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115-663: The Golden Horde , self-designated as Ulug Ulus ( lit.   ' Great State ' in Kipchak Turkic ), was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire . With the division of the Mongol Empire after 1259, it became a functionally separate khanate. It is also known as the Kipchak Khanate or

230-510: A group of international scholars under his leadership. Yet, a number of questions remain about the writing of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh. Several others, such as Abu’l Qasim al-Kashani , claimed to have written the universal history . Rashid al-Din was, of course, a very busy man, with his public life and would have employed assistants to handle the materials assembled and to write the first draft: Abu'l Qasim may have been one of them. Furthermore, not all of

345-613: A large Jochid delegation to participate in Hulagu 's expedition in the Middle East in 1256–1257. One of the Jochid princes who joined Hulagu's army was accused of witchcraft and sorcery against Hulagu. After receiving permission from Berke, Hulagu executed him. After that two more Jochid princes died suspiciously. According to some Muslim sources, Hulagu refused to share his war booty with Berke in accordance with Genghis Khan's wish. Berke

460-712: A large portion of Cumans were driven out of the Crimean peninsula , and it became one of the appanages of the Mongol Empire. The remnants of the Crimean Cumans survived in the Crimean mountains , and they would, in time, mix with other groups in the Crimea (including Greeks, Goths, and Mongols) to form the Crimean Tatar population. Moving north, Batu began the Mongol invasion of Rus' and spent three years subjugating

575-477: A partial calque of Turkic Altan Orda . Золотая ( Zolotáya ) was translated to 'Golden', while Орда ( Ordá ) was transliterated to 'Horde'. The Turkic word orda means 'palace', 'camp' or 'headquarters', in this case the headquarters of the khan, being the capital of the khanate, metonymically extended to the khanate itself. The English word horde , in the sense of a large (and often threatening) group, emerged later, metaphorically extended from

690-613: A punitive expedition led by his brother, Dyuden , to punish those stubborn subjects, leading to the sacking of a number of cities in 1293, including Vladimir and Moscow, finally forcing Dmitry to abdicate. Only the city of Tver offered stiff resistance to the Mongol invaders, leading to another Mongol army being sent to attack the city. Nogai did not choose to intervene in Russian affairs but was concerned by Toqta's actions; he found it necessary to remind Toqta that he still held supreme power in

805-605: A remarkably well observed group of Abyssinians , Western-style figures based on Syrian Christian manuscripts, Chinese, Mongols, Arabs, and so on. The Edinburgh folios were displayed at an exhibition at the University of Edinburgh Main Library in summer 2014 The portion in the Khalili Collection of Islamic Art , where it is referred to as MSS 727, contains 59 folios, 35 of them illustrated. Until sold in 1980 it

920-639: A severe punitive expedition. But after Alexander Nevsky begged Berke not to punish his people, and the cities of Vladimir-Suzdal agreed to pay a large indemnity, Berke relented. Alexander died on his trip back in Gorodets on the Volga. He was well loved by the people and called the "sun of Suzdal". When the former Seljuk Sultan Kaykaus II was arrested in the Byzantine Empire , his younger brother Kayqubad II appealed to Berke. An Egyptian envoy

1035-463: A vassal of Nogai. Daniel , Alexander Nevsky's youngest son, failed to appear at the court of Toqta. The division of the authority of the Golden Horde led to the creation of two rival groups of Russian princes. Toqta attempted to reassert his authority over northern Russia ; he confirmed Andrey as the grand prince and authorized him to depose Dmitry, who refused to surrender his throne. Toqta sent

1150-477: A vehicle to justify Mongol hegemony over Iran". The text was initially commissioned by Il-Khan Ghazan, who was anxious for the Mongols to retain a memory of their nomadic roots, now that they had become settled and adopted Persian customs. Initially, the work was intended only to set out the history of the Mongols and their predecessors on the steppes, and took the name Taʾrīkh-ī Ghazānī , which makes up one part of

1265-519: A victory banquet during the Mongol occupation of Eastern Europe. He sent his brothers to the kurultai, and the new Khagan of the Mongols was elected in 1246. All the senior princes of Rus', including Yaroslav II of Vladimir , Daniel of Galicia , and Sviatoslav III of Vladimir , acknowledged Batu's supremacy. Originally Batu ordered Daniel to turn the administration of Galicia over to the Mongols, but Daniel personally visited Batu in 1245 and pledged allegiance to him. After returning from his trip, Daniel

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1380-709: A way of establishing their cultural legacy. The lavish illustrations and calligraphy required the efforts of hundreds of scribes and artists, with the intent that two new copies (one in Persian, and one in Arabic) would be created each year and distributed to schools and cities around the Ilkhanate , in the Middle East , Central Asia , Anatolia , and the Indian subcontinent . Approximately 20 illustrated copies were made of

1495-703: Is a work of literature and history, produced in the Mongol Ilkhanate . Written by Rashid al-Din Hamadani (1247–1318 AD) at the start of the 14th century, the breadth of coverage of the work has caused it to be called "the first world history". It was in three volumes and published in Arabic and Persian versions. The surviving portions total approximately 400 pages of the original work. The work describes cultures and major events in world history from China to Europe; in addition, it covers Mongol history, as

1610-620: Is considered the direct ancestor of the current language of the Crimean Tatars with possible incorporations of the other languages in the region, like Crimean Gothic . By a preponderance Cumanian population of the Crimea acquired the name "Tatars", embraced Islam , and retained the Quman-Qipchaq Turkic language, and the process of consolidating the multi-ethnic conglomerate of the Peninsula began, which has led to

1725-592: Is now Xinjiang , at about the age of 42. Although some modern historians believe that he died of natural causes because of deteriorating health, he may have succumbed to the combined effects of alcoholism and gout , or he may have been poisoned. William of Rubruck and a Muslim chronicler state that Batu killed the imperial envoy, and one of his brothers murdered the Great Khan Güyük, but these claims are not completely corroborated by other major sources. Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish took over as regent, but she

1840-734: Is owned by the Edinburgh University Library . Two Persian copies from the first generation of manuscripts survive in the Topkapı Palace Library in Istanbul . The early illustrated manuscripts together represent "one of the most important surviving examples of Ilkhanid art in any medium", and are the largest surviving body of early examples of the Persian miniature . The Jāmiʿ al-Tawārīkh consists of four main sections of different lengths: Rashid-al-Din Hamadani

1955-675: The Codex Cumanicus , a Cuman Kipchak Turkic Pater Noster (transcribed in the Common Turkic Alphabet ): Atamız kim köktesiñ. Alğışlı bolsun seniñ atıñ, kelsin seniñ xanlığıñ, bolsun seniñ tilemekiñ – neçik kim kökte, alay [da] yerde. Kündeki ötmegimizni bizge bugün bergil. Dağı yazuqlarımıznı bizge boşatqıl – neçik biz boşatırbız bizge yaman etkenlerge. Dağı yekniñ sınamaqına bizni quurmağıl. Basa barça yamandan bizni qutxarğıl. Amen! Jami%27 al-tawarikh Jāmiʿ al-Tawārīkh ("The Compendium of Chronicles")

2070-614: The Birth of Muhammad adapts the standard Byzantine composition for the Nativity of Jesus , but instead of the Biblical Magi approaching at the left there is a file of three women. The section includes the earliest extended cycle of illustrations of the life of Muhammad . Like other early Ilkhanid miniatures, these differ from the relatively few surviving earlier Islamic book illustrations in having coherent landscape backgrounds in

2185-688: The Carpathian Mountains . Talabuga's soldiers were angered and sacked Galicia and Volhynia instead. In 1286, Talabuga and Nogai attacked Poland and ravaged the country. After returning, Talabuga overthrew Töde Möngke, who was left to live in peace. Talabuga's army made unsuccessful attempts to invade the Ilkhanate in 1288 and 1290. During a punitive expedition against the Circassians , Talabuga became resentful of Nogai, whom he believed did not provide him with adequate support during

2300-632: The Cuman language . The existence of Arabic-Mongol and Persian-Mongol dictionaries dating from the middle of the 14th century and prepared for the use of the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate suggests that there was a practical need for such works in the chancelleries handling correspondence with the Golden Horde. It is thus reasonable to conclude that letters received by the Mamluks – if not also written by them – must have been in Mongol. When

2415-424: The Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh and commissioned his court historian Hafiz-i Abru to complete it. The earliest dated manuscript made for Shahrukh includes the original text and additions by Hafiz-i Abru, along with other histories, and is dated 1415–16 (Topkapi Palace Library, MS B 282). The Topkapi MS H 1653, discussed above, combines an incomplete Ilkhanid Jāmiʿ with Timurid additions, which are dated 1425. Another Jāmiʿ

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2530-511: The Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh , Rashid al-din based his work on many written and oral sources, some of which can be identified: Much of the illustration for the various copies of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh was done at the Rab-al Rashidi university complex, though they were also done elsewhere in the Mongol empire. The illustrations in this text are part of the artistic tradition of Persian miniatures and

2645-465: The Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh . To compile the History, Rashid al-Din set up an entire precinct at the university of Rab'-e Rashidi in the capital of Tabriz . It contained multiple buildings, including a mosque , hospital, library, and classrooms, employing over 300 workers. After the death of Ghazan in 1304, his successor Öljaitü asked Rashid al-Din to extend the work, and write a history of the whole of

2760-464: The Khalili Collection of Islamic Art (MSS 727, 59 folios), although some researchers argue for these being from two different copies. Both sections come from the second volume, with the pages interwoven. The Edinburgh part covers some of the earlier history up through a section about Muhammad, and then this story is continued in the Khalili portion, with further narratives weaving back and forth between

2875-532: The Ulus of Jochi , and replaced the earlier, less organized Cuman–Kipchak confederation . After the death of Batu Khan (the founder of the Golden Horde) in 1255, his dynasty flourished for a full century, until 1359, though the intrigues of Nogai instigated a partial civil war in the late 1290s. The Horde's military power peaked during the reign of Uzbeg Khan (1312–1341), who adopted Islam. The territory of

2990-554: The Volga River . His brother Orda returned to take part in the succession. The Mongol armies would never again travel so far west. In 1242, after retreating through Hungary, destroying Pest in the process, and subjugating Bulgaria , Batu established his capital at Sarai, commanding the lower stretch of the Volga River , on the site of the Khazar capital of Atil . Shortly before that, the younger brother of Batu and Orda, Shiban ,

3105-608: The "Tatar yoke" at the Great Stand on the Ugra River in 1480, which traditionally marks the end of Mongol rule over Russia. The Crimean Khanate and the Kazakh Khanate , the last remnants of the Golden Horde, survived until 1783 and 1847 respectively, when they were conquered by the expanding Russian state. The name Golden Horde is a partial calque of Russian Золотая Орда ( Zolotáya Ordá ), itself supposedly

3220-545: The 1396 invasion of Timur , the founder of the Timurid Empire , the Golden Horde broke into smaller Tatar khanates which declined steadily in power. At the start of the 15th century, the Horde began to fall apart. By 1466, it was being referred to simply as the " Great Horde ". Within its territories there emerged numerous predominantly Turkic khanates. These internal struggles allowed Moscow to formally rid itself of

3335-532: The Byzantine Empire and Egypt in an attempt to curb the authority of Nogai. Following the death of Constantine of Bulgaria in 1277, Michael VIII and Nogai supported different candidates to the throne, leading to relations to deteriorate. This led to an intervention by Mengu-Timur in Balkan affairs, in which Mengu-Timur and Metropolitan Kirill sent Bishop Theognost as their joint envoy to Michael VIII and

3450-781: The Cumans. Today, the speakers of these various languages belonging to the Kipchak branch speak variations closely related to the Cuman language. The literary Cuman language became extinct in the early 18th century in the region of Cumania in Hungary , which was its last stronghold. Tradition holds that the last speaker of the Cuman language in Hungary was István Varró, a resident of Karcag (Hungary) who died in 1770. The Cuman language in Crimea, however, managed to survive. The Cuman language

3565-628: The Empire remained united under the supreme khan. Jochi was the eldest, but he died six months before Genghis. The westernmost lands occupied by the Mongols , which included what is today southern Russia and Kazakhstan , were given to Jochi's eldest sons, Batu Khan , who eventually became ruler of the Blue Horde , and Orda Khan , who became the leader of the White Horde . In 1235, Batu with

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3680-609: The Golden Horde as some of Toqta's coins carried 'Phags-pa script in addition to Mongolian script and Persian characters. Toqta arrested the Italian residents of Sarai and besieged Caffa in 1307. The cause was apparently Toqta's displeasure at the Genoese slave trade of his subjects, who were mostly sold as soldiers to Egypt. In 1308, Caffa was plundered by the Mongols. During the late reign of Toqta, tensions between princes of Tver and Moscow became violent. Daniel of Moscow seized

3795-850: The Golden Horde at its peak extended from Siberia and Central Asia to parts of Eastern Europe from the Urals to the Danube in the west, and from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea in the south, while bordering the Caucasus Mountains and the territories of the Mongol dynasty known as the Ilkhanate . The khanate experienced violent internal political disorder known as the Great Troubles (1359–1381), before it briefly reunited under Tokhtamysh (1381–1395). However, soon after

3910-547: The Golden Horde. Backed by him, some princes, such as Dmitry of Pereslavl , refused to visit the court of Töde Möngke in Sarai, while Dmitry's brother Andrey of Gorodets sought assistance from Töde Möngke. Nogai vowed to support Dmitry in his struggle for the grand princely throne. On hearing about this, Andrey renounced his claims to Vladimir and Novgorod and returned to Gorodets. He returned with Mongol troops sent by Töde Möngke and seized Vladimir from Dmitry. Dmitry retaliated with

4025-479: The Great Khatun Töregene invited Batu to elect the next Emperor of the Mongol Empire in 1242, he declined to attend the kurultai and instead stayed at the Volga River . Although Batu excused himself by saying he was suffering from old age and illness, it seems that he did not support the election of Güyük Khan. Güyük and Büri , a grandson of Chagatai Khan , had quarreled violently with Batu at

4140-589: The Ilkhan Ghazan and his successor Oljeitu give Azerbaijan back but was refused. Then he sought assistance from Egypt against the Ilkhanate. Toqta made his man ruler in Ghazna , but he was expelled by its people. Toqta dispatched a peace mission to the Ilkhan Gaykhatu in 1294, and peace was maintained mostly uninterrupted until 1318. In 1304, ambassadors from the Mongol rulers of Central Asia and

4255-437: The Mongols and ousted their troops in northern Podolia . In 1257, he repelled Mongol assaults led by the prince Kuremsa on Ponyzia and Volhynia and dispatched an expedition with the aim of taking Kiev. Despite initial successes, in 1259 a Mongol force under Boroldai entered Galicia and Volhynia and offered an ultimatum: Daniel was to destroy his fortifications or Boroldai would assault the towns. Daniel complied and pulled down

4370-598: The Mongols. In 1261, Berke approved the establishment of a church in Sarai. After Möngke Khan died in 1259, the Toluid Civil War broke out between Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke . While Hulagu Khan of the Ilkhanate supported Kublai, Berke sided with Ariq Böke. There is evidence that Berke minted coins in Ariq Böke's name, but he remained militarily neutral. After the defeat of Ariq Böke in 1264, he freely acceded to Kublai's enthronement. However, some elites of

4485-536: The Painter of Luhrasp and Master of Alp Arslan is again evident. Some differences in style can be observed, but these can be attributed to the difference in date. A new painter appears for the portraits of Chinese leaders, which uses special techniques that seem to mimic those of Yuan mural painters (according to S. Blair): an attention to line and wash, and the use of black and bright red. This artist seems to be very familiar with China. The folios are dated 1314, and it

4600-627: The Qaghan (Great Khan), they sent them to Mengu-Timur. One of them, Nomoghan, favorite of Kublai, was located in the Crimea. Mengu-Timur might have briefly struggled with Hulagu's successor Abagha , but the Great Khan Kublai forced them to sign a peace treaty. He was allowed to take his share in Persia. Independently from the Khan, Nogai expressed his desire to ally with Baibars in 1271. Despite

4715-581: The Timurid sources' nomenclature and call the left wing the White Horde. But Ötemish Hajji ( fl.  1550 ), a historian of Khwarazm , called the left wing the Blue Horde, and since he was familiar with the oral traditions of the khanate empire, it seems likely that the Russian chroniclers were correct, and that the khanate itself called its left wing the Blue Horde. The khanate apparently used

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4830-656: The White Horde and son of Orda Khan, also made peace with the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate . According to Mamluk historians, Töde Möngke sent the Mamluks a letter proposing to fight against their common enemy, the unbelieving Ilkhanate. This indicates that he might have had an interest in Azerbaijan and Georgia , which were both ruled by the Ilkhans. In the 1270s, Nogai had raided Bulgaria, as well as Lithuania. He blockaded Michael Asen II inside Drăstăr in 1279, executed

4945-410: The White Horde joined Ariq Böke's resistance. Möngke ordered the Jochid and Chagatayid families to join Hulagu's expedition to Iran. Berke 's persuasion might have forced his brother Batu to postpone Hulagu's operation, little suspecting that it would result in eliminating the Jochid predominance there for several years. During the reign of Batu or his first two successors, the Golden Horde dispatched

5060-429: The Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack on the Chagatai Khanate under the leadership of Kaidu and his second-in-command Duwa . However, the Yuan court was unable to send quick military support. From 1300 to 1302, a severe drought occurred in the areas surrounding the Black Sea . However, the troubles were soon overcome and conditions in the Golden Horde rapidly improved under Toqta's reign. After

5175-417: The Yuan dynasty announced to Toqta their general peace proposal. Toqta immediately accepted the supremacy of Yuan emperor Temür Öljeytü , and all yams (postal relays) and commercial networks across the Mongol khanates reopened. Toqta introduced the general peace among the Mongol khanates to the Russian princes at the assembly in Pereyaslavl (Pereslavl-Zalessky). The Yuan influence seemed to have increased in

5290-670: The affairs of the Golden Horde and consequently sent his senior wife to Toqta in 1293, where she was received with due honor. In the same year, Nogai sent an army to Serbia and forced the king to acknowledge himself as a vassal. Nogai's daughter married a son of Kublai's niece, Kelmish, who was wife of a Qongirat general of the Golden Horde. Nogai was angry with Kelmish's family because her Buddhist son despised his Muslim daughter. For this reason, he demanded Toqta send Kelmish's husband to him. Nogai's independent actions relating to Russian affairs and foreign merchants had already irritated Toqta. Toqta thus refused and declared war on Nogai. Toqta

5405-420: The census took place in all cities, including Smolensk and Vitebsk . In 1277, Mengu-Timur launched a campaign against the Alans north of the Caucasus . Along with the Mongol army were also some of the princes who were ordered to join him in his expedition, where they took the fortified stronghold of the Alans, Dadakov , in 1278. After his Ossetian expedition, Mengu-Timur turned his attention to affairs with

5520-399: The city walls. In 1259 Berke launched savage attacks on Lithuania and Poland, and demanded the submission of Béla IV , the Hungarian monarch, and the French King Louis IX in 1259 and 1260. His assault on Prussia in 1259–1260 inflicted heavy losses on the Teutonic Order . The Lithuanians were probably tributary in the 1260s, when reports reached the Curia that they were in league with

5635-409: The collection, "Two major sections were lost after division: thirty-five folios (73-107) covering the life of Muhammad up to the caliphate of Hisham, and thirty folios (291–48) going from the end of the Khwarazmshahs to the middle of the section on China. The latter may have been lost accidentally, but the former block may have been jettisoned deliberately because it had no illustrations. The folios about

5750-574: The defeat of Nogai Khan , his followers either fled to Podolia or remained under the service of Toqta, to become what would eventually be known as the Nogai Horde . Toqta established the Byzantine-Mongol alliance by Maria, an illegitimate daughter of Andronikos II Palaiologos . A report reached Western Europe that Toqta was highly favourable to the Christians. According to Muslim observers, however, Toqta remained an idol-worshiper ( Buddhism and Tengerism ) and showed favour to religious men of all faiths, though he preferred Muslims. He demanded that

5865-416: The emergence of the Crimean Tatar people. The Cuman-Kipchaks had an important role in the history of Anatolia , Kazakhstan , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Hungary , Romania (see, for example, the Basarab dynasty ), Moldavia , Bessarabia and Bulgaria . Radlov believed that among the current languages Cuman is closest to the Mishar dialect of the Tatar language . From the book known as

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5980-445: The end of the fourteenth century. MS H 1654 later came into the ownership, along with the Arabic and other Persian versions, of the Timurid ruler Shahrukh , whose royal library both refurbished and added illustrations to the Hazine 1654. While increasingly simplified, the illustrations from the MS H 1654 are significant in that they display an increase in production under Ilkhanid and Timurid workshops and help modern scholars fill in

6095-418: The fact that he was proposing a joint attack on the Ilkhanate with the Mamluks of Egypt , Mengu-Timur congratulated Abagha when Baraq was defeated by the Ilkhan in 1270. In 1267, Mengu-Timur issued a diploma ( jarliq ) to exempt Russian clergy from any taxation, and gave to the Genoese and Venice exclusive trading rights in Caffa and Azov . Some of Mengu-Timur's relatives converted to Christianity at

6210-537: The far northwest was not counted until winter of 1258–1259. There was an uprising in Novgorod against the Mongol census, but Alexander Nevsky forced the city to submit to the census and taxation. With the new powers afforded to Batu by Möngke, he now had direct control over the princes of Rus'. However, Andrey II refused to submit to Batu. Batu sent a punitive expedition under Nevruy, who defeated Andrey and forced him to flee to Novgorod, then Pskov , and finally to Sweden . The Mongols overran Vladimir and harshly punished

6325-402: The first generation of manuscripts were produced, very few survive, which are described below. Other later copies were made from the first set, with some illustrations and history added to match current events. The earliest known copy is in Arabic, dated to the early 1300s. Only portions of it have survived, divided into two parts between the University of Edinburgh (Or Ms 20, 151 folios) and

6440-404: The gaps from fragmentary manuscripts made earlier that cover non-Islamic histories. Mongol, Shahrukh, and Timurid styles are exemplified among these depictions of Ughuz Turks and Chinese, Jewish, Frankish, and Indian history. There is little reason to doubt Rashid al-Din's editorial authorship but the work is generally considered a collective effort. It may also be possible that it was compiled by

6555-472: The grand prince of Vladimir to allow German merchants free travel through his lands. The gramota says: Mengu-Timur's word to Prince Yaroslav: give the German merchants way into your lands. From Prince Yaroslav to the people of Riga , to the great and the young, and to all: your way is clear through my lands; and who comes to fight, with them I do as I know; but for the merchant the way is clear. This decree also allowed Novgorod's merchants to travel throughout

6670-444: The great general Subutai began an invasion westwards, first conquering the Bashkirs and then moving on to Volga Bulgaria in 1236. From there he conquered some of the southern steppes of present-day Ukraine in 1237, forcing many of the local Cumans to retreat westward. The Mongol campaign against the Kypchaks and Cumans had already started under Jochi and Subutai in 1216–1218 when the Merkits took shelter among them. By 1239

6785-434: The history of Muhammad and the Caliphate, plus the post-caliphate dynasties of the Ghaznavids , Seljuks , Khwarazmshahs , Is'mailis , and the Turks . MS H 1653 contains 68 paintings in the Ilkhanid style. Hazine 1654 (MS H 1654), a fragmentary piece of the second volume of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh is the most complete surviving example of the Persian transcriptions made in Rab'-e Rashidi .The illustrations in this version of

6900-428: The history of Persia and pre-Islamic Arabia, the story of Muhammad and the Caliphs, the history of the Ghaznavids , Seljuks and Atabeys , and the history of the sultans of Khwarezm . This part of the manuscript was discovered in the 1800s by Duncan Forbes , who found it among the papers of Colonel John Baillie, so this section is sometimes referred to as "Baillie's collection". Seventy rectangular miniatures adorn

7015-472: The influence of Chinese scrolls. Some parts of the surviving text are heavily illustrated and other parts not at all, apparently reflecting the importance accorded to them. The miniatures are ink drawings with watercolour washes added, a technique also used in China; although they are generally in good condition, there was considerable use of metallic silver for highlights, which has now oxidized to black. Borrowings from Christian art can also be seen; for example

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7130-486: The invasions of Hungary and Poland . Talabuga challenged Nogai, but was defeated in a coup and replaced with Toqta in 1291. Andrey, accompanied by a number of Rostov princes and the bishop of Rostov, went to Toqta to renew his patent and complain about Dmitry. Mikhail Yaroslavich was summoned to appear before Nogai in Sarai, where he chose to side with Nogai and went to him instead for confirmation of his throne, while Dmitry refused to appear, considering himself to be

7245-402: The known world. This text was finally completed in sometime between 1306 and 1311. After Rashid al-Din's execution in 1318, the Rab-i-Rashidi precinct was plundered, but the in-process copy that was being created at the time survived, probably somewhere in the city of Tabriz, possibly in the library of Rashid's son, Ghiyath al-Din. Later, Rashid's son became Vizier, in his own right, and expanded

7360-471: The lands of Suzdal without restraint. Mengu Timur honored his vow: when the Danes and the Livonian Knights attacked the Novgorod Republic in 1269, the Khan's great basqaq (darughachi) , Amraghan, and many Mongols assisted the army assembled by the grand prince Yaroslav. The Germans and the Danes were so cowed that they sent gifts to the Mongols and abandoned the region of Narva . The Mongol Khan's authority extended to all principalities, and in 1274–1275

7475-403: The landscape echoes conventions of Chinese painting under the Yuan dynasty, as seen in handscrolls and woodblock illustration. The illustrations also reflect late Byzantine influence in the elongation and gesture of the figures. Illustrators of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh likely used Byzantine illustrations as references for some of the scenes depicted in the first section of the non-Mongol history of

7590-400: The life of the Prophet were further jumbled, and four were lost. The final three folios (301–303) covering the end of the section on the Jews were also lost, perhaps accidentally, but judging from the comparable section in MS.H 1653, they had no illustrations and may also have been discarded." The manuscript was brought to Western attention by William Morley, who discovered it in 1841 while he

7705-420: The manuscript entered the collection of Major General Thomas Gordon . He then bequeathed it to the Royal Asiatic Society in 1841. In 1948, it was loaned to the British Museum and Library, and in 1980 was auctioned at Sotheby's , where it was purchased by the Rashidiyyah Foundation in Geneva for £850,000, the highest price ever paid for a medieval manuscript. The Khalili Collection acquired it in 1990. To write

7820-430: The manuscript, which reflect the cosmopolitan nature of Tabriz at the time of its production. In this capital, a crossroads of trade routes and influences, and a place of great religious tolerance, Christian, Chinese, Buddhist and other models of painting all arrived to feed the inspiration of the artists. The miniatures have an unusual horizontal format and only take up about a third of the written area; this may reflect

7935-469: The many scenes set outside, rather than isolated elements of plants or rocks. Architectural settings are sometimes given a sense of depth by different layers being shown and the use of a three-quarters view. Rice distinguished four major painters and two assistants: Just as distinguishable are different racial and ethnic types, made manifest not just in the physical attributes of the characters, but also their clothes and their hats. One can thus distinguish

8050-407: The medium of the numerous Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh manuscripts vary slightly, with most of the miniatures being made using ink, watercolor, and occasionally silver. The images within, designed to correspond to its texts, depict historical and religious events, courtly scenes, and authority figures spanning nationalities and ethnicities. Because of Rashid al-Din ’s mandate for an Arabic and Persian version of

8165-505: The next year while on campaign in Tiflis , causing his troops to retreat. Ariq Böke had earlier placed Chagatai's grandson Alghu as Chagatayid Khan , ruling Central Asia. He took control of Samarkand and Bukhara . When the Muslim elites and the Jochid retainers in Bukhara declared their loyalty to Berke, Alghu smashed the Golden Horde appanages in Khorazm. Alghu insisted Hulagu attack the Golden Horde; he accused Berke of purging his family in 1252. In Bukhara, he and Hulagu slaughtered all

8280-415: The patriarch of Constantinople with their respective gifts and letters. Mengu-Timur was succeeded in 1281 by his brother Töde Möngke , who was a Muslim. However, Nogai Khan was now strong enough to establish himself as an independent ruler. The Golden Horde was thus ruled by two khans. Töde Möngke made peace with Kublai, returned his sons to him, and acknowledged his supremacy. Nogai and Köchü , Khan of

8395-466: The place and went further east instead. In 1248, Güyük demanded Batu come east to meet him, a move that some contemporaries regarded as a pretext for Batu's arrest. In compliance with the order, Batu approached, bringing a large army. When Güyük moved westwards, Tolui 's widow and a sister of Batu's stepmother Sorghaghtani warned Batu that the Jochids might be his target. Güyük died on the way, in what

8510-608: The possession of the emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605). There is then a record of it passing through the hands of later Mughal emperors for the next few centuries. It was probably divided into two parts in the mid-1700s, though both sections remained in India until the 19th century, when they were acquired by the British. The portion now in the Edinburgh library was presented as a gift to Ali-I Ahmad Araf Sahib on October 8, 1761, and in 1800

8625-519: The principalities, whilst his cousins Möngke , Kadan , and Güyük moved southwards into Alania . Using the migration of the Cumans as their casus belli , the Mongols continued west, raiding Poland and Hungary, which culminated in Mongol victories at the battles of Legnica and Mohi . In 1241, however, Ögedei Khan died in the Mongolian homeland. Batu turned back from his siege of Vienna but did not return to Mongolia, rather opting to stay at

8740-558: The principality. The Livonian Knights stopped their advance to Novgorod and Pskov. Thanks to his friendship with Sartaq Khan , Batu's son, who was a Christian , Alexander was installed as the grand prince of Vladimir by Batu in 1252. After Batu died in 1256, his son Sartaq Khan was appointed by Möngke Khan . As soon as he returned from the court of the Great Khan in Mongolia, Sartaq died. The infant Ulaghchi succeeded him under

8855-462: The rebel emperor Ivailo in 1280, and forced George Terter I to seek refuge in the Byzantine Empire in 1292. In 1284, Saqchi came under the Mongol rule during the major invasion of Bulgaria, and coins were struck in the Khan's name. Smilets was installed by Nogai as emperor of Bulgaria. Accordingly, the reign of Smilets has been considered the height of Mongol overlordship in Bulgaria. When he

8970-478: The regency of Boragchin Khatun . The khatun summoned all the princes of Rus' to Sarai to renew their patents. In 1256, Andrey traveled to Sarai to ask for pardon. He was once again reappointed as the grand prince of Vladimir . Ulaghchi died soon after and Batu Khan's younger brother Berke , who had been converted to Islam , was enthroned as khan of the Golden Horde in 1258. In 1256, Daniel of Galicia openly defied

9085-459: The reputation of the Mongol hordes. The appellation Golden is said to have been inspired by the golden color of the tents the Mongols lived in during wartime, or an actual golden tent used by Batu Khan or by Özbeg Khan , or to have been bestowed by the Slavic tributaries to describe the great wealth of the khan. It was not until the 16th century that Russian chroniclers begin explicitly using

9200-744: The restored university precinct of his father. Several of the Jāmiʿ ' s compositions were used as models for the later seminal illustrated version of the Shahnameh known as the Demotte Shahnameh . In the 15th century, the Arabic copy was in Herat , perhaps claimed after a victory by the Timurid dynasty . It then passed to the court of the Mughal Empire in India, where it was in

9315-477: The retainers of the Golden Horde and reduced their families into slavery, sparing only the Great Khan Kublai's men. After Berke gave his allegiance to Kublai, Alghu declared war on Berke, seizing Otrar and Khorazm . While the left bank of Khorazm would eventually be retaken, Berke had lost control over Transoxiana. In 1264 Berke marched past Tiflis to fight against Hulagu's successor Abaqa , but he died en route. Berke left no sons, so Batu's grandson Mengu-Timur

9430-625: The same time and settled in Russia; one of them was a prince who settled in Rostov and became known as Tsarevich Peter of the Horde (Peter Ordynsky). Even though Nogai invaded the Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire in 1271, the Khan sent his envoys to maintain friendly relationship with Michael VIII Palaiologos, who sued for peace and married one of his daughters, Euphrosyne Palaiologina , to Nogai. Mengu-Timur ordered

9545-476: The second of these three Khans , Öljaitü , he was executed on July 13, 1318. Hamdani was responsible for setting up a stable social and economic system in Iran after the destruction of the Mongol invasions, and was an important artistic and architectural patron. He expanded the university at Rab'-e Rashidi , which attracted scholars and students from Egypt and Syria to China, and which published his many works. He

9660-451: The support of Mongol troops from Nogai and retook his holdings. In 1285, Andrey again led a Mongol army under a Borjigin prince to Vladimir, but Dmitry expelled them. In 1283, Mengu-Timur converted to Islam and abandoned state affairs. Rumors spread that the khan was mentally ill and only cared for clerics and sheikhs. In 1285, Talabuga and Nogai invaded Hungary . While Nogai was successful in subduing Slovakia , Talabuga stalled north of

9775-514: The term White Horde to refer to its right wing, which was situated in Batu's home base in Sarai and controlled the ulus. The designations Golden Horde, Blue Horde, and White Horde have not been encountered in the sources of the Mongol period. 2nd invasion (1259–60) 3rd invasion (1287–88) At his death in 1227, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire amongst his four sons as appanages , but

9890-554: The term to refer to this particular successor khanate of the Mongol Empire. The first known use of the term, in 1565, in a Russian chronicle called History of Kazan , applied it to the Ulus of Batu, centered on Sarai . In contemporary Persian, Armenian and Muslim writings, and in the records of the 13th and early 14th centuries such as the Yuanshi and the Jami' al-tawarikh , the khanate

10005-518: The text are made up of direct copies of illustrations from MS H 1653 and emulate illustrations from the Arabic Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh. The manuscript was left unfinished by the Ilkhanids after the inscription's completion in 1317, with only seven illustrations having been added to the beginning and other pages having blank spaces left for illustrations. A selection of the illustrations would be completed at

10120-494: The text to be produced every year there was an adopted standard style for the illustrations, giving characters Mongol countenance and dress, that made the differentiation between key figures difficult. Stylistic Influences Elements of the illustrations are influenced by Chinese painting techniques; most notably, the use of dark outlines and transparent washes, in contrast to the opaque watercolor style which would later become characteristic of Persian painting. The rendition of

10235-485: The town of Kolomna from Ryazan , which turned to the local basqaq for protection. However, this did not deter Daniel, who defeated the Ryazan and Mongol troops in 1301, and then seized Mozhaysk in 1303 and then Pereslavl-Zalessky, which threw off the already weak balance of interprincely relations. Daniel may have been motivated to round out his appanage, which in terms of the modern administrative divisions of Russia,

10350-487: The two collections, ending with the final section also being in the Edinburgh collection. The Edinburgh part has a page size of 41.5 × 34.2 cm, with a written area of 37 × 25 cm, and contains 35 lines per page written in Naskhi calligraphy. There are some omissions: folios 1, 2, 70 to 170, and the end; and it is dated to 1306–1307, in a later inscription, which is nonetheless accepted. The text comprises four parts:

10465-405: The unity of the realm. Batu, Möngke, and other princely lines shared rule over the area from Afghanistan to Turkey . Batu allowed Möngke's census-takers to operate freely in his realm. Local censuses took place in the 1240s, including the areas of Russia and Turkey. In 1251–1259, Möngke conducted the first empire-wide census of the Mongol Empire; while North China was completed in 1252, Novgorod in

10580-405: The work "is characterized by a matter-of-fact tone and a refreshing absence of sycophantic flattery." The Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh was the center of an industry for a time, no doubt in part due to the political importance of its author. The workshop was ordered to produce one manuscript each in Arabic and Persian every year, which were to be distributed to different cities. Although approximately 20 of

10695-399: The work during Rashid al-Din's lifetime, but only a few portions remain, and the complete text has not survived. The oldest known copy is an Arabic version, of which half has been lost, but one set of pages is currently in the Khalili Collection of Islamic Art (London, England), comprising 59 folios from the second volume of the work. Another set of pages, with 151 folios from the same volume,

10810-425: The work is original: for instance, the section on the period following the death of Genghis Khan in particular is directly borrowed from Juvayni. Other questions concern the objectivity of the author and his point of view: it is after all an official history, concerning events with which Rashid al-Din in his political capacity was often involved at first hand (for the history of the Ilkhanate in particular). Nonetheless,

10925-533: The world, about Adam and the patriarchs. Hazines 1653 & 1654 Hazine 1653 (MS H 1653), made in 1314, includes later additions on the Timurid era for Sultan Shah Rukh . The full collection, known as the Majmu'ah, contains Bal'ami 's version of Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari 's chronicle, the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh, and Nizam al-Din Shami 's biography of Timur . These portions of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh cover most of

11040-526: The young prince Nogai to invade the Ilkhanate but Hulagu forced him back in 1262. The Ilkhanid army then crossed the Terek River , capturing an empty Jochid encampment, only to be routed in a surprise attack by Nogai's forces. Many of them were drowned as the ice broke on the frozen Terek River. The outbreak of conflict was made more annoying to Berke by the rebellion of Suzdal at the same time, killing Mongol darughachis and tax-collectors. Berke planned

11155-537: Was a devoted Muslim who had had a close relationship with the Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim , who had been killed by Hulagu in 1258. The Jochids believed that Hulagu's state eliminated their presence in the Transcaucasus . Those events increased the anger of Berke and the war between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate soon broke out in 1262. The increasing tension between Berke and Hulagu

11270-623: Was a warning to the Golden Horde contingents in Hulagu's army to flee. One contingent reached the Kipchak Steppe, another traversed Khorasan , and a third body took refuge in Mamluk ruled Syria where they were well received by Sultan Baybars (1260–1277). Hulagu harshly punished the rest of the Golden Horde army in Iran. Berke sought a joint attack with Baybars and forged an alliance with the Mamluks against Hulagu. The Golden Horde dispatched

11385-413: Was also a prolific author, though few of his works have survived: only a few theological writings and a correspondence which is probably apocryphal are known today in addition to the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh . His immense wealth made it said of him that he was the best paid author in Iran. The Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh was one of the grandest projects of the Ilkhanate period, "not just a lavishly illustrated book, but

11500-600: Was also detained there. With the assistance of the Kingdom of Bulgaria (Berke's vassal), Nogai invaded the Empire in 1265. By the next year, the Mongol-Bulgarian army was within reach of Constantinople . Nogai forced Michael VIII Palaiologos to release Kaykaus and pay tribute to the Horde. Berke gave Kaykaus Crimea as an appanage and had him marry a Mongol woman. Hulagu died in February 1265 and Berke followed

11615-503: Was born in 1247 at Hamadan , Iran into a Jewish family. The son of an apothecary , he studied medicine and joined the court of the Ilkhan emperor, Abaqa Khan , in that capacity. He converted to Islam around the age of thirty. He rapidly gained political importance, and in 1304 became the vizier of emperor and Muslim convert Ghazan . He retained his position until 1316, experiencing three successive reigns, but, convicted of having poisoned

11730-553: Was called the Ulus of Jochi ('realm of Jochi' in Mongolian ), Dasht-i-Qipchaq ( Persian : دشت قپچاق , 'Qipchaq Steppe') or Khanate of the Qipchaq and Comania or Cumania . The eastern or left wing (or "left hand" in official Mongolian-sponsored Persian sources) was referred to as the Blue Horde in Russian chronicles and as the White Horde in Timurid sources (e.g. Zafar-Nameh). Western scholars have tended to follow

11845-692: Was cataloguing the collection of the Royal Asiatic Society in London. For some time this collection was displayed in the King's Library of the British Museum . It includes twenty illustrations, plus fifteen pages with portraits of the emperors of China. The text covers the history of Islam, the end of China's history, the history of India, and a fragment from the history of the Jews. The work of

11960-701: Was defeated in their first battle. Nogai's army turned their attention to Caffa and Soldaia , looting both cities. Within two years, Toqta returned and killed Nogai in 1299 at the Kagamlik, near the Dnieper . Toqta had his son stationed troops in Saqchi and along the Danube as far as the Iron Gate. Nogai's son Chaka of Bulgaria , first escaped to the Alans, and then Bulgaria where he briefly ruled as emperor before he

12075-465: Was expelled by a local boyars c.  1295 , the Mongols launched another invasion to protect their protege. Nogai compelled Serbian king Stefan Milutin to accept Mongol supremacy and received his son, Stefan Dečanski , as hostage in 1287. Under his rule, the Vlachs , Slavs, Alans , and Turco-Mongols lived in modern-day Moldavia . At the same time, the influence of Nogai greatly increased in

12190-585: Was given his own enormous ulus east of the Ural Mountains along the Ob and Irtysh Rivers . While the Mongolian language was undoubtedly in general use at the court of Batu, few Mongol texts written in the territory of the Golden Horde have survived, perhaps because of the prevalent general illiteracy. According to Grigor'ev, yarliq , or decrees of the Khans, were written in Mongol, then translated into

12305-708: Was in the library of the Indian prince Farzada Kuli . This fragment was acquired by Colonel John Baillie of Leys of the East India Company , and then in 1876 passed to the Edinburgh University Library. The other portion was acquired by John Staples Harriott of the East India Company sometime prior to 1813. At some point during the next two decades it was brought to England, probably when Harriott came home on furlough, when

12420-465: Was murdered by Theodore Svetoslav on the orders of Toqta. After Mengu-Timur died, rulers of the Golden Horde withdrew their support from Kaidu , the head of the House of Ögedei . Kaidu tried to restore his influence in the Golden Horde by sponsoring his own candidate Kobeleg against Bayan ( r.  1299–1304 ), Khan of the White Horde. After taking military support from Toqta, Bayan asked help from

12535-524: Was nominated by Kublai and succeeded his uncle Berke. However, Mengu-Timur secretly supported the Ögedeid prince Kaidu against Kublai and the Ilkhanate. After the defeat of Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq , a peace treaty was concluded in 1267 granting one-third of Transoxiana to Kaidu and Mengu-Timur. In 1268, when a group of princes operating in Central Asia on Kublai's behalf mutinied and arrested two sons of

12650-575: Was not larger than Moskovsky Uyezd before 1917. His tenacity laid the pattern for his successors to become the rulers of all of Russia proper. Cuman language The Cumans were nomadic people who lived on the steppes of Eastern Europe , north of the Black Sea , before the Golden Horde . Many Turkic peoples including the Crimean Tatars , Karachays , Kumyks , Crimean Karaites , Krymchaks and Balkars , Manavs are descended from

12765-543: Was owned by the Royal Asiatic Society in London. The collector David Khalili has described it as one of his two favourite objects out of the 35,000 he has collected. It is a different section of the History than that of the Edinburgh version, possibly from a different copy. Each page measures 43.5 by 30 centimetres (17.1 by 11.8 in) (slightly different dimensions to the Edinburgh portion due to different models copied). According to Blair's description of

12880-446: Was probably poisoned by Töregene Khatun , who probably did it to spite Batu and even her own son Güyük, because he did not approve of her regency. Güyük appointed Andrey as the grand prince of Vladimir and Alexander was given the princely title of Kiev . However, when they returned, Andrey went to Vladimir while Alexander went to Novgorod instead. A bishop by the name of Cyril went to Kiev and found it so devastated that he abandoned

12995-600: Was transcribed and illustrated in Tabriz under the supervision of Rashid al-Din. There are two early 14th century copies in Persian in the Topkapi Palace Library, Istanbul . Interest in the work continued after the Ilkhans were replaced as Persia's ruling dynasty by the Timurids . Timur 's youngest son, Shahrukh , who ruled the eastern portion of the empire from 1405 to 1447, owned incomplete copies of

13110-452: Was unable to keep the succession within her branch of the family. With the assistance of Batu, Möngke succeeded as Great Khan in 1251. Utilizing the discovery of a plot designed to remove him, Möngke as the new Great Khan began a purge of his opponents. Estimates of the deaths of aristocrats, officials, and Mongol commanders range from 77 to 300. Batu became the most influential person in the Mongol Empire as his friendship with Möngke ensured

13225-582: Was visibly influenced by the Mongols, and equipped his army in the Mongol fashion, his horsemen with Mongol-style cuirasses, and their mounts armoured with shoulder, chest, and head pieces. Michael of Chernigov , who had killed a Mongol envoy in 1240, refused to show obeisance and was executed in 1246. When Güyük called Batu to pay him homage several times, Batu sent Yaroslav II , Andrey II of Vladimir and Alexander Nevsky to Karakorum in Mongolia in 1247. Yaroslav II never returned and died in Mongolia. He

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