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122-513: The Toluid Civil War was a war of succession fought between Kublai Khan and his younger brother, Ariq Böke , from 1260 to 1264. Möngke Khan died in 1259 with no declared successor, precipitating infighting between members of the Tolui family line for the title of Great Khan that escalated to a civil war . The Toluid Civil War, and the wars that followed it, such as the Berke–Hulagu war and

244-606: A War of Succession almost invariably follows the decease of the Rajah , and with their other feudal contentions are the bane of them all — oppressing the inhabitants, checking industry, and obstructing commerce." He recommended that the British government take certain measures to prevent these wars from happening in the interest of both natives and foreigners, but argued that the English should not become "conquerors and oppressors" to

366-410: A 'war of succession' or a ' (princely) rebellion '. There are several different types of orders of succession , some of which may not have been enshrined in law, but only established in local custom or tradition. Across times and places, orders of succession have switched from one system to another. Some prominent examples are: A war of succession is a type of war concerning struggle for the throne:

488-663: A brief and decisive political violence to win the vacant seat." Using such political violence was an institutionalised legitimate procedure to end the royal power vacuum, but sometimes the rivals did not manage to defeat each other quickly as custom demanded. Lengthy wars of succession often broke down society with large-scale famines, massacres and refugee crises, endangering the state's continued existence. They also almost always coincided with rebellions in tributary states, indicating that vassals regularly sought to exploit their suzerain's weakness during succession disputes in order to reclaim independence. In Andean civilizations such as

610-617: A combination of military success and good repute." Eric J. Hanne (2007) reached a similar conclusion about the Buyid dynasty in particular: "As the Buyids had traditionally divided up their lands among brothers, uncles, and cousins, the familial confederacy, a frail situation at best, only worked when one had a strong personal figure such as 'Adud al-Dawla (d. 372/983), whose suzerainty was accepted only after prolonged internecine warfare." Wars of succession could sometimes cause more instability to

732-414: A common ruler (a personal union ). Early government systems were therefore based on dynasties, the extinction of which immediately brought on a state crisis. The composition of the governmental institutions of the various provinces and territories also eased their partitioning in case of a conflict, just like the status of claims on individual parts of the country by foreign monarchs. Early medieval Europe

854-402: A conflict about supreme power in a monarchy . Although it is typically associated with hereditary monarchy (either with primogeniture or some other principle of hereditary succession ), the concept has also been applied to elective monarchies . It may be intrastate war , an interstate war (if foreign powers intervene), or both. A succession war may arise after (or sometimes even before)

976-408: A convert to Islam. Möngke Khan died in 1259 without appointing a successor. He probably favored Ariq Böke, whom Möngke designated in 1258 as commander of Karakorum (then capital of the empire), but he did too little else to secure Ariq Böke's claim to the throne. Kublai Khan was fighting against the southern Song in 1260 when he received news that Ariq Böke was challenging him for the succession of

1098-439: A lack of agreement in early Islamic political thought on how to politically organise the early Muslim community. In particular, there was no consensus on the exercise of power and how leaders should be appointed. This lack of constitutional theory has been attributed by Ali Abdel Raziq (1888–1966) to the idea that the prophet Muhammad had been primarily concerned with religious regulations, and had not given priority to founding

1220-567: A lot of succession disputes during the Han dynasty, and although it frequently malfunctioned in the Three Kingdoms , Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties periods, it "matured" during the Tang and Song dynasties . Nevertheless, the Han state did suffer dynastic instability several times. When a Han emperor died without officially appointing a successor, his widow, the empress dowager , had

1342-411: A military confrontation will follow. Quite often such succession disputes have led to long-lasting wars. Potential candidates were not always limited to members from the royal household; depending on circumstances, aristocrats of other noble families within the realm were eligible to replace the deceased monarch, and could seize the opportunity of a succession crisis to take control of the state and found

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1464-481: A new dynasty . Factors that increased the risk of a succession crisis included lack of legitimate heirs (especially when the (ruling branch of a) dynasty died out), illegitimate children, contested inheritance, and the creation of collateral dynastic branches . The last factor in particular had the potential to not only stimulate wars of succession upon a monarch's death, but also princely revolts by cadets and cousins while they were still alive. The minority of

1586-492: A new succession crisis erupts in the middle of a war that originally began for different reasons (e.g. the Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743) ). "There was a general rush for arms; fighting began at once and continued until one of the rivals was killed, when all his followers submitted to the victor and became his men. It seldom happened that more than two princes fought for the throne, the others would look on and accept

1708-701: A political system, never left a known successor (= caliph ), nor established standard rules by which future leaders were to be appointed. After his death in 632, this compelled the Companions to find ad hoc solutions to the leadership question, causing succession disputes that resulted in the Fitnas , most notably the First Fitna (656–661), the Second Fitna (680–692), the Third Fitna (744–747),

1830-452: A purge to eliminate officials in the Mongol government who sympathized with Ariq Böke. Kublai accused Bolghai , an important Mongol official who served under Möngke, of treachery for conspiring with Ariq Böke. Kublai authorized the execution of Bolghai and other Ariq Böke supporters. Kublai summoned a kurultai to decide a punishment for Ariq Böke and solidify his own claim to the throne. Kublai

1952-405: A right to their possessions based on the hereditary principle , or have concluded a treaty to that effect. They will seek allies within the nobility and/or abroad to support their claims to the throne. After all options for a diplomatic solution –such as a sharing of power, or a financial deal– or a quick elimination (in effect a coup d'état ) –e.g. by assassination or arrest– have been exhausted,

2074-534: A ruler necessitated regents and ministers to run state affairs until they came of age, which made opposition from military and administrative elites to the underage monarch easier, and also increased the risk of widespread political instability and civil conflict. Some wars of succession are about women's right to inherit . This does not exist in some countries (a "sword fief ", where the Salic law applies, for example), but it does in others (a "spindle fief"). Often

2196-584: A ruler who has no sons, but does have one or more daughters, will try to change the succession laws so that a daughter can succeed him. Such amendments will then be declared invalid by opponents, invoking the local tradition . In Europe, the Holy Roman Emperor (or King of the Romans ) increasingly regularly granted smaller inland fiefs to heirs according to the female lineage since the 13th century. The Privilegium Minus of 1156, which established

2318-554: A succession dispute between his sons Liu Cong and Liu Qi , but a quick invasion by Cao Cao forced Cong to surrender without a fight while Qi fled. Cao Pi 's deposition of the last Han emperor Xian and foundation of the Wei dynasty in 220 caused Liu Bei , a scion of the imperial family, to proclaim himself the legitimate emperor and found the Shu Han dynasty in 221, followed by Sun Quan 's Eastern Wu in 229; this three-way claim to

2440-477: A symbol of his loyalty. Alghu then returned to the Ili River to remove Ariq Böke from Xinjiang. Ariq Böke lacked the resources or the allies to defend himself. He traveled to Shangdu alone and surrendered to Kublai in 1264, ending the civil war. Kublai imprisoned Ariq Böke, but did not immediately punish him. Kublai's supporters wanted retribution, so Kublai ignored Ariq Böke for a year as punishment. He conducted

2562-465: A system of succession called ekberiyet , by which the oldest surviving male relative of the deceased sultan (often an uncle or brother) would assume the throne. This was combined with the kafes ("gilded cage") system in 1622, which put all male members of the royal family under house arrest within the palace grounds, to ensure a pool of potential successors under the control of the reigning sultan. The ekberiyet – kafes practices would prevail until

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2684-602: A throne struggle in 1412–1415, in which the Ming Chinese fourth treasure voyage of admiral Zheng He intervened. Starting with the death of Sultan Agung of Mataram in 1645, every time the sultan of Mataram died, a war of succession broke out, and these recurrent conflicts crippled the state. From the Trunajaya rebellion (1674–1681) onwards, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) began to exploit

2806-435: A universally recognised ruler over a certain territory passes away (sometimes without leaving behind any (legal) offspring, or failing to clearly designate an heir), or is declared insane or otherwise incapable to govern, and is deposed. Next, several pretenders (also known as 'claimants', 'candidates', or 'rivals') step forward, who are either related to the previous ruler (by ancestry or marriage) and therefore claim to have

2928-646: A war may simply depend on one's perspective; for example, Nolan (2008) stated: 'The Williamite War of 1689–1691 , sometimes known as the Jacobite War, was a war of succession in England and an international war for or against France for most non-Irish participants. But it was a civil war in Ireland.' Similarly, scholars sometimes disagree whether the 1657–1661 Mughal dynastic conflict (which consisted of several subconflicts, phases, and factions) should be labelled

3050-516: A war of succession by having most of his potential rivals killed or exiled in a timely manner, although Singu's reign was cut short by a princely rebellion in February 1782, in which Phaungkaza Maung Maung seized the throne for seven days before Bodawpaya killed and replaced him. Bodawpaya successfully eliminated all his rivals upon enthronement, and in 1802 ended "twenty-five years of conflict between lineal and collateral succession" in favour of

3172-496: A war of succession. For example, Empress Lü Zhi was the de facto ruler of the court during the reigns of the child emperors Qianshao ( r . 188–184 BCE) and Houshao ( r . 184–180 BCE), but her faction was overthrown during the Lü Clan Disturbance upon her death in 180 BCE, and Liu Heng was named emperor instead. At the end of the Han dynasty in the 190s, the imperial Liu family lost effective control over

3294-537: A war, a justification is needed ( Jus ad bellum ). These arguments may be put forward in a declaration of war , to indicate that one is justly taking up arms. As the Dutch lawyer Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) noted, these must make clear that one is unable to pursue their rightful claims in any other way. The claims to legal titles from the dynastic sphere were a strong reason for war, because international relations primarily consisted of inheritance and marriage policies until

3416-460: Is a war prompted by a succession crisis in which two or more individuals claim the right of successor to a deceased or deposed monarch . The rivals are typically supported by factions within the royal court . Foreign powers sometimes intervene , allying themselves with a faction. This may widen the war into one between those powers. Wars of succession were some of the most prevalent types of wars by cause throughout human history, but

3538-599: The Abbasid Caliphate , where a peaceful transition of power upon the caliph's death was the exception rather than the rule. According to Justin Marozzi (2015), the 775 succession of Al-Mansur by Al-Mahdi "was, by the standards of the future, blood-soaked successions of the Abbasid caliphate, a model of order and decorum." During the period of Abbasid fragmentation into autonomous dynasties (c. 850–1050), this

3660-825: The Duchy of Austria , already allowed women to inherit the state as well. Land inheritance disputes were frequent in agrarian societies , and the 'increasing subdivision of estates was a common cause of the undermining of territorial aristocracies ' in cultures across the world. For example, in the 10th and 11th centuries, Sassanid Persia , various states in India, the Song dynasty of China, and medieval Europe , all struggled with succession crises. According to British statesman Henry Brougham ( Lord Chancellor 1830–34), there were more and longer wars of succession in Europe between 1066 and

3782-670: The Fourth Fitna (809–827), and the Fitna of al-Andalus (1009–1031). Eventually, the disputes led to the major schism between Sunni Muslims , who held that the leader should in some way be elected from within the Quraysh , and Shia Muslims , who held that the leader must be a direct biological descendant of Muhammad through Ali , and that each leader personally designated his own successor. The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) followed neither school of thought, because its founder Mu'awiya I

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3904-580: The French Revolution (1789–99) than all other wars put together. "A war of succession is the most lasting of wars. The hereditary principle keeps it in perpetual life – [whereas] a war of election is always short, and never revives", he opined, arguing for elective monarchy to solve the problem. According to Kalevi Holsti (1991, p. 308, Table 12.2), who catalogued and categorised wars from 1648 to 1989 into 24 categories of 'issues that generated wars', 'dynastic/succession claims' were (one of)

4026-529: The Holy Roman Empire , such wars were known as diocesan feuds . After numerous familial conflicts, the principle of male primogeniture originated in Western Europe in the 11th century, spreading to the rest of Europe (with the exception of Kievan Rus' and subsequent Rus' principalities ) in the 12th and 13th century; it has never been widely adopted outside Europe. This restricted

4148-587: The Ilkhanate was plagued with succession struggles, misrule and corruption from its founding by Hulagu Khan in the 1260s until the accession of Ghazan in 1295, the first Ilkhan to convert to Islam, and to make efforts to base the Ilkhanate's legitimacy on that religion. However, because Ghazan was Rashid's patron , this account of the early Ilkhanate's instability may have been exaggerated in order to glorify Ghazan and legitimise his reign. In our quarter of

4270-628: The Inca Empire (1438–1533), it was customary for a lord to pass on his reign to the son he perceived to be the most able, not necessarily his oldest son; sometimes he chose a brother instead. After the Spanish colonization of the Americas began in 1492, some Andean lords began to assert their eldest-born sons were the only "legitimate" heirs (as was common to European primogeniture customs), while others maintained Andean succession customs involving

4392-679: The Kaidu–Kublai war , weakened the authority of the Great Khan over the Mongol Empire and split the empire into autonomous khanates. The Tolui family successfully enthroned their candidate for Great Khan, Möngke, in the kurultais of 1250 and 1251. The Ögedeid candidate for Great Khan, Shiremun, and his cousin Nakhu, were embittered by their loss and plotted a failed assassination of Möngke. Möngke took revenge by purging his opponents in

4514-668: The Riau-Lingga Sultanate to the Netherlands. While Brunei remained an absolute monarchy, the kings of independent Malaysia have assumed more ceremonial roles of identity within a constitutional framework. The Ottoman Empire was an Islamic dynasty originating in Asia Minor , which gradually expanded into Southeastern Europe and made Constantinople its capital upon conquering it in 1453 ; it developed unique succession practices which "departed sharply from

4636-577: The Silesian capital Wrocław . Baidar began to besiege the town, but marched north with Kadan and Orda to Legnica to defeat the forces of Henry II the Pious , Duke of Silesia and High Duke of Poland, before he could join King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia . After defeating some forces of Konrad I of Masovia , Kadan's forces joined with Baidar's and Orda's at Legnica. The Christian army was crushed in

4758-695: The War of Devolution (1667–1668) that he rather sought to fight for territorial gain. Some wars of succession were about multiple simultaneous disputes, such as in the cases of the Nine Years' War (about England, the Palatinate, and Cologne) and the War of the Polish Succession (about Poland and Lorraine). The outbreak of a war can be motivated by a succession dispute, but its focus or scope can shift over its course, and vice versa, particularly if

4880-464: The early modern period was stimulated on the one hand by the uncertainty about the degree to which regulations and agreements on hereditary succession were to be considered a respectable part of emerging international law . On the other hand, there was also a lack of effective means to provide them recognition and validation. Jeroen Duindam (2021) noted that, 'when the internal challenges to dynastic supremacy had abated' in 17th- and 18th-century Europe,

5002-415: The "legitimate" heir, which occurred frequently in the 7th and 6th centuries. However, as the states grew more powerful and dukes had to delegate control over certain areas to kinsmen as their territories enlarged, they increasingly risked internal dynastic struggles as well. The largest states in particular experienced this problem, namely Qi (e.g. the War of Qi's succession in 643–642 BCE) and Jin ; in

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5124-639: The 1650–1715 period in Europe: 'Complex issues of succession of Bourbon and Habsburg were the daily stuff of high European politics at all times, and the bane of the lives of the masses of peasants swept away by ebbing and waning tides of peace and the maelstrom of war.' To him, the Nine Years' War and (1688–1697) and War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) were the 'two great, climactic conflicts that submerged local conflicts', so that these decades produced 'a generation of war that swirled around

5246-539: The Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia. Chagatai's khan, Qara Hülëgü , had recently died. Alghu fought and killed Abishkha, a rival claimant to the throne endorsed by Kublai as ruler of the khanate. Alghu was one of Ariq Böke's strongest supporters and he appointed him khan of Chagatai. The khanate became an important source of Ariq Böke's provisions. Ariq Böke gave Alghu complete control over tax revenues in

5368-534: The Chinese, Korean and his fellow Mongols, while calling out Ariq Böke as a destructive usurper. Kublai promised to reduce taxes, modeled his government institutions to resemble those of the Chinese dynasties, and adopted the era name of Zhongtong , which means "moderate rule". His policies were popular in northern China, but had no impact on his relations with the Southern Song. The Song invaded while Kublai

5490-480: The East African Empire of Kitara in the 17th and 18th century. The last recorded two occurred around 1851 and 1869. Every death of a mukama ("king") of Kitara created a power vacuum, during which all legitimate royal candidates were required to negotiate to agree on a single candidate to become the next ruler. In cases of failure, "traditions encouraged them to mobilize their supporters and engage in

5612-470: The Great Powers.' He added that 'an international order based on political democracy more or less eliminates the incentive for wars of royal succession.' Wars of succession have throughout history often been the worst-case scenario for absolute monarchies and other autocracies , as they are commonly known to be at their weakest and most vulnerable when the ruler dies and it is uncertain who will be

5734-693: The Malays, "as the Dutch are in all their possessions throughout the Archipelago". The British would establish " indirect rule " over the Malay States and turned the sultans essentially into their agents. In 1819, the British would exploit the Johor Sultanate's succession crisis to partition its territory with the Dutch, keeping mainland Johor, including Singapore, for themselves and ceding

5856-636: The Middle East. Berke capitalized on the Mamluk victory over Mongols by invading the Ilkhanate, beginning the Berke–Hulagu war . Ariq Böke allied with Berke Khan of the Golden Horde and Alghu of the Chagatai Khanate. Hulagu of the Ilkhanate was the sole ally of Kublai Khan. Berke supported Ariq Böke because he was resentful of Hulagu, who had close ties with Kublai. However, Hulagu and Berke became occupied with their own war and could not intervene in

5978-646: The Mughal Empire (1670) In the Mughal Empire (1526–1857), there was no tradition of primogeniture. Instead it was customary for sons to overthrow their father, and for brothers to war to the death among themselves. 17th-century French traveller François Bernier , who spent about 12 years in India (1658–1670; partially overlapping with the Mughal war of succession of 1657–1661), praised Aurangzeb as "a great King" with "a versatile and rare genius", but

6100-496: The Toluid Civil War. Kublai Khan had access to supplies from the fertile lands of China, while Ariq Böke had to import resources to Karakorum in the semi-arid steppes. Kublai Khan depended on these supplies from China and therefore needed Chinese popular support to win the civil war. Kublai ingratiated himself to his subjects with the help of his Chinese advisers. He presented himself as a sage emperor capable of uniting

6222-519: The adoption of Buddhism, clan leader Soga no Umako had Emperor Sushun assassinated in 592, and instead installed Suiko as empress (the first woman on the imperial throne in Japanese history) with Prince Shōtoku as regent, while holding the reins of power behind the scenes. This configuration led to a stable reign of empress Suiko until 628, 'a remarkably long span for that period.' However, when she died and Shōtoku's son Prince Yamashiro claimed

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6344-528: The alleged first dynasty, the Xia , as well as the confirmed Shang dynasty , both father–son and older brother–younger brother succession appear to have existed, with agnatic primogeniture gradually becoming a frequent practice in the late Shang. The Rebellion of the Three Guards (c. 1042–1039 BCE) after the death of King Wu of Zhou is perhaps the first war of succession in Chinese recorded history. During

6466-549: The ancient right to inherit a tercia , one third of their husband's estate, lost it in the 12th century ( Genoa : 1143). However, it did not prevent the outbreak of wars of succession altogether. A true deluge of succession wars occurred in Europe between the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and the Coalition Wars (1792–1815). According to German historian Heinz Duchhardt (1943) the outbreak of wars of succession in

6588-457: The beginning of two decades of succession-based warfare, until prime minister Hồ Quý Ly seized power and restored order in 1390, and abolished the Tran dynasty in favour of his own in 1400. With the exception of Naresuan 's succession by Ekathotsarot in 1605, "the method of royal succession at Ayutthaya throughout the seventeenth century was battle." Although European visitors to Thailand at

6710-400: The co-regency of a younger son of a sitting ruler during the latter's lifetime, each whenever the circumstances favoured either approach. Helen James (2004) stated that in the late 17th-century Burmese Restored Toungoo dynasty , "the transfer of power upon the death of a monarch was always a problem, for there were many contenders to the throne owing to the practice of polygamy . The sons of

6832-428: The crown to their sons instead of their brothers, thereby thwarting Alaungpaya's dying wish." His oldest son Naungdawgyi had to fight a two-year war of succession (1760–1762) to assert his authority. Hsinbyushin 's succession was not challenged, but designating his son Singu Min as heir rather than a younger brother bred an imminent succession dispute just before his death. The next king, Singu, managed to avoid

6954-406: The death of a monarch frequently resulted in a crisis with multiple claimants from several powerful clans vying for the throne. The religion-based Soga–Mononobe conflict (552–587) between the pro-Shinto Mononobe clan and the pro-Buddhist Soga clan sometimes resulted in wars of succession, particularly in 585–587. To prevent further challenges to his power due to succession crises and to enforce

7076-561: The dispute may be resolved without escalating into open warfare. Wars of succession are also often referred to as a civil war, when in fact it was a conflict within the royalty, or broader aristocracy, that civilians were dragged into. It depends on the circumstances whether a war of succession is also a civil war in the sense of intra state war (if it is limited to armed conflict inside one state), or it may be an inter state war (if foreign powers intervene; sometimes called 'international' war), or both. Therefore, names or descriptions of

7198-556: The disunity to advance the interests of their own family. They held a grudge against the Tolui family for the kurultai of 1251 and the subsequent purge of the Ögedeids after the assassination plot. Kaidu , from the Ögedei family, believed that a member of the Ögedeids deserved the title of Great Khan and started an insurrection in 1269 against Kublai that lasted for decades. Most of the western khanates did not recognize Kublai as Great Khan. Although some of them still asked Kublai to confirm

7320-399: The dynastic ambitions and personal convictions of Louis XIV .' "The most plausible plea which hath ever been offered in favor of hereditary succession is, that it preserves a nation from civil wars; and were this true, it would be weighty; whereas it is the most bare-faced falsity ever imposed on mankind." – Thomas Paine , Common Sense (1776) Throughout the centuries and across

7442-439: The dynastic crises to expand its economic, political and territorial control over Java by supporting their preferred candidate for the throne with superior firepower, in return for extensive concessions upon victory. The Javanese Wars of Succession (1703–1755) enabled the company to weaken and eventually split Mataram into smaller states that it could easily control. An early 19th-century British writer observed: "In Malay States,

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7564-602: The end of the Ancien Régime . These were often so intertwined that it had to lead to conflict. Treaties that led to hereditary linkages, pawning and transfers made various relations more complicated, and could be utilised for claims as well. That claims were made at all is due to the permanent struggle for competition and prestige between the respective ruling houses. On top of that came the urge of contemporary princes to achieve " glory " for themselves. In some cases, wars of succession in Europe could also be centred around

7686-645: The end of the Ottoman Empire and the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate in 1922. About the Hoa Lư -based early Vietnamese kingdom of Đại Cồ Việt (968–1054), Nicholas Tarling (1992) noted: "the Hoa-lu kings ruled chiefly by threat of violence, and the death of each one was followed by a war of succession." By contrast, rulers of the later Trần dynasty (1225–1400) had adopted the practice of "[abdicating]

7808-520: The ensuing Battle of Legnica of 9 April 1241. Mongol casualties were heavier than expected in the battle, however, and Kadan was reluctant to directly attack Wenceslaus' Bohemian forces. Kadan and Baidar skirmished against the Bohemians and were able to prevent the Bohemian king from helping King Béla IV of Hungary . After raiding Moravia , the Mongol diversionary force went to Hungary. During

7930-592: The enthronement of their new regional khans, the four khanates were functionally independent sovereign states. The Ilkhanate based in Persia and the Yuan dynasty based in China had close diplomatic relations, and shared scientific and cultural knowledge, but military cooperation between all four Mongol khanates would never occur again — the united Mongol Empire had disintegrated. War of succession A war of succession

8052-477: The fall of the dynasty or the state, or both. Scholars such as Johannes Kunisch and Johannes Burckhardt (1997) blamed wars of succession in early modern Europe on notions such as the divine right of kings and absolutism , because they created inherent problems in 'a state system that had known neither effective forms of cooperation nor a clear hierarchy that had neither experienced a formal equality between its members nor clear borders.' Nolan (2008) added about

8174-589: The former, according to Koenig (1990). Nevertheless, two kings were overthrown by their brothers in coups in 1837 and 1853, and in 1866, the crown prince (the king's brother) was assassinated by two of the king's sons. When the last Burmese king, Thibaw Min (r. 1878–1885), began his reign, he had about 80 of his relatives murdered to prevent any challenge to his accession. According to Arthur Waldron (2008), "throughout their history , Chinese states have been overwhelmingly land-based and (...) their wars have chiefly been wars of succession and overland conquest." In

8296-446: The globe, the succession to the crown is settled in favour of the eldest by wise and fixed laws; but in Hindústan the right of governing is usually disputed by all the sons of the deceased monarch, each of whom is reduced to the cruel alternative of sacrificing his brothers that he himself may reign, or of suffering his own life to be forfeited for the security and stability of the dominion of another. – François Bernier , Travels in

8418-429: The imperial throne started the Three Kingdoms period. The death of Sun Quan's heir resulted in a succession struggle between Sun He and Sun Ba (241–250); Quan deposed He, forced Ba to commit suicide, and appointed 5-year-old Sun Liang as successor. Liang became emperor aged 7 in 252, but this boy-ruler was deposed in 258. The Yamato state did not have clear rules on succession (such as primogeniture ), and

8540-510: The interim, Kublai acquired more supplies and men. He fortified Yan and the border defenses of northern China. Kadan defeated and executed Alandar , a general sent to secure the vital Central Asian trade routes for Ariq Böke. Lian Xixian , one of Kublai's Confucian advisers, commanded soldiers for the khan in western China. He won a victory against Ariq Böke's ally, Liu Taiping , in northwestern China, seizing food supplies intended for Ariq Böke's army. Lian also drove supporters of Ariq Böke out of

8662-453: The late king's brothers and sons) could claim the throne of Ayutthaya for himself, and win by defeating all his rivals. Moreover, groupings of nobles, foreign merchants, and foreign mercenaries actively rallied behind their preferred candidates in hopes of benefiting from each war's outcome. "Whereas Charles the Second, king of Spain , of most glorious memory, being not long since dead without issue , his Sacred Imperial Majesty has claimed

8784-607: The latter case, this eventually led to the Partition of Jin in 403 BCE, which ushered in the Warring States period . After uniting all states into his Qin dynasty , the first Chinese emperor, Qin Shi Huang , failed to establish secure succession rules before his death in 210 BCE, upon which his clan immediately lost control of the government to Li Si and Zhao Gao , and his dynasty fell soon after (207 BCE). Winning

8906-599: The leadership of Kadan, in March 1242 at Klis Fortress in Croatia, experienced their first European military failure, while in pursuit for the head of Béla IV of Hungary. Kadan had his Hungarian prisoners executed as supplies began to run out. To the king's surprise, Kadan headed south past Trogir toward Dubrovnik (Ragusa) . While he was nearing Scutari , Kadan heard of the death of his father, Ögedei Khan. Kadan's raids through Bulgaria on his retreat from Central Europe induced

9028-453: The major queens frequently contested the succession." Alaungpaya , founder of the new Konbaung dynasty (1752–1885), intended his successors to be appointed by agnatic seniority (from brother to brother), according to James in an attempt "to avoid the bloodshed that accompanied each transfer of power at the death of a Burmese monarch. It was a vain hope. The directive itself led to bloody succession crises, as some of his sons sought to pass

9150-467: The number of potential heirs to the oldest son of the reigning monarch, thereby facilitating undivided inheritance and a great reduction of potential sources of property conflict. Another major effect of the near-universal introduction of male primogeniture was the strengthening of patrilineality , and the structural undermining and destruction of the women's property rights , be they mothers, wives or daughters. For example, women in northern Italy, who had

9272-500: The order of succession has changed over the course of centuries from one type to another, and especially during a switch, there were several wars of succession before the new system was consolidated. For example, the death of mai Idris I Nigalemi ( c.  1370 ) of the Kanem–Bornu Empire triggered a war of succession, because it was unclear whether collateral (brother to brother) or filial/patrilineal (father to son) succession

9394-473: The other hand, scholars such as Faruqui (2002) have posited that studies which argue Mughal succession struggles weakened the empire may be influenced by "a long held bias in Western European writings favoring the institution of primogeniture over all other modes of forms of succession." Instead, Faruqui sought to "demonstrate how, far from weakening the empire, intra-dynastic collaboration and strife

9516-436: The planet, various attempts have been made at prevention or mitigation of wars of succession. It can sometimes be difficult to determine whether a war was purely or primarily a war of succession, or that other interests were at play as well that shaped the conflict in an equally or more important manner, such territory , economy , religion , and so on. Many wars are not called 'war of succession' because hereditary succession

9638-467: The primary cause(s) of 14% of all wars during 1648–1714, 9% during 1715–1814, 3% during 1815–1914, and 0% during 1918–1941 and 1945–1989. Braumoeller (2019) attributed this drastic decrease (and practical extinction) of wars of succession from the 18th century onwards largely to the fact that 'succession no longer serves either to cement territorial holdings legitimized by continuous bloodlines or to create de facto alliances or long-standing allegiances among

9760-607: The provinces of the Spanish Low Countries , and the Dutchy of Milan ..." – Emperor Leopold I proclaims his position on the War of the Spanish Succession in the Treaty of The Hague (1701) The origins of wars of succession in Europe lie in feudal or absolutist systems of government, in which the decisions on war and peace could be made by a single sovereign without the population's consent. The politics of

9882-526: The realm than whatever stability the most capable of rulers could achieve in times of peace. Citing Ibn Khaldun , Black argued that this was one major factor why virtually all Islamic dynasties (with the notable exception of the Ottoman Empire ) lasted only about 100 to 200 years before falling apart due to succession crises. According to Rashid al-Din Hamadani 's Jami' al-tawarikh (c. 1316),

10004-495: The region. In 1261, Kublai and Ariq Böke engaged in battle at Shimultai. Ariq Böke lost the battle and retreated. He returned to the region ten days later to challenge Kublai's forces near the Khingan Mountains of eastern Mongolia. The troops that Ariq Böke attacked were not personally led by Kublai, and made up only a small portion of Kublai's army. Even so, the battle ended in a stalemate. Meanwhile, most of Mongolia

10126-401: The reign in prince-bishoprics . Although these were formally elective monarchies without hereditary succession, the election of the prince-bishop could be strongly intertwined with the dynastic interests of the noble families involved, each of whom would put forward their own candidates. In case of disagreement over the election result, waging war was a possible way of settling the conflict. In

10248-535: The reign of Duke Zhuang , Zheng was the most powerful Spring and Autumn period state, but the 701–680 BCE war of succession following his death reduced it to one of the weakest. As the authority of the Zhou dynasty declined, the states' power increased (the Age of Hegemons ), and whenever the Zhou royal clan was unable to solve a succession crisis by itself, leading states were expected to militarily intervene on behalf of

10370-430: The reigning sultan were given provincial governorships in order to gain experience in administration, accompanied and mentored by their retinues and tutors. Upon the death of their father, the reigning sultan, these sons would fight amongst themselves for the succession until one emerged triumphant. The first son to reach the capital and seize control of the court would usually become the new ruler. The first such instance

10492-461: The replacement of absolute monarchies by an international order based on democracy with constitutional monarchies or republics ended almost all such wars by 1900. In historiography and literature, a war of succession may also be referred to as a succession dispute , dynastic struggle , internecine conflict , fratricidal war , or any combination of these terms. Not all of these are necessarily describing armed conflict, however, and

10614-403: The respective rulers was mainly driven by dynastic interests. German historian Johannes Kunisch (1937–2015) ascertained: "The all-driving power was the dynasties' law of the prestige of power, the expansion of power, and the desire to maintain themselves." Moreover, the legal and political coherence of the various provinces of a "state territory" often consisted merely in nothing more than having

10736-946: The result of the combat. Sometimes, however, several would claim it, and whatever the number of rivals might be, the fighting would not end until only one of them was left alive." – John Roscoe (1923) describing wars of succession amongst the Banyoro people in the Empire of Kitara According to Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch (1988), wars of succession were "so common in the history of African monarchies that it seems almost an institution". Especially in matrilinear societies, there were few succession laws or fixed customs. "Dynastic histories are everywhere intersected with wars of succession (the almost exclusive cause of civil wars) and royal genealogies are very hard to reconstruct", with many "unfortunate heirs-presumptive more or less violently prevented from assuming office". In various African cultures,

10858-439: The royal courts forged more and more marriages alliances with the ruling houses of other sovereign states, which 'helps to explain the prevalence of international wars of succession' in that period. Wars of succession in Europe gradually came to an end in the 19th century, when absolute monarchies were replaced by an international order based on democracy , featuring constitutional monarchies or republics . Kadan He

10980-691: The royal house, and members of both the Chagatai and Ögedei families. Möngke handed control over the Caucasus region to the Golden Horde in 1252. With the approval of Möngke, Berke succeeded his His nephew, Ulaghuci , as the khan of the Golden Horde in Russia in 1257. Hulagu of the Ilkhanate seized control of the Caucasus from the Golden Horde, and his sacking of Baghdad in 1258 angered Berke,

11102-407: The sole right to appoint one of the late emperor's surviving sons or relatives to the position. At such times, or when an infant emperor was placed on the Han throne, a regent , often also the empress dowager or one of her male relatives, would assume the duties of the emperor until he reached his majority. Sometimes the empress dowager's faction—the consort clan —was overthrown in a coup d'état or

11224-457: The state with an opportunity to revolt, as well as vassal states outside it to reclaim their independence, and while the state is weakened, it also provides rulers of neighbouring states the chance to invade to further their own interests (with or without their own claim to the throne, or while backing another claimant within the state). In numerous cases, the enormous long-term political and economic instability created by wars of succession caused

11346-476: The state; prominent members of the nobility became warlords trying to establish their own dynasties. Instead of governors being appointed by the emperor, they tried to secure the succession of their own clansmen, making it a hereditary office that led to several succession crises. The Yuan clan, once a prominent candidate to replace the imperial Liu family, descended into a fratricidal war upon Yuan Shao 's death (202–205). The August 208 death of Liu Biao caused

11468-528: The subsequent Chu–Han Contention and founding the Han dynasty , Emperor Gaozu sought to ensure a stable succession process that would not endanger the dynasty. He strengthened the designated heir's position by creating the office of the Crown Prince, in which a group of officials educated and served the designated heir well in advance until his time to succeed would arrive. This crown prince system prevented

11590-431: The succession in the kingdoms and provinces of the deceased king, as lawfully belonging to his august family ; but the most Christian King , aiming at the same succession for his grandson the duke of Anjou , and pretending a right did accrue to him by a certain will of the deceased king, has usurped the possession of the entire inheritance, or Spanish monarchy , for the aforementioned duke of Anjou, and invaded by his arms

11712-405: The successor. Rival claims to ultimate power within such a regime are very prone to spiralling out of control into violence, because such regimes operate according to rule by force, or might makes right . A succession crisis not only risks dragging the entire population into 'civil' war between factions backing rival pretenders, but the power vacuum it creates also presents oppressed groups within

11834-667: The territories of the former Western Xia from Ariq Böke and commanded the forces stationed in Gansu . Kublai's troops guarded the area surrounding Yan (modern Beijing ). The only supply line still open to Ariq Böke was the Yenisei River valley in the northwest. When Kublai's army advanced towards Karakorum in late 1260, Ariq Böke retreated from Karakorum to a tributary of the Yenisei. The oncoming winter then compelled Kublai and Ariq Böke to encamp their armies and wait for spring. In

11956-679: The threat of an attack by Kublai receded. Alghu defeated Ariq Böke's commander, Khara Bukha , near the Ili River in Xinjiang, but lost his headquarters at Almalikh to Ariq Böke. He withdrew to the oasis cities of the Tarim Basin . Ariq Böke was now left with few allies, and several of his supporters deserted from his side following his action and atrocities against the Chagatai Khanate. Ürüng Tash, son of Möngke, defected, taking his father's tamga seal from Ariq Böke and giving it to Kublai as

12078-460: The throne himself as Emperor Tenji in 654. Tenji's death in 672 caused the Jinshin War ; as there were still no rules for succession, any close kin of the deceased emperor regardless of gender could claim equal rights to the crown. The historical Fitnas and similar conflicts in early Islam were essentially wars of succession, resulting not (primarily) from religious disputes, but from

12200-451: The throne to their chosen adult heirs upon the death of their predecessors, thereafter ruling as 'senior' kings." Tarling added that "the Tran kings made decisions in consultation with their uncles, brothers, and cousins, thereby fostering solidarity within the royal clan", and that the dynasty began to collapse when these rules were no longer observed. When the childless king Trần Dụ Tông failed to designate an heir, his death in 1369 marked

12322-487: The throne, he was rejected by the Soga clan in favour of Emperor Jomei . After the latter died in 641 and was succeeded by his wife, Empress Kōgyoku , Yamashiro once again claimed the throne, but he and his family were killed (possibly by suicide) when soldiers of Soga no Iruka attacked. The latter was subsequently murdered in the 645 Isshi Incident by Prince Naka-no-Ōe , who installed puppet Emperor Kōtoku before taking

12444-450: The throne. Ariq Böke formed alliances with powerful members of the Mongol nobility to endorse him as a candidate for Great Khan. Most of Möngke's immediate family supported Ariq Böke including the member of Ögedei, Chagatai and Jochi. Kublai withdrew from the Song and mobilized his troops to fight Ariq Böke. In China, Kublai summoned a kurultai at Kaiping , where he was elected Great Khan. This

12566-461: The time tried to discern any rules in the Siamese order of succession, noting that in practice the dead king's younger brother often succeeded him, this custom appears not to have been legally enshrined anywhere. The ruling king did often bestow the title of uparaja ('viceroy') upon his preferred successor, but in reality, it was an "elimination process": any male member of the royal clan (usually

12688-422: The time, Islamic and Christian societies alike would condemn such a move as an immoral and sinful act of murder, Mehmed and subsequent would-be sultans would justify it as the prerogative of the ruler to commit (peace-time) fratricide in order to ensure the order and stability of the realm. Ottoman royal fratricide would continue until 1648, and only happen once more in 1808. In 1617, the Ottoman dynasty would adopt

12810-605: The towns of Liangzhou and Ganzhou. In southwestern China, his forces protected Sichuan from Ariq Böke's encroaching troops. Kublai paid Kadan and Lian Xixian handsomely for their military service in gifts and promotions. He rewarded Kadan with 300 packs of silk and 300 taels of silver, and appointed Lian Xixian to the position of Prime Minister of the Right in the Secretariat. Kublai's victories left Alghu as Ariq Böke's only standing ally. Ariq Böke convinced Alghu to take control of

12932-529: The twelfth." Usually, a designated or prospective heir to a property (typically but not always the owner's oldest son) would face off demands by uncles and brothers, aunts and sisters (often represented by their husbands) and their children to grant them a fair share in the inheritance. Moore stated: "Title to landed property would always remain a source of endless and bitter contention, governed by infinitely various and complicated combinations of differing legal traditions and local customs and conditions." To wage

13054-517: The usual inheritance practices for almost all of its history." Three customs can be distinguished: survival of the fittest, fratricide, and rule of the eldest. From the 14th through the late 16th centuries, the Ottomans practiced open succession – something historian Donald Quataert has described as " survival of the fittest , not eldest , son." Following common Central Asian tradition, during their father's lifetime, all adult sons of

13176-569: The winter of 1241–42, Kadan sacked Buda on the way to Győr . While besieging Italian mercenaries defending Székesfehérvár , Kadan was forced to withdraw his troops after an early thaw flooded the land around the town. The Mongol prince was then sent south with one tumen to search for Béla in Croatia . Kadan first sought the Hungarian king at Zagreb , which he sacked, and then pursued him into Dalmatia . While Béla hid at Trogir , Mongols under

13298-564: The young Kaliman I of Bulgaria to pay tribute and accept Batu Khan as his liege. In 1251 Kadan accepted the election of Möngke Khan as Khagan. According to René Grousset , he probably helped the latter to capture Eljigidei , the chief general of Güyük. Kadan was loyal to Kublai Khan and supported his army against Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War . He commanded a Mongol army at the first engagement with Ariq Böke and killed his general Alandar. In many medieval sources, Kadan

13420-522: Was a crucial site for the production and reproduction of Mughal power." Wars of succession after the death of Hayam Wuruk , such as the Regreg War (1404–1406), are commonly recognised to have weakened the Javanese empire of Majapahit in the 15th century, and to have been one of the leading causes of its eventual downfall in 1527. The Samudera Pasai Sultanate in northern Sumatra experienced

13542-476: Was born from Ergene , Ögeday Khan's concubine. His only sibling from both his father and mother's side is Melig . In early 1241, Kadan's forces sacked the Polish towns of Lublin , Zawichost and Sandomierz . Kadan then attacked Masovia , while Baidar burned the evacuated Polish capital, Kraków and then Bytom , and Orda Khan assaulted the southwestern border of Lithuania . The three leaders were then to attack

13664-586: Was critical of the "unjust and cruel" means by which he and other Mughal emperors rose to power through war rather than the European method of succession "in favour of the eldest son by wise and fixed laws" that Bernier himself was familiar with. Judith E. Walsh (2006) stated that wars of succession were "the one problem the Mughals never solved", and that after Aurangzeb's death in 1707, repetitive "succession struggles brought Mughal power more or less to an end" On

13786-686: Was neither a descendant of Muhammad, nor a Companion elected as caliph; instead, the Umayyad basis of power was military success and wealth acquired from conquest. Therefore, many early Muslims perceived this dynasty to lack legitimacy, and this 'arguably biggest problem' contributed to its downfall during the Third Fitna (744–747) and the closely connected Abbasid Revolution (747–750). Other wars of succession in later Islamic polities in Asia (mostly Perso-Arabic, Turkic, and Mongolic monarchies) that haven't been named fitnas have also occurred, such as during

13908-594: Was not the most important element, or despite the fact that it (partially) was . For example, the Great Northern War (1700–1721) was primarily about territory, but during 1704–1706, it was focused on the royal succession in Poland . Similarly, wars can also be unjustly branded a 'war of succession' whilst the succession was actually not the most important issue hanging in the balance, such as when Louis XIV used dubious succession claims as an excuse to declare

14030-503: Was now under the control of Kublai, threatening Ariq Böke's control of the Yenisei Valley supply line. A weakened Ariq Böke entreated Alghu for help. Alghu refused, and executed the envoys sent by Ariq Böke, who had demanded a share of Alghu's tax revenues. At this time, a rebellion in China distracted Kublai from the civil war, and he departed for Kaiping instead of further pursuing Ariq Böke. Ariq Böke went to war with Alghu after

14152-476: Was preoccupied with the civil war, and recovered territory previously lost to the Mongols. Kublai dispatched a diplomat, Hao Jing, to discuss the prospects of a peaceful resolution to the war with the Southern Song. However, the Song rejected Kublai's overtures and imprisoned Hao for the next decade. Kublai now controlled three of the four possible supply lines to Karakorum. Kadan , Kublai's Ögedeid ally, defended

14274-491: Was reluctant to punish his brother without public support of the Mongol nobility. Ariq Böke died mysteriously in 1266 while still imprisoned, leading to speculation that Kublai had secretly poisoned him. Ariq Böke's defeat by Kublai could not stop the fracturing of the empire. When Kublai convened his kurultai to confirm his status as Great Khan, none of the three other khans attended. Berke and Hulagu continued fighting, until Hulagu died in 1265. The Ögedei line sought to exploit

14396-553: Was rife with conflicts over property or property rights. R. I. Moore (2000) characterised the situation as "apparently endless and pointless internecine conflict which raged at every level of aristocratic society from the tenth century onwards. It continued everywhere in Latin Europe (though taking a somewhat different form to the east of the Rhine ) throughout the eleventh century, and did not subside in most regions until well into

14518-435: Was still a common problem according to Antony Black (2011): "Most dynasties were disabled by succession struggles; it was difficult to establish a constitutional rule for succession in the face of Islamic law and tribal custom, which divided a patrimony equally among all sons. (...) To gain the succession within a clan dynasty, you needed, once again, to demonstrate that God was on your side. This meant acquiring support through

14640-492: Was the brief Ottoman war of succession of 1362 after the death of sultan Orhan , between şehzade (prince) Murad I , şehzade Ibrahim Bey (1316–1362; governor of Eskişehir ) and şehzade Halil . Murad won and executed his half-brothers Ibrahim and Halil, the first recorded instance of Ottoman royal fratricide . In 1451, Mehmed II became the first Ottoman prince who, upon, seizing the capital, executed all his brothers before any war of succession could even break out. Although at

14762-615: Was the first kurultai to proclaim a Great Khan outside the Mongol homeland or Central Asia. Ariq Böke convened his own kurultai in Karakorum that proclaimed him Great Khan a month later, creating two rival claimants for the throne. Hulagu embarked for Mongolia to attend the kurultai, but the Mamluk defeat of the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in early September 1260 forced him to return to

14884-529: Was to be preferred; patrilineal had been dominant until early 14th-century Kanem–Bornu, but was replaced by collateral by 1400. The Kano Chronicle records father–son succession in the Kingdom of Kano , but always mentions the name of the ruler's mother, which may point to vestiges of a preceding matrilineal system. The Kingdom of Yatenga switched from collateral to filial succession in the late 18th century. Several Bunyoro wars of succession took place in

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