135-792: (Redirected from Kurdish War ) This is an incomplete list of Kurdish uprisings. You can help by expanding it . List of conflicts [ edit ] Date Uprising Location Result 838–841 Kurdish Dasni tribe uprising against the Abbasids Abbasid Caliphate Suppressed 955–1071 War against the Musafirid. Rawadid dynasty Victory 1045 Battle of Dvin Shaddadids Victory 990–1085 Kurdish uprising The Marwanids Victory, led to
270-718: A coalition of Ba'athist and Sunni militants launched an offensive against the government, initiating full-scale war in Iraq . The climax of the campaign was an offensive in Northern Iraq by the Islamic State (ISIS) that marked the beginning of the rapid territorial expansion by the group, prompting an American-led intervention . By the end of 2017, ISIS had lost all its territory in Iraq. Iran has also intervened and expanded its influence through sectarian Khomeinist militias. In 2014, Sunni insurgents belonging to
405-399: A democratic , federal parliamentary republic . The federal government is composed of the executive , legislative , and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law. The president is
540-521: A mandate over Syria . In Iraq, under British mandate, tensions were rising as local forces increasingly resisted foreign control. A rebellion erupted , challenging British authority, and the need for a new strategy became clear. In 1921, the Cairo Conference , led by British officials including Winston Churchill and T.E. Lawrence , decided that Faisal, now exiled in London , would become
675-475: A 100-hour-long ground assault against Iraqi forces in southern Iraq and Kuwait. Iraq also attempted to invade Saudi Arabia and attacked Israel. Iraq's armed forces were devastated during the war. Sanctions were imposed on Iraq, following the invasion of Kuwait, which resulted economic decline. After the end of the war in 1991, Iraqi Kurds and Shi'ite Muslims in northern and southern Iraq, led several uprisings against Saddam's regime , but these were repressed. It
810-500: A Kurd himself. You've bitten off more than you can chew and you have brought death to yourself. O son of a Kurd, raised in the tents of the Kurds, who gave you permission to put a crown on your head? The usage of the term Kurd during this time period most likely was a social term, designating Northwestern Iranian nomads, rather than a concrete ethnic group. Similarly, in AD 360,
945-650: A Yezidi rebellion which went on from 1506 to 1510. A century later, the year-long Battle of Dimdim took place, wherein the Safavid king Abbas I (r. 1588–1629) succeeded in putting down the rebellion led by the Kurdish ruler Amir Khan Lepzerin. Thereafter, many Kurds were deported to Khorasan , not only to weaken the Kurds, but also to protect the eastern border from invading Afghan and Turkmen tribes. Other forced movements and deportations of other groups were also implemented by Abbas I and his successors, most notably of
1080-402: A citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description with empty Wikidata description Kurdish people Ancient Medieval Modern Kurds or Kurdish people ( Kurdish : کورد , romanized : Kurd ) are an Iranic ethnic group native to
1215-697: A coastline measuring 58 km (36 miles) on the northern Persian Gulf . Further north, but below the main headwaters only, the country easily encompasses the Mesopotamian Alluvial Plain . Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates , run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab , thence the Persian Gulf. Broadly flanking this estuary (known as arvandrūd : اروندرود among Iranians) are marshlands, semi-agricultural. Flanking and between
1350-567: A decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires. Since its independence, Iraq has experienced spells of significant economic and military growth alongside periods instability and conflict . The region remained a part of the Ottoman Empire until the end of World War I, after which Mandatory Iraq was established by the British Empire in 1921. It gained indepdence as
1485-836: A few citizens and having the state redistribute the land. In 1959, Abd al-Wahab al-Shawaf led an uprising in Mosul against Qasim. The uprising was crushed by the government forces. He claimed Kuwait as part of Iraq, when it the former was granted independence in 1961. The United Kingdom deployed its army on Iraq–Kuwait border , which forced Qasim to back down. He was overthrown by the Ba'ath Party in February 1963 coup . However internal division with Ba'athist factions caused another coup in November, which brought Colonel Abdul Salam Arif to power. The new regime recognized Kuwait's independence. After
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#17327724904161620-505: A hot arid climate with subtropical influence. Summer temperatures average above 40 °C (104 °F) for most of the country and frequently exceed 48 °C (118.4 °F). Winter temperatures infrequently exceed 15 °C (59.0 °F) with maxima roughly 5 to 10 °C (41.0 to 50.0 °F) and night-time lows 1 to 5 °C (33.8 to 41.0 °F). Typically, precipitation is low; most places receive less than 250 mm (9.8 in) annually, with maximum rainfall occurring during
1755-479: A member of the League of Nations . Faisal's reign was marked by his efforts to balance the pressures of external influence and internal demands for sovereignty. He was admired for his diplomatic skill and his commitment to steering Iraq toward self-determination. Untimely, he died from a heart attack on 8 September 1933, leaving his son Ghazi to inherit the throne. King Ghazi’s reign was brief and turbulent, as Iraq
1890-611: A million and 1.5 million people. Kuwait's refusal to waive Iraq's debt and reducing oil prices pushed Saddam to take military action against it. On 2 August 1990, the Iraqi forces invaded and annexed Kuwait as its 19th governorate , starting the Gulf War . This led to military intervention by the United States-led alliance . The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets and then launched
2025-766: A one-sided referendum was held in Iraq’s Kurdistan Region regarding Kurdish independence , which resulted in 92% (of those participating in the region) voting in favor of independence. The referendum was rejected by the federal government and regarded as illegal by the Federal Supreme Court . Following this, an armed conflict ensued between the federal government and the Kurdistan Regional Government which resulted in Kurdish defeat and capitulation; Kurdistan Region subsequently lost territory it had previously occupied, and
2160-512: A peace treaty was signed between Saddam and Barzani, granting autonomy to Kurds . He introduced free healthcare and education, nationalized oil, promoted women's rights and developed infrastructure. Within few years, Iraq became one of the most developed countries in the world. In 1974, the second Iraqi–Kurdish war began and border clashes with Iran took place on Shatt al-Arab . Iran supported Kurdish militants. The Algiers Agreement signed in 1975, by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Saddam solved
2295-570: A people with a distinct language by Arab geographers such as Al-Masudi since the 10th century. Many Kurds are either bilingual or multilingual , speaking the language of their respective nation of origin, such as Arabic, Persian , and Turkish as a second language alongside their native Kurdish, while those in diaspora communities often speak three or more languages. Turkified and Arabised Kurds often speak little or no Kurdish. According to Mackenzie, there are few linguistic features that all Kurdish dialects have in common and that are not at
2430-725: A population of close to 1.5 million in Western countries, about half of them in Germany . A special case are the Kurdish populations in the Transcaucasus and Central Asia , displaced there mostly in the time of the Russian Empire , who underwent independent developments for more than a century and have developed an ethnic identity in their own right. This groups' population was estimated at close to 0.4 million in 1990. Most Kurds are Sunni Muslims who adhere to
2565-735: A quasi-independent Kurdish state until 1919 1919–1922 – First Mahmud Barzanji Revolt First Mahmud Barzanji revolt [REDACTED] Kingdom of Iraq Suppressed 1918–1922 First Simko Shikak revolt [REDACTED] Qajar Persia Suppressed 1918–2003 Iraqi–Kurdish conflict [REDACTED] Iraq Victory 1918–present Kurdish–Iranian conflict [REDACTED] Qajar Persia Ongoing 6 March – 17 June 1921 Koçgiri rebellion [REDACTED] Turkey Suppressed November 1922 – July 1924 Second Mahmud Barzanji revolt [REDACTED] Kingdom of Iraq , [REDACTED] Kingdom of Kurdistan Creation of
2700-513: A railway and an oil pipeline to the Mediterranean . Although Faisal succeeded in securing greater autonomy for Iraq, British influence remained strong, particularly in the country’s oil industry. In 1930, Iraq signed a treaty with Britain that gave the country a measure of political independence while maintaining British control over key aspects, including military presence and oil rights. By 1932, Iraq gained formal independence, becoming
2835-524: A referendum with a 78% overall majority, although the percentage of support varied widely between the country's territories. The new constitution was backed by the Shia and Kurdish communities, but was rejected by Arab Sunnis. Under the terms of the constitution, the country conducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on 15 December 2005. All three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines, as did Assyrian and Turcoman minorities. Law no. 188 of
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#17327724904162970-682: A small number of Christian traditions have been preserved. Several Christian prayers in Kurdish have been found from earlier centuries. In recent years some Kurds from Muslim backgrounds have converted to Christianity . Segments of the Bible were first made available in the Kurdish language in 1856 in the Kurmanji dialect. The Gospels were translated by Stepan, an Armenian employee of the American Bible Society and were published in 1857. Prominent historical Kurdish Christians include
3105-529: Is Ahura Mazda . Leading characteristics, such as messianism , the Golden Rule , heaven and hell , and free will influenced other religious systems, including Second Temple Judaism , Gnosticism , Christianity , and Islam . In 2016, the first official Zoroastrian fire temple of Iraqi Kurdistan opened in Sulaymaniyah . Attendees celebrated the occasion by lighting a ritual fire and beating
3240-400: Is among global centers for oil and gas industry . In addition, the country has been popular for its agriculture and tourism. Since its independence, it has experienced spells of significant economic and military growth alongside periods instability and conflict . The country is putting efforts to rebuild after the war with foreign support . There are several suggested origins for
3375-460: Is at risk of desertification . Nearly 40% of Iraq "has been overtaken by blowing desert sands that claim tens of thousands of acres of arable land every year". However, in 2023, Mohammed Shia al-Sudani announced that government was working on a wider "Iraqi vision for climate action". The plan would include promoting clean and renewable energy, new irrigation and water treatment projects and reduced industrial gas flaring, he said. Sudani said Iraq
3510-756: Is based on the belief of one God who created the world and entrusted it into the care of seven Holy Beings. The leader of this heptad is Tawûsê Melek , who is symbolized with a peacock . Its adherents number from 700,000 to 1 million worldwide and are indigenous to the Kurdish regions of Iraq , Syria and Turkey , with some significant, more recent communities in Russia , Georgia and Armenia established by refugees fleeing persecution by Muslims in Ottoman Empire . Yazidism shares with Kurdish Alevism and Yarsanism many similar qualities that date back to
3645-819: Is either / ɪ ˈ r ɑː k / (the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary and the first one in Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary ) or / ɪ ˈ r æ k / (listed first by MQD ), the American Heritage Dictionary , and the Random House Dictionary . When the British established the Hashemite king on 23 August 1921, Faisal I of Iraq , the official English name of
3780-676: Is estimated that as many as 100,000 people, including many civilians were killed. During the uprisings, the United States, the United Kingdom, Turkey and France, claiming authority under UNSC Resolution 688 , established the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish population from attacks and autonomy was given to Kurds. raq was also affected by the Iraqi Kurdish Civil War from 1994 to 1997. Around 40,000 fighters and civilians were killed. Between 2001 and 2003,
3915-585: Is estimated to be between 30 and 45 million. Kurds speak the Kurdish languages and the Zaza–Gorani languages , which belong to the Western Iranian branch of the Iranian languages . Kurds do not comprise a majority in any country, making them a stateless people . After World War I and the defeat of the Ottoman Empire , the victorious Western allies made provision for a Kurdish state in
4050-621: Is nowadays Iran's West Azerbaijan Province , marked the start of the Ottoman-Persian Wars between the Iranian Safavids (and successive Iranian dynasties) and the Ottomans . For the next 300 years, many of the Kurds found themselves living in territories that frequently changed hands between Ottoman Turkey and Iran during the protracted series of Ottoman-Persian Wars. The Safavid king Ismail I (r. 1501–1524) put down
4185-456: Is said to have encountered Mar Abdisho , a deacon and martyr, who, after having been questioned of his origins by Mar Qardagh and his Marzobans , stated that his parents were originally from an Assyrian village called Hazza, but were driven out and subsequently settled in Tamanon, a village in the land of the Kurds , identified as being in the region of Mount Judi . Early Syriac sources use
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4320-510: The 14 July Revolution in 1958 was led by the Brigadier General and nationalist Abd al-Karim Qasim . This revolt was strongly anti-imperial and anti-monarchical in nature and had strong socialist elements. King Faysal II , Prince Abd al-Ilah , and Nuri al-Sa'id , along with the royal family were killed brutally. Qasim controlled Iraq through military rule and in 1958 he began a process of forcibly reducing surplus land owned by
4455-407: The 6th millennium BC , the fertile alluvial plains between Iraq's Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, referred to as the region of Mesopotamia , gave rise to some of the world's earliest cities , civilizations , and empires . It was known as a " Cradle of Civilisation " that saw the inventions of a writing system , mathematics , timekeeping , a calendar , astrology , and a law code . Following
4590-534: The Afsharid Empire ruled by Nader Shah at its peak. After Nader's death, Iran fell into civil war, with multiple leaders trying to gain control over the country. Ultimately, it was Karim Khan , a Laki general of the Zand tribe who would come to power. The country would flourish during Karim Khan's reign; a strong resurgence of the arts would take place, and international ties were strengthened. Karim Khan
4725-822: The Armenians , the Georgians , and the Circassians , who were moved en masse to and from other districts within the Persian empire. The Kurds of Khorasan, numbering around 700,000, still use the Kurmanji Kurdish dialect. Several Kurdish noblemen served the Safavids and rose to prominence, such as Shaykh Ali Khan Zanganeh , who served as the grand vizier of the Safavid shah Suleiman I (r. 1666–1694) from 1669 to 1689. Due to his efforts in reforming
4860-565: The Assassins . The Ayyubid dynasty lasted until 1341 when the Ayyubid sultanate fell to Mongolian invasions. The Safavid dynasty, established in 1501, also established its rule over Kurdish-inhabited territories. The paternal line of this family actually had Kurdish roots, tracing back to Firuz-Shah Zarrin-Kolah , a dignitary who moved from Kurdistan to Ardabil in the 11th century. The Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 that culminated in what
4995-496: The Fragile States Index , Iraq was the world's 31st most politically unstable country. Transparency International ranks Iraq's government as the 23rd most corrupt government in the world. Under Saddam, the government employed 1 million employees, but this increased to around 7 million in 2016. In combination with decreased oil prices, the government budget deficit is near 25% of GDP as of 2016 . In September 2017,
5130-471: The High Middle Ages , the Kurdish ethnic identity gradually materialized, as one can find clear evidence of the Kurdish ethnic identity and solidarity in texts of the 12th and 13th centuries, though, the term was also still being used in the social sense. Since 10th century, Arabic texts including al-Masudi 's works, have referred to Kurds as a distinct linguistic group. From 11th century onward,
5265-643: The Iraqi National Alliance . The Iraqi National Movement is led by Iyad Allawi , a secular Shia widely supported by Sunnis. The party has a more consistent anti-sectarian perspective than most of its rivals. The Kurdistan List is dominated by two parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party led by Masood Barzani and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan headed by Jalal Talabani . Baghdad is Iraq's capital, home to
5400-422: The Islamic State group seized control of large swathes of land including several major cities, like Tikrit , Fallujah and Mosul , creating hundreds of thousands of internally displaced persons amid reports of atrocities by ISIL fighters. An estimated 500,000 civilians fled from Mosul. Around 5,000 Yazidis were killed in the genocide by ISIS, as a part of the war. With the help of US-led intervention in Iraq ,
5535-525: The Kingdom of Iraq in 1932. Following a coup d'état in 1958 , Iraq became a republic, led by Abdul Karim Qasim followed by Abdul Salam Arif and then Abdul Rahman Arif. The Ba'ath Party came to power in the 1968 and ruled as one-party state , under the leadership of Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr , followed by Saddam Hussein , who started major wars against Iran and Kuwait . In 2003, the Iraq War started after
Timeline of Kurdish uprisings - Misplaced Pages Continue
5670-1404: The Kingdom of Kurdistan August 1924 Beytussebab rebellion [REDACTED] Turkey Suppressed 8 February – March 1925 Sheikh Said rebellion [REDACTED] Turkey Suppressed 1926 Second Simko Shikak revolt [REDACTED] Pahlavi Persia Suppressed, Simko Shikak flees to Mandatory Iraq October 1927 – September 17, 1930 First, second and third Ararat rebellion [REDACTED] Republic of Ararat , [REDACTED] Republic of Turkey Suppressed, Republic of Ararat disbanded. 1931 Jafar Sultan revolt [REDACTED] Iran Suppressed 1931–1932 Ahmed Barzani revolt [REDACTED] Kingdom of Iraq Suppressed, low-level insurgency continues through 1933, another revolt by Barzanis erupts in 1943 1935 Yazidi revolt of 1935 [REDACTED] Mandatory Iraq Suppressed 20 March – November, 1937 and 2 January – December, 1938 Dersim rebellion [REDACTED] Republic of Turkey Suppressed, see Dersim Massacre 1941–1944 Hama Rashid revolt [REDACTED] Pahlavi Iran Suppressed, Hama Rashid driven into Iraq November 1945 – December 15, 1946 Iran crisis of 1946 [REDACTED] Pahlavi Iran , [REDACTED] Republic of Mahabad Creation of
5805-1422: The Kurdish Autonomous Republic , also known as Iraqi Kurdistan March 2004 2004 Qamishli riots [REDACTED] Syria Suppressed 1 April 2004–present Iran–PJAK conflict [REDACTED] Iran Ongoing 19 July 2012–present Rojava conflict of the Syrian civil war [REDACTED] Syria Kurdish fighters have taken control of 365 towns and villages in Syrian Kurdistan and 2 districts in Aleppo by September 2012. 24 July 2015 – present Kurdish–Turkish conflict [REDACTED] Republic of Turkey Ongoing 19 April 2016 – present Western Iran clashes [REDACTED] Iran Ongoing 24 August 2016 – present Turkish military intervention in Syria [REDACTED] Syria Ongoing 15 – 27 October 2017 2017 Iraqi–Kurdish conflict [REDACTED] Iraq , [REDACTED] Iraqi Kurdistan Ceasefire, Iraqi Kurdistan loses territory, including Sinjar and Kirkuk See also [ edit ] A Modern History of
5940-628: The Kurdistan Regional Government and Ansar al-Islam engaged in conflict, which would merge with the upcoming war. After the September 11 attacks , George W. Bush began planning the overthrow of Saddam in what is now widely regarded as a false pretense . Saddam's Iraq was included in Bush's " axis of evil ". The United States Congress passed joint resolution , which authorized the use of armed force against Iraq. In November 2002. The UN Security Council passed resolution 1441 . On 20 March 2003,
6075-593: The Kurmanj , Kalhur , and Guran . Kurdish (Kurdish: Kurdî or کوردی) is a collection of related dialects spoken by the Kurds. It is mainly spoken in those parts of Iran , Iraq , Syria and Turkey which comprise Kurdistan . Kurdish holds official status in Iraq as a national language alongside Arabic , is recognized in Iran as a regional language, and in Armenia as a minority language. The Kurds are recognized as
6210-729: The Muslim conquest , Baghdad became the capital and the largest city of the Abbasid Caliphate . During the time of the Islamic Golden Age , the city evolved into a significant cultural and intellectual center, and garnered a worldwide reputation for its academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom . It was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258 during the siege of Baghdad , resulting in
6345-806: The Neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great , who declared himself the " King of Babylon ." The city of Babylon , the ancient seat of Babylonian power, became one of the key capitals of the Achaemenid Empire. Ancient Iraq, known as the Mesopotamia, is home to world's first Jewish diaspora community, which emerged during the Babylonian exile. The Babylonians were defeated by
6480-638: The Ottoman–Persian War (1775–76) , Karim Khan managed to seize Basra for several years. Iraq Iraq , officially the Republic of Iraq , is a country in West Asia and a core country in the geopolitical region known as the Middle East . With a population exceeding 46 million, it is the 35th-most populous country. It consists of 18 governorates . The country is bordered by Turkey to
6615-463: The Qajars . [REDACTED] Qajar Persia & [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire Defeat late 1890s – 1900 Siege of Constantinople (1391) [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire Suppressed Early March – 4 April 1914 Bitlis uprising [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire Suppressed 1914 – 1917 Kurdish rebellions during World War I [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire Establishment of
6750-408: The Sassanid era , in Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan , a short prose work written in Middle Persian, Ardashir I is depicted as having battled the Kurds and their leader, Madig . After initially sustaining a heavy defeat, Ardashir I was successful in subjugating the Kurds. In a letter Ardashir I received from his foe, Ardavan V , which is also featured in the same work, he is referred to as being
6885-426: The Shafiʽi school , while a significant minority adhere to the Hanafi school and also Alevism . Moreover, many Shafi'i Kurds adhere to either one of the two Sufi orders Naqshbandi and Qadiriyya . Beside Sunni Islam, Alevism and Shia Islam also have millions of Kurdish followers. Yazidism is a monotheistic ethnic religion with roots in a western branch of an Iranic pre-Zoroastrian religion. It
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#17327724904167020-431: The Sharif of Makkah , the European powers had different plans for the region. Following the British withdrawal of support for a unified Arab state , Hussein's son, Faisal , briefly declared the Kingdom of Syria in 1920, encompassing parts of what are now Lebanon , Palestine , Jordan , and Syria . However, the kingdom was short-lived, crushed by local opposition and the military might of France, which had been granted
7155-440: The Umayyads in 661. Karbala is considered as one of the holiest cities in Shia Islam, following the Battle of Karbala , which took place in 680. With the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate in the mid-8th century, Iraq became the center of Islamic rule, with Baghdad , founded in 762, serving as the capital. Baghdad flourished during the Islamic Golden Age , becoming a global center for culture, science, and intellectualism. However,
7290-569: The Wayback Machine , Taraf , October 23, 2008, Retrieved August 16, 2010. ^ M. Kalman, Belge, tanık ve yaşayanlarıyla Ağrı Direnişi 1926–1930 , Pêrî Yayınları, İstanbul, 1997, ISBN 975-8245-01-5 , p. 105. ^ "Der Krieg am Ararat" (Telegramm unseres Korrespondenten) Berliner Tageblatt , October 3, 1930, "... die Türken in der Gegend von Zilan 220 Dörfer zerstört und 4500 Frauen und Greise massakriert." ^ "CSP – Major Episodes of Political Violence, 1946–2008" . Systemicpeace.org. June 12, 2013. Archived from
7425-412: The alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. As an Arabic word, عراق ʿirāq means "hem", "shore", "bank", or "edge", so that the name by folk etymology came to be interpreted as "the escarpment ", such as at the south and east of the Jazira Plateau, which forms the northern and western edge of the "al-Iraq arabi" area. The Arabic pronunciation is [ʕiˈrɑːq] . In English, it
7560-458: The ethnonym Kurd might be derived from a term kwrt- used in Middle Persian as a common noun to refer to ' nomads ' or 'tent-dwellers', which could be applied as an attribute to any Iranian group with such a lifestyle. The term gained the characteristic of an ethnonym following the Muslim conquest of Persia , as it was adopted into Arabic and gradually became associated with an amalgamation of Iranian and Iranianized tribes and groups in
7695-679: The frame drum or 'daf'. Awat Tayib, the chief of followers of Zoroastrianism in the Kurdistan region, claimed that many were returning to Zoroastrianism but some kept it secret out of fear of reprisals from Islamists. Although historically there have been various accounts of Kurdish Christians , most often these were in the form of individuals, and not as communities. However, in the 19th and 20th century various travel logs tell of Kurdish Christian tribes, as well as Kurdish Muslim tribes who had substantial Christian populations living amongst them. A significant number of these were allegedly originally Armenian or Assyrian , and it has been recorded that
7830-410: The king of Iraq . This decision was seen as a way to maintain British influence in the region while placating local demands for leadership. Upon his coronation, he focused on unifying a land formerly divided into three Ottoman provinces — Mosul , Baghdad , and Basra . He worked hard to gain the support of Iraq's diverse population, including both Sunnis and Shiites , and paid special attention to
7965-430: The withdrawal of US troops in 2011, the occupation ceased and war ended. The war in Iraq has resulted in between 151,000 and 1.2 million Iraqis being killed . The subsequent efforts to rebuild the country amidst sectarian violence and the rise of the Islamic State began after the war. Iraq was galvanized by the civil war in Syria. Continuing discontent over Nouri al-Maliki 's government led to protests , after which
8100-449: The 11th-century Kurdish dynasties crumbled and became incorporated into the Seljuk dynasty. Kurds would hereafter be used in great numbers in the armies of the Zengids . The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Kurdish ruler Saladin , as succeeding the Zengids, the Ayyubids established themselves in 1171. Saladin led the Muslims to recapture the city of Jerusalem from the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin ; also frequently clashing with
8235-641: The 1920 Treaty of Sèvres . However, that treaty was not ratified. When the Treaty of Lausanne set the boundaries of modern Turkey three years later, no such provision was made, leaving Kurds with minority status in all of the new countries of Turkey, Iraq, and Syria . Recent history of the Kurds includes numerous genocides and rebellions , along with ongoing armed conflicts in Turkish , Iranian , Syrian , and Iraqi Kurdistan . Kurds in Iraq and Syria have autonomous regions, while Kurdish movements continue to pursue greater cultural rights , autonomy , and independence throughout Kurdistan . The exact origins of
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#17327724904168370-426: The 2003–2011, flow is restored and the ecosystem has begun to recover. Iraqi corals are some of the most extreme heat-tolerant as the seawater in this area ranges between 14 and 34 °C. Aquatic or semi-aquatic wildlife occurs in and around these, the major lakes are Lake Habbaniyah , Lake Milh , Lake Qadisiyah and Lake Tharthar . The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as
8505-447: The Ba'ath Army and expelling Ba'athists from the new government. The insurgents fought against the coalition forces and the newly installed government. Saddam was captured and executed. The Shia–Sunni civil war took place from 2006 to 2008. The coalition forces were criticized for war crimes such as the Abu Ghraib torture , the Fallujah massacre , the Mahmudiyah rape and killings and the Mukaradeeb wedding party massacre . Following
8640-408: The Caliph Al-Mu'tasim who sent the commander Itakh to combat him. Itakh won this war and executed many of the Kurds. Eventually, Arabs conquered the Kurdish regions and gradually converted the majority of Kurds to Islam, often incorporating them into the military, such as the Hamdanids whose dynastic family members also frequently intermarried with Kurds. In 934, the Daylamite Buyid dynasty
8775-476: The Iraqi forces successfully defeated ISIS. The war officially ended in 2017, with the Iraqi government declaring victory over ISIS. In October 2022, Abdul Latif Rashid was elected president after winning the parliamentary election. In 2022, Mohammed Shia al-Sudani became Prime Minister . The electrical grid faces systemic pressures due to climate change, fuel shortages, and an increase in demand. Corruption remains endemic throughout Iraqi governance while
8910-816: The Iraqi government re-establishes control over Kurdistan 1976–1978 PUK insurgency [REDACTED] Iraq Indecisive, led to the Kurdish rebellion of 1983 1979 1979 Kurdish rebellion in Iran [REDACTED] Iran Suppressed 1983–1986 Kurdish rebellion of 1983 [REDACTED] Iraq Indecisive, led to the Al-Anfal Campaign 15 August 1984 – present Kurdish–Turkish conflict [REDACTED] Republic of Turkey Ongoing 1986–1996 KDPI insurgency [REDACTED] Government of Iran Suppressed; KDPI announces unilateral cease-fire in 1996 1 March – 5 April 1991 1991 Iraqi uprisings [REDACTED] Ba'athist Iraq , [REDACTED] Iraqi Kurdistan Victory; establishment of
9045-476: The Kurds by David McDowall References [ edit ] ^ M. Th. Houtsma, 1993, E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936 : Volume 4 - Page 1136, Brill ^ Hugh Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates The Kurdish dynasties which emerged in the second half of tenth century...the Rawwadids ^ Sharaf Khan Bidlisi The Sharafnam̂a Rawwadi Kurds.. ^ Ian Richard Netto, Encyclopaedia of Islam "There
9180-411: The Mamluk regime and reimposed their direct control over Iraq. Iraq's modern history began in the wake of World War I, as the region emerged from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Arab forces, inspired by the promise of independence, had helped dismantle the Ottoman hold on the Middle East, but the dream of a united, sovereign Arab state was soon dashed. Despite agreements made with Hussein ibn Ali ,
9315-408: The Persian Empire, under the leadership of Cyrus the Great . Following the fall of Babylon, the Achaemenid Empire took control of the Mesopotamian region. Enslaved Jews were freed from the Babylonian captivity, though many remained in the land and thus the Jewish community grew in the region. Iraq is the location of numerous Jewish sites, which are also revered by the Muslims and Christians. In
9450-540: The Sassanid king Shapur II marched into the Roman province Zabdicene , to conquer its chief city, Bezabde, present-day Cizre . He found it heavily fortified, and guarded by three legions and a large body of Kurdish archers. After a long and hard-fought siege, Shapur II breached the walls, conquered the city and massacred all its defenders. Thereafter he had the strategically located city repaired, provisioned and garrisoned with his best troops. Qadishaye, settled by Kavad in Singara , were probably Kurds and worshiped
9585-432: The Soviet-backed Republic of Mahabad , revolt later suppressed 11 September 1961 – 1970 First Iraqi–Kurdish War [REDACTED] Republic of Iraq Stalemate, led to the Iraqi-Kurdish Autonomy Agreement of 1970 1967 1967 Kurdish revolt in Iran [REDACTED] Pahlavi Iran Suppressed April 1974 – 1975 Second Iraqi–Kurdish War [REDACTED] Iraq Suppressed,
9720-568: The Syrian considered them as pagan , followers of mahdi and adepts of Magianism . Their mahdi called himself Christ and the Holy Ghost . In the early Middle Ages , the Kurds sporadically appear in Arabic sources, though the term was still not being used for a specific people; instead it referred to an amalgam of nomadic western Iranian tribes, who were distinct from Persians . However, in
9855-494: The United States-endorsed sectarian political system has driven increased levels of violent terrorism and sectarian conflicts. Climate change is driving wide-scale droughts while water reserves are rapidly depleting. The country has been in a prolonged drought since 2020 and experienced its second-driest season in the past four decades in 2021. Water flows in the Tigris and Euphrates are down 30-40%. Half
9990-470: The United States-led coalition forces invaded Iraq and overthrew Saddam. The war subsequently turned into an insurgency and sectarian civil war , with American troops withdrawing in 2011. Between 2013 and 2017, Iraq was once more in a state of war, with the rise and subsequent fall of Islamic State . Today post-war conflict in Iraq continues at a lower scale, which has been an obstacle to
10125-577: The United States-led coalition invaded Iraq, as part of global war on terror . Within weeks, coalition forces occupied much of Iraq, with the Iraqi Army adopting guerrilla tactics to confront coalition forces. Following the fall of Baghdad in the first week of April, Saddam's regime had completely lost control of Iraq. A statue of Saddam was toppled in Baghdad, symbolizing the end of his rule. The Coalition Provisional Authority began disbanding
10260-582: The Yarsani lack political rights in both countries. The Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism has had a major influence on the Iranian culture, which Kurds are a part of, and has maintained some effect since the demise of the religion in the Middle Ages. The Iranian philosopher Sohrevardi drew heavily from Zoroastrian teachings. Ascribed to the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster , the faith's Supreme Being
10395-661: The birth of the Marwanids dynasty 1506–1510 Kurdish-Yazidi uprising against the Safavids [REDACTED] Safavid Persia Suppressed when the Yazidi leader, Shír Ṣárim , was defeated in battle. 1609–1610 Battle of Dimdim [REDACTED] Safavid Persia Suppressed 1775 Bajalan uprising [REDACTED] Zand dynasty Suppressed 1806–1808 Baban uprising [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire Suppressed 1880–1881 Revolt by Sheikh Ubeydullah of Nehri against
10530-416: The brothers Zakare and Ivane Mkhargrdzeli. "The land of Karda" is mentioned on a Sumerian clay tablet dated to the 3rd millennium BC. This land was inhabited by "the people of Su" who dwelt in the southern regions of Lake Van ; the philological connection between "Kurd" and "Karda" is uncertain, but the relationship is considered possible. Other Sumerian clay tablets referred to the people, who lived in
10665-590: The city's prosperity declined following the Buwayhid and Seljuq invasions in the 10th century and suffered further with the Mongol invasion of 1258. Iraq later came under the control of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. During the years 1747–1831, Iraq was ruled by a Mamluk dynasty of Georgian origin, who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow
10800-515: The country changed from Mesopotamia to the endonymic Iraq . Since January 1992, the official name of the state is "Republic of Iraq" ( Jumhūriyyat al-ʿIrāq ), reaffirmed in the 2005 Constitution . Iraq largely coincides with the ancient region of Mesopotamia , often referred to as the cradle of civilization . The history of Mesopotamia extends back to the Lower Paleolithic period, with significant developments continuing through
10935-569: The country's Shiite communities, symbolically choosing the date of his coronation to coincide with Eid al-Ghadeer , a key day for Shiite Muslims. His reign laid the foundations of modern Iraq. Faisal worked to establish key state institutions and fostered a sense of national identity. His education reforms included the founding of Ahl al-Bayt University in Baghdad, and he encouraged the migration of Syrian exiles to Iraq to serve as doctors and educators. Faisal also envisioned infrastructural links between Iraq, Syria, and Jordan , including plans for
11070-411: The country's capacity to produce energy with four oil, gas and renewables projects. According to experts, the project will "accelerate Iraq’s path to energy self-sufficiency and advance Iraq’s collective climate change objectives". The wildlife of Iraq includes its flora and fauna and their natural habitats . Iraq has multiple and diverse biomes which include the mountainous region in the north to
11205-408: The country's farmland is at risk of desertification . Nearly 40% of Iraq "has been overtaken by blowing desert sands that claim tens of thousands of acres of arable land every year." Iraq lies between latitudes 29° and 38° N , and longitudes 39° and 49° E (a small area lies west of 39°). Spanning 437,072 km (168,754 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It has
11340-724: The country's stability. A federal parliamentary republic country, Iraq is considered an emerging middle power . It is a founding member of the United Nations , the OPEC as well as of the Arab League , the Organization of Islamic Cooperation , Non-Aligned Movement , and the International Monetary Fund . With a strategic location, the country has one of the largest oil reserves in the world and
11475-409: The declining Iranian economy, he has been called the "Safavid Amir Kabir " in modern historiography. His son, Shahqoli Khan Zanganeh , also served as a grand vizier from 1707 to 1716. Another Kurdish statesman, Ganj Ali Khan , was close friends with Abbas I, and served as governor in various provinces and was known for his loyal service. After the fall of the Safavids, Iran fell under the control of
11610-544: The dispute and Iran withdrew support for the Kurds, resulting their defeat in the war. In 1973, Iraq participated in the Yom Kippur War against Israel, alongside Syria and Egypt . An attempt to ban an annual pilgrimage Karbala caused an uprising by Shia Muslims across Iraq . Another Shia uprising took place from 1979 to 1980, as a followup to the Islamic Revolution in Iran. On 16 July 1979, Saddam
11745-642: The eastern part of the Syrian Desert . Rocky deserts cover about 40 percent of Iraq. Another 30 percent is mountainous with bitterly cold winters. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611 m (11,847 ft). Iraq is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Zagros Mountains forest steppe , Middle East steppe , Mesopotamian Marshes , Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests , Arabian Desert , Mesopotamian shrub desert , and South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert . Much of Iraq has
11880-614: The end of 3rd millennium BC and distinguished them as the Guti , speakers of a pre-Iranic language isolate . They conquered Mesopotamia in 2150 BC and ruled with 21 kings until defeated by the Sumerian king Utu-hengal . Many Kurds consider themselves descended from the Medes , an ancient Iranian people, and even use a calendar dating from 612 BC, when the Assyrian capital of Nineveh
12015-545: The establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, after which the region became known as Iraq. Within its borders lies the ancient land of Sumer , which emerged between 6000 and 5000 BC during the Neolithic Ubaid period . Sumer is recognized as the world's earliest civilization, marking the beginning of urban development, written language, and monumental architecture. Iraq's territory also includes
12150-482: The federal government has been severely punishing it both politically and economically. In gradual steps, the federal government has consistently weakened Kurdistan Region’s ability to administer its own affairs by revoking crucial authorities that had previously defined its autonomy. Furthermore, since it won a pivotal ICC arbitration case, the federal government has also been refusing Kurdistan Region access to its most important source of income, namely, oil exports, and
12285-517: The following centuries, the regions constituting modern Iraq came under the control of several empires, including the Greeks , Parthians , and Romans , establishing new centers like Seleucia and Ctesiphon . By the 3rd century AD, the region fell under Persian control through the Sasanian Empire , during which time Arab tribes from South Arabia migrated into Lower Mesopotamia, leading to
12420-669: The formation of the Sassanid-aligned Lakhmid kingdom . The Arabic name al-ʿIrāq likely originated during this period. The Sasanian Empire was eventually conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century, bringing Iraq under Islamic rule after the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636. The city of Kufa , founded shortly thereafter, became a central hub for the Rashidun dynasty until their overthrow by
12555-1394: The fortified villages of raiding tribes. In 1900 the government gained a victory when regular troops captured Şerif, the leader of the Shekifti subtribe of the Shikak Kurds and long-standing plague for both the government and the Armenians, in a bloody battle in the Albak region near Başkale. ^ Stokes, Jamie (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Kingdom of Kurdistan . Infobase. ISBN 9781438126760 . Retrieved 5 November 2014 . ^ Asadi, Awat (2007). Der Kurdistan-Irak-Konflikt: der Weg zur Autonomie seit dem ersten Weltkrieg . Verlag Hans Schiler. ISBN 9783899300239 . Retrieved 5 November 2014 . ^ Yusuf Mazhar, Cumhuriyet , 16 Temmuz 1930, ... Zilan harekatında imha edilenlerin sayısı 15,000 kadardır. Zilan Deresi ağzına kadar ceset dolmuştur... ^ Ahmet Kahraman, ibid , p. 211, Karaköse , 14 (Özel muhabirimiz bildiriyor) ... ^ Ayşe Hür , "Osmanlı'dan bugüne Kürtler ve Devlet-4" Archived 2011-02-25 at
12690-537: The head of state, the prime minister is the head of government, and the constitution provides for two deliberative bodies, the Council of Representatives and the Council of Union. The judiciary is free and independent of the executive and the legislature. The National Alliance is the main Shia parliamentary bloc, and was established as a result of a merger of Prime Minister Nouri Maliki's State of Law Coalition and
12825-622: The heartlands of the Akkadian , Neo-Sumerian , Babylonian , Neo-Assyrian , and Neo-Babylonian empires, which dominated Mesopotamia and much of the Ancient Near East during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Iraq was a center of innovation in antiquity, producing early written languages , literary works , and significant advancements in astronomy , mathematics , law , and philosophy . This era of indigenous rule ended in 539 BC when
12960-601: The independent Kardouchoi as the ancestors of the Kurds, while others prefer Cyrtians . The term Kurd , however, is first encountered in Arabic sources of the seventh century. Books from the early Islamic era, including those containing legends such as the Shahnameh and the Middle Persian Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan , and other early Islamic sources provide early attestation of the name Kurd . The Kurds have ethnically diverse origins. During
13095-696: The land of Karda, as the Qarduchi (Karduchi, Karduchoi) and the Qurti. Karda/Qardu is etymologically related to the Assyrian term Urartu and the Hebrew term Ararat. However, some modern scholars do not believe that the Qarduchi are connected to Kurds. Qarti or Qartas, who were originally settled on the mountains north of Mesopotamia , are considered as a probable ancestor of the Kurds. The Akkadians were attacked by nomads coming through Qartas territory at
13230-574: The late 1890s the government began to improve the security in the Van Province with mixed but real results. Soldiers were sent to defend Armenian villages from tribes. The Ottomans responded to tribal raids in southern Van Province by sending regular troops to Hakkâri Sancak to protect the Nestorians. They succeeded in keeping the area quiet, at least for the time being. Troops opposed incursions by Persian Kurds. They even used artillery to bombard
13365-458: The latter has had no other option but to concede. Some have argued that this signals the Iraqi government’s intention to abandon federalism and return to a centralized political system , and in a leaked letter sent in 2023 to the U.S president, the prime minister of Kurdistan region wrote of an impending collapse of Kurdistan Region. In October 2005, the new Constitution of Iraq was approved in
13500-598: The latter's death in 1966, he was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif . Under his rule, Iraq participated in the Six Day War in 1967. Arif was overthrown in the 17 July Revolution in 1968. The Ba'ath Party came to power, with Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr as the president of Iraq. However, the government gradually came under the control of Saddam Hussein , Iraq's then vice-president. Saddam sought to achieve stability between Iraq's ethnic and religious groups. The first Iraqi–Kurdish war ended in 1970, after which
13635-535: The martyr Abd al-Masih. They revolted against the Sassanids and were raiding the whole Persian territory. Later they, along with Arabs and Armenians, joined the Sassanids in their war against the Byzantines. There is also a 7th-century text by an unidentified author, written about the legendary Christian martyr Mar Qardagh . He lived in the 4th century, during the reign of Shapur II, and during his travels
13770-599: The mountainous region of Kurdistan in Western Asia , which spans southeastern Turkey , northwestern Iran , northern Iraq , and northern Syria . There are exclaves of Kurds in Central Anatolia , Khorasan , and the Caucasus , as well as significant Kurdish diaspora communities in the cities of western Turkey (in particular Istanbul) and Western Europe (primarily in Germany ). The Kurdish population
13905-544: The name Kurd are unclear. The underlying toponym is recorded in Assyrian as Qardu and in Middle Bronze Age Sumerian as Kar-da . Assyrian Qardu refers to an area in the upper Tigris basin, and it is presumably reflected in corrupted form in Classical Arabic Ǧūdī ( جودي ), re-adopted in Kurdish as Cûdî . The name would be continued as the first element in
14040-507: The name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin. Another possible etymology for the name is from the Middle Persian word erāq , meaning "lowlands." An Arabic folk etymology for the name is "deeply rooted, well-watered; fertile ". During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī ("Arabian Iraq") for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿAjamī ("Persian Iraq"), for
14175-514: The nation remained divided. Iraq's Sunni-dominated monarchy struggled to reconcile the diverse ethnic and religious groups, particularly the Shiite, Assyrian, Jewish and Kurdish populations, who felt marginalized. In 1958, these tensions culminated in a military coup, inspired by the revolutionary wave sweeping across the Arab world, particularly the 1952 Egyptian Revolution . A coup d'état known as
14310-592: The next six years Iran was on the offensive. The Sunni-led Arab countries and the United States supported Iraq throughout the war . In 1981, Israel destroyed a nuclear reactor of Iraq. In midst of the war, between 1983 to 1986, Kurds led rebellion against the regime . In retaliation, the government coordinated Anfal campaign , led to the killing of 50,000–100,000 civilians. During the war, Saddam extensively used chemical weapons against Iranians. The war, which ended in stalemate in 1988, killed between half
14445-791: The north , Saudi Arabia to the south , Iran to the east , the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast , Jordan to the southwest , and Syria to the west . The capital and largest city is Baghdad . Iraqi people are diverse; mostly Arabs , as well as Kurds , Turkmen , Yazidis , Assyrians , Armenians , Mandaeans , Persians and Shabakis with similarly diverse geography and wildlife . Most Iraqis are Muslims – minority faiths include Christianity , Yazidism , Zoroastrianism , Mandaeism , Yarsanism and Judaism . The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish ; others also recognized in specific regions are Assyrian , Turkish , and Armenian . Starting as early as
14580-618: The original on 20 May 2013 . Retrieved 21 March 2013 . ^ "Ocalan's farewell to arms brings Kurds hope for peace" . Euronews. 21 March 2013. Archived from the original on 5 November 2018 . Retrieved 21 March 2013 . ^ "Vacuum of uprising gives Syrian Kurds rare freedom" . Archived from the original on 23 September 2012 . Retrieved 5 November 2014 . Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_Kurdish_uprisings&oldid=1251214130 " Category : Kurdish rebellions Hidden categories: Misplaced Pages articles incorporating
14715-632: The original on 2011-07-16. , p.533. ^ Meho, Lokman I. "The kurds and Kurdistan: a general background" (PDF) . p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-13. ^ "Are Kurds a pariah minority?" . Archived from the original on 2008-06-08. ^ Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). "Kūrdistān § History" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 951. ^ McCarthy, Justin (2006-09-29). The Armenian Rebellion at Van . University of Utah Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-87480-870-4 . In
14850-512: The original on 26 June 2013 . Retrieved 22 July 2013 . ^ "Turkey: PKK leader calls halt to armed struggle" . Ansamed. 21 March 2013. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018 . Retrieved 21 March 2013 . ^ "Cautious Turkish PM welcomes Öcalan's call for end to armed struggle" . Hürriyet daily news. 21 March 2013 . Retrieved 21 March 2013 . ^ "Kurdish separatist group leader Öcalan calls to stop armed struggle" . Trend AZ. 21 March 2013. Archived from
14985-456: The original on January 21, 2014 . Retrieved November 14, 2013 . ^ "The PKK's withdrawal: An historic step" . The Economist . 30 April 2013 . Retrieved 22 July 2013 . ^ Letsch, Constanze (8 May 2013). "PKK begins to withdraw from Turkey" . The Guardian . Retrieved 22 July 2013 . ^ "Nearly half of PKK terrorists reportedly withdraw from Turkey" . Today's Zaman . 24 June 2013. Archived from
15120-404: The political system has exacerbated sectarian conflict. Climate change is driving wide-scale droughts across the country while water reserves are rapidly depleting. The country has been in a prolonged drought since 2020 and experienced its second-driest season in the past four decades in 2021. Water flows in the Tigris and Euphrates are down between 30 and 40%. Half of the country's farmland
15255-914: The population in Turkey , 15 to 20% in Iraq ; 10% in Iran ; and 9% in Syria . Kurds form regional majorities in all four of these countries, viz. in Turkish Kurdistan , Iraqi Kurdistan , Iranian Kurdistan and Syrian Kurdistan . The Kurds are the fourth-largest ethnic group in West Asia after Arabs , Persians , and Turks . The total number of Kurds in 1991 was placed at 22.5 million, with 48% of this number living in Turkey, 24% in Iran, 18% in Iraq, and 4% in Syria. Recent emigration accounts for
15390-693: The pre-Islamic era. Yarsanism (also known as Ahl-I-Haqq, Ahl-e-Hagh or Kakai) is also one of the religions that are associated with Kurdistan. Although most of the sacred Yarsan texts are in the Gorani and all of the Yarsan holy places are located in Kurdistan , followers of this religion are also found in other regions. For example, while there are more than 300,000 Yarsani in Iraqi Kurdistan, there are more than 2 million Yarsani in Iran. However,
15525-483: The president of Kurdistan Region officially resigned, and finally, the regional government announced that it would respect the Federal Supreme Court's ruling that no Iraqi province is allowed to secede, effectively abandoning the referendum. According to a report published by The Washington Institute for Near East Policy , a U.S-based think tank, since Kurdistan Region’s failed bid to gain independence,
15660-523: The region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the plain south of the Hamrin Mountains and did not include the northernmost and westernmost parts of the modern territory of Iraq. Prior to the middle of the 19th century, the term Eyraca Arabica was commonly used to describe Iraq. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of
15795-426: The region. Sharafkhan Bidlisi in the 16th century states that there are four division of Kurds: Kurmanj , Lur , Kalhor , and Guran , each of which speak a different dialect or language variation. Paul (2008) notes that the 16th-century usage of the term Kurd as recorded by Bidlisi, regardless of linguistic grouping, might still reflect an incipient Northwestern Iranian "Kurdish" ethnic identity uniting
15930-484: The same time found in other Iranian languages . The Kurdish dialects according to Mackenzie are classified as: The Zaza and Gorani are ethnic Kurds, but the Zaza–Gorani languages are not classified as Kurdish. The number of Kurds living in Southwest Asia is estimated at between 30 and 45 million, with another one or two million living in the Kurdish diaspora . Kurds comprise anywhere from 18 to 25% of
16065-520: The seat of government. Located in the Green Zone , which contains governmental headquarters and the army, in addition to containing the headquarters of the American embassy and the headquarters of foreign organizations and agencies for other countries. According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Iraq was the third most electoral democratic country in the Middle East . In 2023, according to
16200-548: The subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War , the United Kingdom invaded Iraq for fear that the government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of its links to the Axis powers . The war started on 2 May, and the British, together with loyal Assyrian Levies , defeated the forces of Al-Gaylani, forcing an armistice on 31 May. Regency of King Faisal II began in 1953. The hopes for Iraq’s future under Faisal II were high, but
16335-576: The term Kurd is explicitly defined as an ethnonym and this does not suggest synonymity with the ethnographic category nomad. Al-Tabari wrote that in 639, Hormuzan , a Sasanian general originating from a noble family, battled against the Islamic invaders in Khuzestan , and called upon the Kurds to aid him in battle. However, they were defeated and brought under Islamic rule. In 838, a Kurdish leader based in Mosul, named Mir Jafar , revolted against
16470-667: The terms Hurdanaye, Kurdanaye, Kurdaye to refer to the Kurds. According to Michael the Syrian , Hurdanaye separated from Tayaye Arabs and sought refuge with the Byzantine Emperor Theophilus . He also mentions the Persian troops who fought against Musa chief of Hurdanaye in the region of Qardu in 841. According to Barhebreaus , a king appeared to the Kurdanaye and they rebelled against the Arabs in 829. Michael
16605-474: The toponym Corduene , mentioned by Xenophon as the tribe who opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand through the mountains north of Mesopotamia in the 4th century BC . There are, however, dissenting views, which do not derive the name of the Kurds from Qardu and Corduene but opt for derivation from Cyrtii ( Cyrtaei ) instead. Regardless of its possible roots in ancient toponymy,
16740-465: The two major rivers are fertile alluvial plains , as the rivers carry about 60,000,000 m (78,477,037 cu yd) of silt annually to the delta . The central part of the south, which slightly tapers in favour of other countries, is natural vegetation marsh mixed with rice paddies and is humid, relative to the rest of the plains. Iraq has the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range and
16875-473: The wet marshlands along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, while western part of the country comprises mainly desert and some semi-arid regions. Many of Iraq's bird species were endangered, including seven of Iraq's mammal species and 12 of its bird species. The Mesopotamian marches in the middle and south are home to approximately 50 species of birds, and rare species of fish. At risk are some 50% of
17010-665: The winter months. Rainfall during the summer is rare, except in northern parts of the country. The northern mountainous regions have cold winters with occasional heavy snows, sometimes causing extensive flooding. Iraq is highly vulnerable to climate change . The country is subject to rising temperatures and reduced rainfall, and suffers from increasing water scarcity for a human population that rose tenfold between 1890 and 2010 and continues to rise. The country's electrical grid faces systemic pressures due to climate change, fuel shortages, and an increase in demand. Corruption remains endemic throughout all levels of Iraqi governance while
17145-473: The world's marbled teal population that live in the marshes, along with 60% of the world's population of Basra reed-warbler . The Asiatic lion , in the present-day extinct in the region, has remained a prominent symbol of the country throughout history. Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes , during the time of Saddam's government, caused there a significant drop in biological life. Since
17280-474: The year 1959 (Personal Status Law) made polygamy extremely difficult, granted child custody to the mother in case of divorce, prohibited repudiation and marriage under the age of 16. Article 1 of Civil Code also identifies Islamic law as a formal source of law. Iraq had no Sharia courts but civil courts used Sharia for issues of personal status including marriage and divorce. In 1995 Iraq introduced Sharia punishment for certain types of criminal offences. The code
17415-420: Was "moving forward to conclude contracts for constructing renewable energy power plants to provide one-third of our electricity demand by 2030". In addition, Iraq will plant 5 million trees across the country and will create green belts around cities to act as windbreaks against dust storms. In the same year, Iraq and TotalEnergies signed a $ 27 billion energy deal that aims to increase oil production and boost
17550-438: Was a succession of Kurdish dynasties such as ... Rawwadids of Tabriz and Azerbayjan" ^ "Of the anger and alarm aroused by these proceedings..." persian.packhum.org . Archived from the original on 29 September 2007 . Retrieved 13 January 2022 . ^ "DIMDIM" . Archived from the original on October 11, 2008 . Retrieved February 21, 2007 . ^ "Iranica - Search Results" . Archived from
17685-605: Was acceded to the presidency and chairmanship of the supreme executive body in July 1979. Following months of cross-border raids with Iran, Saddam declared war on Iran in September 1980, initiating the Iran–Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War). Taking advantage of the post- Iranian Revolution chaos in Iran, Iraq captured some territories in southwest Iran, but Iran recaptured all of the lost territories within two years, and for
17820-407: Was conquered by the Medes. The claimed Median descent is reflected in the words of the Kurdish national anthem : "We are the children of the Medes and Kai Khosrow ." However, MacKenzie and Asatrian challenge the relation of the Median language to Kurdish. The Kurdish languages , on the other hand, form a subgroup of the Northwestern Iranian languages like Median . Some researchers consider
17955-419: Was founded, and subsequently conquered most of present-day Iran and Iraq. During the time of rule of this dynasty, Kurdish chief and ruler, Badr ibn Hasanwaih, established himself as one of the most important emirs of the time. In the 10th–12th centuries, a number of Kurdish principalities and dynasties were founded, ruling Kurdistan and neighbouring areas: Due to the Turkic invasion of Anatolia and Armenia,
18090-439: Was impacted by numerous coup attempts. He died in a motor accident in 1939, passing the throne to his young son, Faisal II , who ascended to the throne at just 3 years old. Faisal II’s uncle, Crown Prince Abdullah , assumed regency until the young king came of age. On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and installed a pro-German and pro-Italian government. During
18225-483: Was portrayed as being a ruler who truly cared about his subjects, thereby gaining the title Vakil e-Ra'aayaa (meaning Representative of the People in Persian ). Though not as powerful in its geo-political and military reach as the preceding Safavids and Afsharids or even the early Qajars, he managed to reassert Iranian hegemony over its integral territories in the Caucasus , and presided over an era of relative peace, prosperity, and tranquility. In Ottoman Iraq , following
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