately. The wave struck three boats—each with two people aboard—anchored in the bay. One boat rode out the wave, but the wave sank the other two, killing both people aboard one of them. Another landslide-tsunami event occurred in 1963 when
8010-592: Was one of the peaks used by ancient sea farers as a landmark to guide them into the safe harbor at Thaplamu. Lak mountain is one of the main peaks in the hilly small mountainous region (maximum height 1,050 meters (3,440 ft) in Khao Lak-Lam Ru National Park . The tiny village of Ban Khao Lak, the original beach, Hat Khao Lak, and the bay of Khao Lak (Ao Khao Lak) actually all lie in the Lam Kaen sub-district of Thai Mueang District. However
8100-481: Was over 4,000, with local unofficial estimates topping 10,000 due to the lack of accurate government censuses and the fact that much of the migrant Burmese population was not documented nor recognized as legal residents. Most of the coastal landscape was destroyed by the tsunami. Some replanting programmes have been initiated and a great deal has been accomplished in the rejuvenation of surrounding foliage. Studies suggesting that coastal vegetation may have helped buffer
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