An effusive eruption is a type of volcanic eruption in which lava steadily flows out of a volcano onto the ground.
121-471: Kīlauea ( US : / ˌ k ɪ l ə ˈ w eɪ ə / KIL -ə- WAY -ə , Hawaiian: [kiːlɐwˈwɛjə] ) is an active shield volcano in the Hawaiian Islands . It is located along the southeastern shore of Hawaii Island . The volcano is between 210,000 and 280,000 years old and grew above sea level about 100,000 years ago. Since the islands were settled, it has been the most active of
242-707: A cot–caught merger , which is rapidly spreading throughout the whole country. However, the South, Inland North, and a Northeastern coastal corridor passing through Rhode Island, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore typically preserve an older cot–caught distinction. For that Northeastern corridor, the realization of the THOUGHT vowel is particularly marked , as depicted in humorous spellings, like in tawk and cawfee ( talk and coffee ), which intend to represent it being tense and diphthongal : [oə] . A split of TRAP into two separate phonemes , using different
363-520: A pronunciations for example in gap [æ] versus gas [eə] , further defines New York City as well as Philadelphia–Baltimore accents. Most Americans preserve all historical /r/ sounds, using what is known as a rhotic accent . The only traditional r -dropping (or non-rhoticity) in regional U.S. accents variably appears today in eastern New England , New York City , and some of the former plantation South primarily among older speakers (and, relatedly, some African-American Vernacular English across
484-427: A bulge on the southeastern flank of Mauna Loa . Native Hawaiians and early geologists considered it an active satellite of its host. However, lava analysis shows that the two have separate magma chambers . Nonetheless, high activity at one volcano roughly coincides with low activity at the other. When Kīlauea lay dormant between 1934 and 1952, Mauna Loa became active, and when the latter remained quiet from 1952 to 1974,
605-567: A certain threshold, fragmentation within the magma can cause an explosive eruption. This threshold is governed by the Reynolds number , a dimensionless number in fluid dynamics that is directly proportional to fluid velocity . Eruptions will be effusive if the magma has a low ascent velocity. At higher magma ascent rates, the fragmentation within the magma passes a threshold and results in explosive eruptions. Silicic magma also exhibits this transition between effusive and explosive eruptions, but
726-631: A complex phenomenon of "both convergence and divergence": some accents are homogenizing and leveling , while others are diversifying and deviating further away from one another. Having been settled longer than the American West Coast, the East Coast has had more time to develop unique accents, and it currently comprises three or four linguistically significant regions, each of which possesses English varieties both different from each other as well as quite internally diverse: New England ,
847-447: A consonant, such as in pearl , car and fort . Non-rhotic American accents, those that do not pronounce ⟨r⟩ except before a vowel, such as some accents of Eastern New England , New York City , and African-Americans , and a specific few (often older ones) spoken by Southerners , are often quickly noticed by General American listeners and perceived as sounding especially ethnic, regional, or antiquated. Rhoticity
968-412: A large summit caldera named Kaluapele (the pit of Pele), measuring 4 by 3.2 km (2.5 by 2.0 mi) with walls up to 120 m (400 ft) high, breached by lava flows on the southwestern side. The age of Kaluapele is unknown, and it is possible that it has appeared and disappeared multiple times. Kaluapele likely formed over several centuries, beginning about 500 years ago, while its present form
1089-549: A large, effusive Hawaiian eruption over 35 km (22 mi) of its length, unusually long even for a rift eruption. The eruption lasted for 26 days and produced an estimated 205 to 265 million cubic meters of lava; the light generated by the event was so intense that one could reportedly read a newspaper in Hilo at night, 30 km (19 mi) away. The volcano was active again in 1868, 1877, 1884, 1885, 1894, and 1918, before its next major eruption in 1918–1919. Halemaʻumaʻu, then
1210-591: A merger with the THOUGHT ( caught ) set. Having taken place prior to the unrounding of the cot vowel, it results in lengthening and perhaps raising, merging the more recently separated vowel into the THOUGHT vowel in the following environments: before many instances of /f/ , /θ/ , and particularly /s/ (as in Austria, cloth, cost, loss, off, often, etc.), a few instances before /ŋ/ (as in strong, long, wrong ), and variably by region or speaker in gone , on , and certain other words. Unlike American accents,
1331-531: A new crater formed in the explosion, informally named the "Overlook Crater," emitting a thick gas plume that obscured views into the vent. Explosive events occurred at the vent throughout 2008. On September 5, 2008, scientists observed a lava pond deep within the Overlook Crater for the first time. Beginning in February 2010, a lava pond was visible at the bottom of the crater almost continuously through
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#17327765503101452-524: A new vent, covered a large area of land with lava , and enlarged the island. The eruption started as a fissure between two pit craters , ʻĀloʻi and ʻAlae, where the Mauna Ulu shield eventually formed. Both pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā lava erupted from the volcano. Fountains of lava surged as much as 540 meters (1772 ft) into the air. In early 1973, an earthquake occurred that caused Kīlauea to briefly stop erupting near Mauna Ulu and instead erupt near
1573-636: A nice day , for sure); many are now distinctly old-fashioned (swell, groovy). Some English words now in general use, such as hijacking, disc jockey , boost, bulldoze and jazz , originated as American slang. American English has always shown a marked tendency to use words in different parts of speech and nouns are often used as verbs . Examples of nouns that are now also verbs are interview, advocate, vacuum, lobby, pressure, rear-end, transition, feature, profile, hashtag, head, divorce, loan, estimate, X-ray, spearhead, skyrocket, showcase, bad-mouth, vacation , major, and many others. Compounds coined in
1694-474: A particularly large, 80-million-cubic-meter, 251-day event from Halemaʻumaʻu. In 1969 the marathon Mauna Ulu eruption was an effusive eruption that lasted from May 24, 1969, to July 24, 1974, and added 230 acres (93 ha) of land to the island. Afterwards a magnitude 7.2 earthquake caused a partial summit collapse, after which activity paused until 1977. At the time, Mauna Ulu was the longest flank recorded eruption of any Hawaiian volcano . The eruption formed
1815-517: A pit crater located within Kīlauea's summit caldera, hosted an active lava lake. Kīlauea erupted nearly continuously from vents on its eastern rift zone between January 1983 and April 2018 , causing major property damage, including the destruction of the towns of Kalapana and Kaimū along with the community's renowned black sand beach , in 1990. Beginning in May 2018, activity shifted further downrift from
1936-480: A process of extensive dialect mixture and leveling in which English varieties across the colonies became more homogeneous compared with the varieties in Britain. English thus predominated in the colonies even by the end of the 17th century's first immigration of non-English speakers from Western Europe and Africa. Additionally, firsthand descriptions of a fairly uniform American English (particularly in contrast to
2057-680: A series of other vowel shifts in the same region, known by linguists as the " Inland North ". The Inland North shares with the Eastern New England dialect (including Boston accents ) a backer tongue positioning of the GOOSE /u/ vowel (to [u] ) and the MOUTH /aʊ/ vowel (to [ɑʊ~äʊ] ) in comparison to the rest of the country. Ranging from northern New England across the Great Lakes to Minnesota, another Northern regional marker
2178-655: A small upwelling in Kaluapele floor, was topped by a lava lake that then drained and refilled, forming a lava lake and nearly reaching the top edge of Kaluapele before draining once more. This activity eventually gave way to the construction of Mauna Iki, building up the lava shield on the volcano's southwest rift zone over eight months. The eruption featured concurrent rift activity and lava fountaining . Activity in 1921–1923 followed. The next major eruption occurred in 1924. Halemaʻumaʻu first drained, then quickly began sinking, deepening to nearly 210 m (689 ft) beneath
2299-525: A survey, completed in 2003, polling English speakers across the United States about their specific everyday word choices, hoping to identify regionalisms. The study found that most Americans prefer the term sub for a long sandwich, soda (but pop in the Great Lakes region and generic coke in the South) for a sweet and bubbly soft drink , you or you guys for the plural of you (but y'all in
2420-560: A thick cloud of volcanic ash . Explosive activity began on May 10, blowing out rock chunks weighing as much as 45 kg (99 lb) 60 m (197 ft), and smaller fragments weighing about 9 kg (20 lb) as far as 270 m (886 ft). After a brief reprieve, the eruption intensified through a major blast on May 18, when an enormous explosive event caused the eruption's only fatality. The eruption continued and formed numerous eruption columns above 9 km (6 mi) in height, declining and ending by May 28. Volcanic activity
2541-453: A variation of American English in these islands. In 2021, about 245 million Americans, aged 5 or above, spoke English at home: a majority of the United States total population of roughly 330 million people. The United States has never had an official language at the federal level, but English is commonly used at the federal level and in states without an official language. 32 of the 50 states, in some cases as part of what has been called
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#17327765503102662-455: A well-defined ridge line and pit craters, evidence that it is less active than the eastern rift zone. A prominent structure on Kīlauea's southern flank is the Hilina fault system , an active fault slipping vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm ( 1 ⁄ 16 to 13 ⁄ 16 in) per year. Its physiographic province is 500 m (1,640 ft) deep, but it is unknown whether it
2783-627: Is a World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination, attracting roughly 2.6 million visitors annually. Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Kīlauea was formed as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earth's underlying mantle . Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has produced the 6,000 km (3,700 mi)-long Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain . The prevailing view
2904-408: Is a shallow listric fault or penetrates deeply. All historical eruptions occurred at either Kaluapele, the eastern rift zone, or the southwestern rift zone. Half of Kīlauea's historical eruptions have occurred at or near Kaluapele. Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century, capped by an explosive eruption in 1924, before petering out by 1934. Later activity mostly shifted to
3025-654: Is also associated with the United States, perhaps mostly in the Midwest and the South. American accents that have not undergone the cot–caught merger (the lexical sets LOT and THOUGHT ) have instead retained a LOT – CLOTH split : a 17th-century distinction in which certain words (labeled as the CLOTH lexical set ) separated away from the LOT set. The split, which has now reversed in most British English, simultaneously shifts this relatively recent CLOTH set into
3146-664: Is also home to a creole language known commonly as Hawaiian Pidgin , and some Hawaii residents speak English with a Pidgin-influenced accent. American English also gave rise to some dialects outside the country, for example, Philippine English , beginning during the American occupation of the Philippines and subsequently the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands ; Thomasites first established
3267-538: Is common in most American accents despite being now rare in England because, during the 17th-century British colonization, nearly all dialects of English were rhotic, and most North American English simply remained that way. The preservation of rhoticity in North America was also supported by continuing waves of rhotic-accented Scotch-Irish immigrants, most intensely during the 18th century (and moderately during
3388-404: Is evidence of crustal-level interactions between them. Geologists suggested that "pulses" of magma entering Mauna Loa's deeper magma system may have increased pressure inside Kīlauea and triggered the concurrent eruptions. Mauna Loa began erupting on November 27, 2022, during Kīlauea's ongoing eruption, the first time since 1984 that both volcanoes were simultaneously erupting. Kīlauea has
3509-449: Is how the island was and currently is being formed. Silicic magmas most commonly erupt explosively, but they can erupt effusively. These magmas are water saturated, and many orders of magnitude more viscous than basaltic magmas, making degassing and effusion more complicated. Degassing prior to eruption, through fractures in the country rock surrounding the magma chamber, plays an important role. Gas bubbles can begin to escape through
3630-555: Is largely dependent on the permeability of the magma and the magma ascent rate. During eruption, dissolved gasses exsolve and begin to rise out of the magma as gas bubbles. If the magma is rising slowly enough, these bubbles will have time to rise and escape, leaving a less buoyant magma behind that fluidly flows out. Effusive basalt lava flows cool to either of two forms, ʻaʻā or pāhoehoe . This type of lava flow builds shield volcanoes , which are, for example, numerous in Hawaii , and
3751-420: Is often identified by Americans as a "country" accent, and is defined by the /aɪ/ vowel losing its gliding quality : [aː] , the initiation event for a complicated Southern vowel shift, including a " Southern drawl " that makes short front vowels into distinct-sounding gliding vowels . The fronting of the vowels of GOOSE , GOAT , MOUTH , and STRUT tends to also define Southern accents as well as
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3872-554: Is similar to that of the oldest dated extant lava flow, a southwestern rift zone flow with uncorrected radiocarbon dating of approximately 4650 BC. The oldest well-studied eruptive product from Kīlauea is the Uwēkahuna Ash Member, the product of explosive eruptions from 800 to 100 BC. Although it was mostly buried by younger flows, it remained exposed in some places, and was traced more than 20 km (12 mi) from Kaluapele, evidence of powerful eruptions. Evidence suggests
3993-532: Is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet's mantle for much of the Cenozoic Era . However, while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well understood and extensively studied, the nature of hotspots themselves remains uncertain. Kīlauea is one of five subaerial (originating under water) volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaii, originated from the Hawaiian hotspot. The oldest volcano on
4114-512: Is the common language at home, in public, and in government. Effusive eruption There are two major groupings of eruptions: effusive and explosive. Effusive eruption differs from explosive eruption , wherein magma is violently fragmented and rapidly expelled from a volcano. Effusive eruptions are most common in basaltic magmas, but they also occur in intermediate and felsic magmas. These eruptions form lava flows and lava domes , each of which vary in shape, length, and width. Deep in
4235-410: Is the site of large pit craters . It reaches down Kīlauea's submerged flank to a depth of more than 5,000 m (16,400 ft). By contrast, the much smaller southwestern rift zone last had a rifting episode in 1974, and has not been active in the current eruptive cycle. The southwestern rift zone's extremity is underwater, although its subaerial length is more limited. The southwestern rift zone lacks
4356-469: Is the variable fronting of /ɑ/ before /r/ , for example, appearing four times in the stereotypical Boston shibboleth Park the car in Harvard Yard . Several other phenomena serve to distinguish regional U.S. accents. Boston , Pittsburgh , Upper Midwestern , and Western U.S. accents have fully completed a merger of the LOT vowel with the THOUGHT vowel ( /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ , respectively):
4477-611: The English language native to the United States. English is the most widely spoken language in the United States ; the de facto common language used in government, education, and commerce; and an official language in 32 of the 50 U.S. states . Since the late 20th century, American English has become the most influential form of English worldwide. Varieties of American English include many patterns of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and particularly spelling that are unified nationwide but distinct from other English dialects around
4598-482: The English-only movement , have adopted legislation granting official or co-official status to English. Typically only "English" is specified, not a particular variety like American English. (From 1923 to 1969, the state of Illinois recognized its official language as "American", meaning American English.) Puerto Rico is the largest example of a United States territory in which another language – Spanish –
4719-661: The Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park - it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Kīlauea was the site of 61 separate eruptions between 1823 and 2024, making it one of Earth's most active volcanoes. The volume of lava expelled by Kīlauea varied widely across eruptions. After 1823 Kaluapele gradually filled, filling up under nearly continuous summit eruption, with 3 km (1 cu mi) of lava released by 1840. The period between 1840 and 1920 saw approximately half that in lava volume. In
4840-533: The Kaʻū Desert . Nonetheless, wildlife flourishes left undisturbed elsewhere on the volcano and is highly endemic thanks to Kīlauea's (and the island of Hawaiʻi's) isolation from the nearest continental landmass. Historically, the island's five volcanoes were considered sacred by the Hawaiian people , and in Hawaiian mythology Halemaʻumaʻu served as the body and home of Pele , goddess of fire, lightning, wind, and volcanoes. English missionary William Ellis gave
4961-1211: The Kuril–Kamchatka Trench in Russia . Kīlauea started as a submarine volcano , gradually growing larger and taller via underwater eruptions of alkali basalt lava before emerging from the sea with a series of explosive eruptions about 50,000 to 100,000 years ago. Since then, the volcano's activity has produced a continual stream of effusive and explosive eruptions of roughly the same pattern as its activity since records began to be kept. Hawaii island's oldest volcano, Kohala , experienced almost 900,000 years of activity before going extinct . Eruptions and explosive activity will make Kīlauea taller, build up its rift zones, and fill and refill Kaluapele. Kīlauea has been active throughout its history. Cinder cones , satellite shields, lava tubes , and other eruptive structures are present, evidence of its recent activity. Since 1918, Kīlauea's longest pause lasted 18 years between 1934 and 1952. The bulk of Kīlauea consists of solidified lava flows , intermixed with volcanic ash and tephra produced by lower-volume explosive eruptions . Much of
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5082-622: The Mid-Atlantic states (including a New York accent as well as a unique Philadelphia–Baltimore accent ), and the South . As of the 20th century, the middle and eastern Great Lakes area , Chicago being the largest city with these speakers, also ushered in certain unique features, including the fronting of the LOT /ɑ/ vowel in the mouth toward [a] and tensing of the TRAP /æ/ vowel wholesale to [eə] . These sound changes have triggered
5203-551: The Native American languages . Examples of such names are opossum , raccoon , squash , moose (from Algonquian ), wigwam , and moccasin . American English speakers have integrated traditionally non-English terms and expressions into the mainstream cultural lexicon; for instance, en masse , from French ; cookie , from Dutch ; kindergarten from German , and rodeo from Spanish . Landscape features are often loanwords from French or Spanish, and
5324-446: The Puʻu ʻŌʻō cone , sending lava flows downslope. In 1986, activity shifted down the rift to a new vent, named Kūpaʻianahā, where it took on a more effusive character. Kūpaʻianahā built up a low, broad volcanic shield, and lava tubes fed flows extending 11 to 12 km (about 7 mi) to the sea. Between 1986 and 1991, the connection between Chain of Craters Road and Hawaii Route 130
5445-524: The five volcanoes that together form the island and among the most active volcanoes on Earth. The most recent eruption occurred in September 2024. Kīlauea is the second-youngest product of the Hawaiian hotspot and the current eruptive center of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain . Because it lacks topographic prominence and its activities historically coincided with those of Mauna Loa , Kīlauea
5566-722: The francophile tastes of the 19th century Victorian era Britain (for example they preferred programme for program , manoeuvre for maneuver , cheque for check , etc.). AmE almost always uses -ize in words like realize . BrE prefers -ise , but also uses -ize on occasion (see: Oxford spelling ). There are a few differences in punctuation rules. British English is more tolerant of run-on sentences , called " comma splices " in American English, and American English prefers that periods and commas be placed inside closing quotation marks even in cases in which British rules would place them outside. American English also favors
5687-764: The 18th century; apartment , shanty in the 19th century; project, condominium , townhouse , mobile home in the 20th century; and parts thereof ( driveway , breezeway, backyard ) . Industry and material innovations from the 19th century onwards provide distinctive new words, phrases, and idioms through railroading (see further at rail terminology ) and transportation terminology, ranging from types of roads ( dirt roads , freeways ) to infrastructure ( parking lot , overpass , rest area ), to automotive terminology often now standard in English internationally. Already existing English words—such as store , shop , lumber —underwent shifts in meaning; others remained in
5808-404: The 19th century, and after a reprieve between 1894 and 1907, continued until 1924. Effusive eruptions are of relatively recent vintage there. Prior to the arrival of Europeans, Kīlauea was the site of regular explosive activity, evidenced by tribal chants. Kīlauea erupted in 1823 and 1832, but the first major eruption after 1790 occurred in 1840, when its eastern rift zone became the site of
5929-546: The 20th century. The use of English in the United States is a result of British colonization of the Americas . The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America during the early 17th century, followed by further migrations in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, dialects from many different regions of England and the British Isles existed in every American colony, allowing
6050-627: The British form is a back-formation , such as AmE burglarize and BrE burgle (from burglar ). However, while individuals usually use one or the other, both forms will be widely understood and mostly used alongside each other within the two systems. While written American English is largely standardized across the country and spoken American English dialects are highly mutually intelligible, there are still several recognizable regional and ethnic accents and lexical distinctions. The regional sounds of present-day American English are reportedly engaged in
6171-413: The East Coast (perhaps in imitation of 19th-century London speech), even the East Coast has gradually begun to restore rhoticity, due to it becoming nationally prestigious in the 20th century. The pronunciation of ⟨r⟩ is a postalveolar approximant [ ɹ̠ ] or retroflex approximant [ ɻ ] , but a unique "bunched tongue" variant of the approximant r sound
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#17327765503106292-571: The Inland North. Rather than one particular accent, General American is best defined as an umbrella covering an American accent that does not incorporate features associated with some particular region, ethnicity, or socioeconomic group. Typical General American features include rhoticity , the father–bother merger , Mary–marry–merry merger , pre-nasal "short a " tensing , and other particular vowel sounds . General American features are embraced most by Americans who are highly educated or in
6413-703: The Pacific Ocean, creating thick clouds of laze (a toxic lava and haze cloud made up of hydrochloric acid and glass particles). By May 31, lava had destroyed 87 houses in Leilani Estates and nearby areas, accompanied by additional evacuation orders, including for the town of Kapoho . By June 4, the lava had crossed through Kapoho and entered the ocean. The confirmed number of houses lost reached 159, then two weeks later, 533, and ultimately 657. The lava lake at Halemaʻumaʻu began to drop on May 2. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory warned that this increased
6534-573: The South), sneakers for athletic shoes (but often tennis shoes outside the Northeast), and shopping cart for a cart used for carrying supermarket goods. American English and British English (BrE) often differ at the levels of phonology, phonetics, vocabulary, and, to a much lesser extent, grammar and orthography. The first large American dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language , known as Webster's Dictionary ,
6655-528: The U.S. Several verbs ending in -ize are of U.S. origin; for example, fetishize, prioritize, burglarize, accessorize, weatherize , etc.; and so are some back-formations (locate, fine-tune, curate, donate, emote, upholster and enthuse). Among syntactic constructions that arose are outside of, headed for, meet up with, back of, etc. Americanisms formed by alteration of some existing words include notably pesky, phony, rambunctious, buddy, sundae , skeeter, sashay and kitty-corner. Adjectives that arose in
6776-570: The U.S. are for instance foothill , landslide (in all senses), backdrop , teenager , brainstorm , bandwagon , hitchhike , smalltime, and a huge number of others. Other compound words have been founded based on industrialization and the wave of the automobile: five-passenger car, four-door sedan, two-door sedan, and station-wagon (called an estate car in British English). Some are euphemistic ( human resources , affirmative action , correctional facility ). Many compound nouns have
6897-676: The U.S. are, for example, lengthy, bossy, cute and cutesy, punk (in all senses), sticky (of the weather), through (as in "finished"), and many colloquial forms such as peppy or wacky . A number of words and meanings that originated in Middle English or Early Modern English and that have been in everyday use in the United States have since disappeared in most varieties of British English; some of these have cognates in Lowland Scots . Terms such as fall ("autumn"), faucet ("tap"), diaper ("nappy"; itself unused in
7018-530: The U.S. while changing in Britain. Science, urbanization, and democracy have been important factors in bringing about changes in the written and spoken language of the United States. From the world of business and finance came new terms ( merger , downsize , bottom line ), from sports and gambling terminology came, specific jargon aside, common everyday American idioms, including many idioms related to baseball . The names of some American inventions remained largely confined to North America ( elevator [except in
7139-427: The U.S.), candy ("sweets"), skillet , eyeglasses , and obligate are often regarded as Americanisms. Fall for example came to denote the season in 16th century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year." Gotten ( past participle of get ) is often considered to be largely an Americanism. Other words and meanings were brought back to Britain from
7260-597: The U.S., especially in the second half of the 20th century; these include hire ("to employ"), I guess (famously criticized by H. W. Fowler ), baggage , hit (a place), and the adverbs overly and presently ("currently"). Some of these, for example, monkey wrench and wastebasket , originated in 19th century Britain. The adjectives mad meaning "angry", smart meaning "intelligent", and sick meaning "ill" are also more frequent in American (and Irish) English than British English. Linguist Bert Vaux created
7381-538: The United States and the United Kingdom suggest that, while spoken American English deviated away from period British English in many ways, it is conservative in a few other ways, preserving certain features 21st-century British English has since lost. Full rhoticity (or "R-fulness") is typical of American accents, pronouncing the phoneme /r/ (corresponding to the letter ⟨r⟩ ) in all environments, including in syllable-final position or before
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#17327765503107502-605: The West and Midwest, and New York Latino English , spoken in the New York metropolitan area . Additionally, ethnic varieties such as Yeshiva English and " Yinglish " are spoken by some American Orthodox Jews , Cajun Vernacular English by some Cajuns in southern Louisiana , and Pennsylvania Dutch English by some Pennsylvania Dutch people. American Indian Englishes have been documented among diverse Indian tribes. The island state of Hawaii , though primarily English-speaking,
7623-555: The accents spoken in the " Midland ": a vast band of the country that constitutes an intermediate dialect region between the traditional North and South. Western U.S. accents mostly fall under the General American spectrum. Below, ten major American English accents are defined by their particular combinations of certain vowel sounds: In 2010, William Labov noted that Great Lakes, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and West Coast accents have undergone "vigorous new sound changes" since
7744-485: The activity downrift in lower Puna, the lava lake within Halemaʻumaʻu drained and a series of explosive collapse events occurred at the volcano's summit, with at least one explosion emitting ash 30,000 feet (9,100 m) into the air. This activity prompted a months-long closure of the Kīlauea section of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park . The eruption ended in September 2018. Since 2020, several eruptions have occurred within
7865-505: The aeronautical sense ], gasoline ) as did certain automotive terms ( truck , trunk ). New foreign loanwords came with 19th and early 20th century European immigration to the U.S.; notably, from Yiddish ( chutzpah , schmooze, bupkis, glitch ) and German ( hamburger , wiener ). A large number of English colloquialisms from various periods are American in origin; some have lost their American flavor (from OK and cool to nerd and 24/7 ), while others have not ( have
7986-428: The area. The earliest reliable written records date to about 1820, and the first eruption well-documented by westerners occurred in 1823. One pre-contact eruption in particular, a phreatomagmatic event in 1790, was responsible for the death of a party of warriors, part of the army of Keōua Kuahuʻula , the last Hawaii island chief to resist Kamehameha I 's rule; their death is evidenced by footprints preserved within
8107-585: The beginning of May 2018. Lava briefly overflowed the vent onto the floor of Halemaʻumaʻu in April and May 2015, October 2016, and April 2018. Beginning in March 2018, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory began to detect rapid inflation at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō, leading scientists to warn that the increased pressure could form a new vent at Kilauea. Following weeks of increased pressure, the crater floor of the cone of Puʻu ʻŌʻō collapsed on April 30, 2018, as magma migrated underground into
8228-418: The beginning of a series of vigorous explosions that produced significant ash plumes from Halemaʻumaʻu. These explosions, accompanied by large earthquakes and inward slumping and collapse within and around Halemaʻumaʻu, continued until early August. In late July 2019, a water lake appeared on the bottom of Halemaʻumaʻu for the first time in over 200 years, as water from the rebounding water table began to enter
8349-403: The bottom of Halemaʻumaʻu Crater, boiling off the water lake that had been growing since summer 2019 and replacing it with a lava lake. The eruption produced a plume that reached 30,000 feet (9,144 m) in the air. The eruption was preceded by earthquake swarms centered at Kaluapele on November 30, 2020, and December 2, 2020, the second of which was interpreted as a small intrusion of magma. By
8470-520: The condition that Pele protect the forests of Puna if Hiʻiaka returned in 40 days. As the journey lasted longer than 40 days, Pele set fire to the forest. When Hiʻiaka finally returned with Lohiʻau and made the smoky discovery, she became angry and made love to Lohiʻau right in front of Pele. In retaliation, Pele then killed Lohiʻau before throwing him in a pit on the summit of Kīlauea. Hiʻiaka started digging ferociously to recover his body, letting rocks fly everywhere. These events are interpreted to describe
8591-437: The conduit is permeable, it will act as though it is impermeable and will result in an explosive eruption. Silicic magmas typically form blocky lava flows or steep-sided mounds, called lava domes , because their high viscosity does not allow it to flow like that of basaltic magmas. When felsic domes form, they are emplaced within and on top of the conduit. If a dome forms and crystallizes enough early in an eruption, it acts as
8712-406: The country), though the vowel-consonant cluster found in "bird", "work", "hurt", "learn", etc. usually retains its r pronunciation, even in these non-rhotic American accents. Non-rhoticity among such speakers is presumed to have arisen from their upper classes' close historical contact with England, imitating London's r -dropping, a feature that has continued to gain prestige throughout England from
8833-535: The crater. The crater lake gradually grew in size. On December 1, 2020, the lake was approximately 49 metres (161 ft) deep. Meanwhile, the temperature of the lake's surface, as measured by a thermal camera , generally measured between 70–85 °C (158–185 °F). Within a month, the water lake was replaced by a lava lake during the new eruption. On December 20, 2020, at 9:30 pm local time, an eruption broke out within Halemaʻumaʻu. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory reported that three vents were feeding lava into
8954-399: The craters Pauahi and Hiʻiaka. Another eruption occurred from January 1983 to September 2018. It had the longest duration of any observed eruption at this volcano. As of December 2020, it was the twelfth-longest duration volcanic eruption on Earth since 1750. The eruption began on January 3, 1983, along the eastern rift zone. The vent produced lava fountains that quickly built up into
9075-415: The crust, gasses are dissolved into the magma because of high pressures, but upon ascent and eruption, pressure drops rapidly, and these gasses begin to exsolve out of the melt. A volcanic eruption is effusive when the erupting magma is volatile poor (water, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide , hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride), which suppresses fragmentation, creating an oozing magma which spills out of
9196-614: The diverse regional dialects of British English) became common after the mid-18th century, while at the same time speakers' identification with this new variety increased. Since the 18th century, American English has developed into some new varieties, including regional dialects that retain minor influences from waves of immigrant speakers of diverse languages, primarily European languages. Some racial and regional variation in American English reflects these groups' geographic settlement, their de jure or de facto segregation, and patterns in their resettlement. This can be seen, for example, in
9317-742: The double quotation mark ("like this") over the single ('as here'). Vocabulary differences vary by region. For example, autumn is used more commonly in the United Kingdom, whereas fall is more common in American English. Some other differences include: aerial (United Kingdom) vs. antenna, biscuit (United Kingdom) vs. cookie/cracker, car park (United Kingdom) vs. parking lot, caravan (United Kingdom) vs. trailer, city centre (United Kingdom) vs. downtown, flat (United Kingdom) vs. apartment, fringe (United Kingdom) vs. bangs, and holiday (United Kingdom) vs. vacation. AmE sometimes favors words that are morphologically more complex, whereas BrE uses clipped forms, such as AmE transportation and BrE transport or where
9438-469: The east, the other 35 km (22 mi) long and trending towards the southwest. A series of fault scarps connecting the rift zones form the Koaʻe Fault Zone . Tectonic extension along them is causing Kīlauea's bulk to slowly slide seaward off its southern flank at a rate of about 6 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) per year, centered on a basal décollement fault 7 to 9 km (4 to 6 mi) beneath
9559-549: The eastern part of Kīlauea's summit, and concurrently activity increased at the northern end of the eastern rift zone. The longest-duration major eruption witnessed by Native Hawaiians took place from about 1410 to 1470. Lasting around 60 years, the ʻAilāʻau eruption's effusive flow covered most of Kīlauea, north of the East Rift Zone in what became the Puna District . Most likely due to the duration of this flow,
9680-689: The eastern rift zone, the site of 24 historical eruptions, located mostly on its upper section. By contrast, the southwestern rift zone remained relatively quiet, hosting five events. Geologists dated and documented dozens of major eruptions over the volcano's history, bridging the gap between Kīlauea's oldest known rock and written records and historical observation. Lava flows are generally recovered by scientists in one of three ways. The oldest flows, 275,000 to 225,000 years ago, were recovered from Kīlauea's submerged southern slope by remotely operated vehicles . These lavas exhibit forms characteristic of early, submerged preshield-stage eruptive episodes, from when
9801-480: The enlarged caldera left by the 2018 collapse events as well as along the volcano's southwest and east rift zones. Kīlauea is a Hawaiian word that means "spewing" or "much spreading", referring to its frequent outpouring of lava . Its earliest lavas date back to its submarine preshield stage . Samples were recovered by remotely operated underwater vehicles ; samples of other flows were recovered as core samples . Lavas younger than 1,000 years old cover 90 percent of
9922-430: The eruption lasted 136 days. Eruptions followed in 1954, 1955, and 1959, capped by a large event in 1960, when fissure-based phreatic eruption and earthquake activity gave way to a massive ʻ aʻā flow overran evacuated communities and resorts; the resulting summit deflation eventually caused Halemaʻumaʻu to collapse even further. After 1960 eruptive events occurred frequently until August 2018. The period 1967–1968 saw
10043-415: The even larger ʻAilāʻau eruption of 1410 lasted about 60 years, ending in 1470 with an estimated volume of 4–6 km (0.96–1.44 cu mi). Kīlauea's activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology, where plant growth is often interrupted by fresh tephra and drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide , producing acid rains particularly in a barren area south of its southwestern rift zone known as
10164-544: The existence of an active eruptive center at this time, termed the Powers Caldera , whose fractures and faults lie 2 km (1 mi) outside Kaluapele. At least 1,200 years ago, lava from the Powers Caldera overtopped its rim and solidified the structure; this was followed by a period of voluminous tube-fed pāhoehoe flows from the summit. Following the end of activity around 1600 CE, eruptions moved to
10285-532: The first modern account of Kīlauea and spent two weeks exploring the volcano. Since its foundation by Thomas Jaggar in 1912, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory , for many years located on the rim of Kīlauea's summit caldera (Kaluapele), has served as the principal investigative and scientific body on the volcano and the island. In 1916, a bill forming Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson . The park
10406-503: The following morning, the eruption had stabilized. Two of the three vents remained active and continued to fill the floor with lava. By 7:30 a.m. on December 25, 2020, the lava lake had filled in 176 metres (577 ft) of the crater, On January 8, 2021, depth had increased to 636 feet (194 m), and by February 24 to 216 metres (709 ft). A spatter cone had formed around the western vent. The eruption continued for another few months, with decreasing activity. On May 26, 2021, it
10527-517: The following two centuries) when this ethnic group eventually made up one-seventh of the colonial population. Scotch-Irish settlers spread from Delaware and Pennsylvania throughout the larger Mid-Atlantic region, the inland regions of both the South and North, and throughout the West: American dialect areas that were all uninfluenced by upper-class non-rhoticity and that consequently have remained consistently rhotic. While non-rhoticity spread on
10648-573: The fragmentation mechanism differs. The 1912 Novarupta eruption and the 2003 Stromboli eruption both exhibited a transition between explosive and effusive eruption patterns. Basaltic composition magmas are the most common effusive eruptions because they are not water saturated and have low viscosity. Most people know them from the classic pictures of rivers of lava in Hawaii. Eruptions of basaltic magma often transition between effusive and explosive eruption patterns. The behavior of these eruptions
10769-944: The hospital , BrE to hospital ; contrast, however, AmE actress Elizabeth Taylor , BrE the actress Elizabeth Taylor ). Often, these differences are a matter of relative preferences rather than absolute rules; and most are not stable since the two varieties are constantly influencing each other, and American English is not a standardized set of dialects. Differences in orthography are also minor. The main differences are that American English usually uses spellings such as flavor for British flavour , fiber for fibre , defense for defence , analyze for analyse , license for licence , catalog for catalogue and traveling for travelling . Noah Webster popularized such spellings in America, but he did not invent most of them. Rather, "he chose already existing options on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology." Other differences are due to
10890-674: The influence of 18th-century Protestant Ulster Scots immigrants (known in the U.S. as the Scotch-Irish ) in Appalachia developing Appalachian English and the 20th-century Great Migration bringing African-American Vernacular English to the Great Lakes urban centers. Any phonologically unmarked North American accent falls under an umbrella known as General American. This section mostly refers to such General American features. Studies on historical usage of English in both
11011-491: The island, Kohala , is more than a million years old, while Kīlauea, the youngest, is between 300,000 and 600,000 years of age. Kamaʻehuakanaloa (the ruddy, reddish child of Kanaloa, formerly Lōʻihi), on the island's flank, is younger and has yet to breach the surface. Thus Kilauea is the second youngest volcano in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, a chain of shield volcanoes and seamounts extending from Hawaii to
11132-452: The island, destroyed 215 structures, and buried 14.3 km (9 mi) of highway under lava as thick as 35 m (115 ft). In addition to the nearly continuous activity at Puʻu ʻOʻo and other vents on the east rift zone, a separate eruption began at Kilauea's summit in March 2008. On March 19, 2008, following several months of increased sulfur dioxide emissions and seismic tremor, a new vent opened at Halemaʻumaʻu. Following this event,
11253-438: The late 18th century onwards, but which has conversely lost prestige in the U.S. since at least the early 20th century. Non-rhoticity makes a word like car sound like cah or source like sauce . New York City and Southern accents are the most prominent regional accents of the country, as well as the most stigmatized and socially disfavored. Southern speech, strongest in southern Appalachia and certain areas of Texas,
11374-632: The lower Puna region of Kilauea's lower east rift zone. Over the next few days, hundreds of small earthquakes were detected on Kīlauea's East rift zone , leading officials to issue evacuation warnings. On May 3, 2018, new fissures formed, and lava began erupting in lower Puna after a 5.0 earthquake earlier in the day, causing evacuations of the Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens subdivisions. A seemingly related 6.9 magnitude earthquake occurred on May 4. By May 9, 27 houses had been destroyed in Leilani Estates. By May 21, two lava flows had reached
11495-427: The mid-nineteenth century onwards, so they "are now more different from each other than they were 50 or 100 years ago", while other accents, like of New York City and Boston, have remained stable in that same time-frame. However, a General American sound system also has some debated degree of influence nationwide, for example, gradually beginning to oust the regional accent in urban areas of the South and at least some in
11616-617: The most formal contexts, and regional accents with the most General American native features include North Midland, Western New England, and Western accents. Although no longer region-specific, African-American Vernacular English , which remains the native variety of most working- and middle-class African Americans , has a close relationship to Southern dialects and has greatly influenced everyday speech of many Americans, including hip hop culture . Hispanic and Latino Americans have also developed native-speaker varieties of English. The best-studied Latino Englishes are Chicano English , spoken in
11737-409: The oldest reliably dated rock is 43,000 years old. It comes from charcoal sandwiched beneath an ash layer on a fault scarp known as Hilina Pali; however, samples dated from higher up the scarp indicate ash deposition at an average rate of 6 m (20 ft) per thousand years, indicating that the oldest exposed flows, from the base of the feature, could date back as far as 70,000 years. This date
11858-402: The past forms of a few verbs (for example, AmE/BrE: learned / learnt , burned / burnt , snuck/sneaked , dove/dived ) although the purportedly "British" forms can occasionally be seen in American English writing as well; different prepositions and adverbs in certain contexts (for example, AmE in school, BrE at school ); and whether or not a definite article is used, in very few cases (AmE to
11979-417: The potential for phreatic (steam) explosions at the summit caused by interaction of magma with the underground water table, similar to the explosions that occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu in 1924. These concerns prompted the closure of Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. On May 17, at approximately 4:15 a.m., an explosive eruption occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu, creating a plume of ash 30,000 feet into the air. This marked
12100-470: The reverse was true. This is not always the case; the 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa started during an eruption at Kīlauea, but had no discernible effect on the Kīlauea eruption, and the ongoing inflation of Mauna Loa's summit, indicative of a future eruption, began the same day as new lava flows at Kīlauea's Puʻu ʻŌʻō crater. In 2002, Kilauea experienced a high-volume effusive episode at the same time that Mauna Loa began inflating. This unexpected communication
12221-399: The summit collapsed around 1470–1510, creating Kaluapele. These discoveries and the collapse of the summit were supplemented by translations of Native Hawaiian chants on the mythology of Pele and Hiʻiaka ; these events were interpreted from this story. After arriving in Hawaii, Pele made Kīlauea her home. She sent her sister Hiʻiaka to retrieve Lohiʻau, an attractive man she met on Kauaʻi, on
12342-556: The summit to the lower Puna district , during which lava erupted from two dozen vents with eruptive fountains that sent rivers of lava into the ocean in three places. The eruption destroyed Hawaii's largest natural freshwater lake , covered substantial portions of Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens, and destroyed the communities of Kapoho , Vacationland Hawaii, and most of the Kapoho Beach Lots. The County of Hawaii reported that 716 dwellings were destroyed. Concurrent with
12463-421: The thirty years between then and about 1950, the volcano was unusually quiet and exhibited little activity; Kīlauea's eruptive volume increased steadily thereafter, with activity comparable to that of the early 1800s. The length and origin of these eruptions varied. Events lasted anywhere between days and years, and occurred at a number of different sites. Activity around Kaluapele was nearly continuous for much of
12584-415: The tiny spaces and relieve pressure, visible on the surface as vents of dense gas. The ascent speed of the magma is the most important factor controlling which type of eruption it will be. For silicic magmas to erupt effusively, the ascent rate must be 10 to 10 m/s, with permeable conduit walls, so that gas has time to exsolve and dissipate into the surrounding rock. If the flow rate is too fast, even if
12705-570: The traditional standard accent of (southern) England, Received Pronunciation (RP), has evolved a trap–bath split . Moreover, American accents preserve /h/ at the start of syllables, while perhaps a majority of the regional dialects of England participate in /h/ dropping , particularly in informal contexts. However, General American is also innovative in a number of its own ways: The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as English-speaking British-American colonists began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from
12826-417: The verb-and-preposition combination: stopover, lineup, tryout, spin-off, shootout , holdup, hideout, comeback, makeover , and many more. Some prepositional and phrasal verbs are in fact of American origin ( win out, hold up, back up/off/down/out, face up to and many others). Noun endings such as -ee (retiree), -ery (bakery), -ster (gangster) and -cian (beautician) are also particularly productive in
12947-467: The volcanic vent and out into the surrounding area. The shape of effusive lava flows is governed by the type of lava (i.e. composition ), rate and duration of eruption, and topography of the surrounding landscape. For an effusive eruption to occur, magma must be permeable enough to allow the expulsion of gas bubbles contained within it. If the magma is not above a certain permeability threshold, it cannot degas and will erupt explosively. Additionally, at
13068-411: The volcano is covered in historical flows, while 90 percent of its surface is from the last 1,100 years. Much of its bulk remains underwater; its subaerial surface is a gently sloping, elongate, decentralized shield with a surface area of approximately 1,500 km (579 sq mi), making up 13.7 percent of the island's total surface area. Kīlauea lacks topographical prominence , appearing only as
13189-466: The volcano was a rising seamount yet to breach the ocean surface, and their surface exposure is unusual, as in most other volcanoes such lavas would have since been buried by later flows. The second method is by drilling core samples ; however, the cores are difficult to date. Paleomagnetic dating , limited to rocks dating from after Kīlauea's emergence from the sea, suggested ages of around 50,000 years. Exposed flows above sea level are younger. Some of
13310-417: The volcano's surface. The eastern rift zone is a dominant feature on the volcano; it is almost entirely covered in lava from the last 400 years, and at its crest near the summit is 2 to 4 km (1 to 2 mi) wide. Non-localized eruptions, typical of rift zone activity, have produced a series of low-lying ridges down the majority of the east rift zone's length. Its upper segment is the most active section. It
13431-602: The volcano's surface. The oldest exposed lavas date back 2,800 years. Radiocarbon and paleomagnetic dating identified a major eruption of Kīlauea around 1410, the first to be mentioned in Native Hawaiians ' oral history . Western contact and written history began in 1778. The first documented eruption of Kīlauea came in 1823 with repeated eruptions thereafter. Most occurred at the volcano's summit or its eastern rift zone, and were prolonged and effusive . The geological record shows that pre-contact explosive activity
13552-775: The word corn , used in England to refer to wheat (or any cereal), came to denote the maize plant, the most important crop in the U.S. Most Mexican Spanish contributions came after the War of 1812 , with the opening of the West, like ranch (now a common house style ). Due to Mexican culinary influence, many Spanish words are incorporated in general use when talking about certain popular dishes: cilantro (instead of coriander), queso, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, tostadas, fajitas, burritos, and guacamole. These words usually lack an English equivalent and are found in popular restaurants. New forms of dwelling created new terms ( lot , waterfront) and types of homes like log cabin , adobe in
13673-609: The world. Any American or Canadian accent perceived as lacking noticeably local, ethnic, or cultural markers is known in linguistics as General American ; it covers a fairly uniform accent continuum native to certain regions of the U.S. but especially associated with broadcast mass media and highly educated speech. However, historical and present linguistic evidence does not support the notion of there being one single mainstream American accent . The sound of American English continues to evolve, with some local accents disappearing, but several larger regional accents having emerged in
13794-481: The ʻAilāʻau flow. In addition to Hawaiian oral history, geologists studied and confirmed them with radiocarbon and paleomagnetic dating. Kīlauea then entered a 300-year period of explosive eruptions from around 1510 to 1790 as discovered by the radiocarbon dating of the Keanakākoʻi (the cave in which adzes were made) Tephra. This tephra was formed after lava erupted hundreds of meters into the sky and spread ash across
13915-511: Was common; in 1790 one such eruption killed more than 400 people, making it the deadliest volcanic eruption in what became the United States. Kīlauea's eruption from January 3, 1983, to 2018 was by far its longest-duration period of activity in modern times, as well as one of the longest-duration eruptions documented on Earth; as of January 2011, the eruption had produced 3.5 km (1 cu mi) of lava and resurfaced 123.2 km (48 sq mi) of land. Centuries prior to this event,
14036-547: Was cut, and the community of Kapa’ahu, the village of Kalapana , and the subdivisions of Kālapana Gardens and Royal Gardens were lost to the lava. A black sand beach at Kaimū was engulfed. In 1992, the eruption moved back to Puʻu ʻŌʻō, but continued in the same manner, covering nearly all of the 1983–86 lava flows and large areas of coastline. As of the end of 2016, the east rift zone eruption had produced 4.4 km (1 cu mi) of lava, covered 144 km (56 sq mi) of land, added 179 ha (442 acres) of land to
14157-519: Was finalized around 1470–1510 after a particularly powerful eruption from 1410 to 1470. A major feature within Kaluapele is Halemaʻumaʻu, a large pit crater and one of Kīlauea's most historically active eruption centers. The crater is approximately 920 m (3,018 ft) in diameter and 85 m (279 ft) deep, but its form has varied widely; its floor is mostly covered by flows from its 1974 eruption. Kīlauea has two rift zones radiating from its summit, one leading 125 km (78 mi) out to
14278-403: Was no longer erupting. Lava supply appeared to have ceased between May 11 and May 13, and the lake had crusted over by May 20. The last surface activity in Halemaʻumaʻu was observed on May 23. When activity ceased, the lava lake was 229 metres (751 ft) deep. American English American English , sometimes called United States English or U.S. English , is the set of varieties of
14399-402: Was once thought to be a satellite of its much larger neighbor. Kīlauea has a large, fairly recently formed caldera at its summit and two active rift zones , one extending 125 km (78 mi) east and the other 35 km (22 mi) west. An active fault of unknown depth moves vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm (0.1 to 0.8 in) per year. Between 2008 and 2018, Halemaʻumaʻu ,
14520-567: Was soon confined to the summit, and ended after 1934. From 1823 to 1924, the volcano erupted 15 times, with an additional 11 subsidence events occurring at the summit. After the Halemaʻumaʻu event, Kīlauea remained relatively quiet, and for a time, completely silent, with activity confined to the summit. The volcano came alive again in 1952, with a lava fountain 245 m (800 ft) high at Halemaʻumaʻu. Multiple continuous lava fountains between 15 and 30 m (50 and 100 ft) persisted, and
14641-469: Was written by Noah Webster in 1828, codifying several of these spellings. Differences in grammar are relatively minor, and do not normally affect mutual intelligibility; these include: typically a lack of differentiation between adjectives and adverbs, employing the equivalent adjectives as adverbs he ran quick / he ran quickly ; different use of some auxiliary verbs ; formal (rather than notional) agreement with collective nouns ; different preferences for
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