Misplaced Pages

#430569

107-545: The Kuss Quartet with Jana Kuss (violin), Oliver Wille (violin), William Coleman (viola) and Mikayel Hakhnazaryan (cello) is a Berlin-based string quartet . It was founded in 1991 at the Hochschule für Musik "Hanns Eisler" by the two violinists of the ensemble and has been playing in its current formation since 2008. Among the teachers of the Kuss Quartet were Walter Levin , Christoph Poppen , Eberhard Feltz and

214-505: A development and then resolved harmonically and thematically in a recapitulation . In addition, the standard definition recognizes that an introduction and a coda may be present. Each of the sections is often further divided or characterized by the particular means by which it accomplishes its function in the form. After its establishment, the sonata form became the most common form in the first movement of works entitled " sonata ", as well as other long works of classical music, including

321-587: A "psychological" approach to theme and expression. Although the Italian term sonata often refers to a piece in sonata form, it is important to separate the two. As the title for a single-movement piece of instrumental music, sonata —the past participle of suonare , "to play [an instrument]", as opposed to cantata , the past participle of cantare , "to sing"—covers many pieces from the Baroque and mid-18th century that are not "in sonata form". Conversely, in

428-446: A 'continuo' role), and does not contain the decisive sonata-exposition modulation to the secondary key. Only when the 'solo exposition' is under way does the solo instrument assert itself and participate in the move to (classically) the dominant or relative major. The situation is only seemingly different in the case of Mozart's concerto No. 9 , where the soloist is heard at the outset: as the later unfolding of those movements makes clear,

535-521: A location (e.g. the Budapest Quartet ). Established quartets may undergo changes in membership whilst retaining their original name. Sonata form The sonata form (also sonata-allegro form or first movement form ) is a musical structure generally consisting of three main sections: an exposition, a development, and a recapitulation. It has been used widely since the middle of the 18th century (the early Classical period ). While it

642-584: A number of quartets: "Beethoven in particular is credited with developing the genre in an experimental and dynamic fashion, especially in his later series of quartets written in the 1820s up until his death. Their forms and ideas inspired and continue to inspire musicians and composers, such as Wagner and Bartók ." Schubert's last musical wish was to hear Beethoven's Quartet in C ♯ minor, Op. 131 , which he heard on 14 November 1828, just five days before his death. Upon listening to an earlier performance of this quartet, Schubert had remarked, "After this, what

749-510: A number of them. Many Romantic and early-twentieth-century composers composed string quartets, including Mendelssohn , Schumann , Brahms , Dvořák , Janáček , and Debussy . There was a slight lull in string quartet composition later in the 19th century, but it received a resurgence in the 20th century, with the Second Viennese School , Bartók , Shostakovich , Babbitt , and Carter producing highly regarded examples of

856-417: A part. The British musicologist David Wyn Jones cites the widespread practice of four players, one to a part, playing works written for string orchestra , such as divertimenti and serenades , there being no separate (fifth) contrabass part in string scoring before the 19th century. However, these composers showed no interest in exploring the development of the string quartet as a medium. The origins of

963-435: A perspective] is the notion that Haydn "invented" the string quartet... Although he may still be considered the 'father' of the 'Classical' string quartet, he is not the creator of the sting quartet genre itself... This old and otiose myth not only misrepresents the achievements of other excellent composers, but also distorts the character and qualities of Haydn's opp. 1, 2 and 9". The musicologist Cliff Eisen contextualizes

1070-556: A similar way to an instrumental soloist or an orchestra . The early history of the string quartet is in many ways the history of the development of the genre by the Austrian composer Joseph Haydn . There had been examples of divertimenti for two solo violins, viola and cello by the Viennese composers Georg Christoph Wagenseil and Ignaz Holzbauer ; and there had long been a tradition of performing orchestral works one instrument to

1177-499: A third soloist; and moreover it became common to omit the keyboard part, letting the cello support the bass line alone. Thus when Alessandro Scarlatti wrote a set of six works entitled Sonata à Quattro per due Violini, Violetta [viola], e Violoncello senza Cembalo (Sonata for four instruments: two violins, viola, and cello without harpsichord), this was a natural evolution from the existing tradition. The musicologist Hartmut Schick has suggested that Franz Xaver Richter invented

SECTION 10

#1732780887431

1284-464: A total of five string quartets; he won Pulitzer Prizes for two of them: No. 2 and No. 3 . Three important string quartets were written by Helmut Lachenmann . The late 20th century also saw the string quartet expand in various ways: Morton Feldman's vast Second String Quartet is one of the longest ever written, and Karlheinz Stockhausen's Helikopter-Streichquartett is to be performed by the four musicians in four helicopters. Quartets written during

1391-427: Is a crucial moment in the work. The last part of the development section is called the retransition : It prepares for the return of the first subject group in the tonic. Exceptions include the first movement of Brahms 's Piano Sonata No. 1 . The general key of the movement is C major, and it would then follow that the retransition should stress the dominant seventh chord on G. Instead, it builds in strength over

1498-414: Is a point of contention. Alterations include taking material through distant keys, breaking down of themes and sequencing of motifs, and so forth. The development varies greatly in length from piece to piece and from time period to time period, sometimes being relatively short compared to the exposition (e.g., the first movement of Eine kleine Nachtmusik ) and in other cases quite long and detailed (e.g.,

1605-422: Is also possible to have the second subject group in a key other than tonic while the first subject group is in the home key. For instance in the first movement of Richard Strauss 's Symphony No. 2 in F minor , the recapitulation begins with the first subject group in tonic but modulates to the mediant A ♭ major for the second subject group before modulating back to F minor for the coda. Another example

1712-456: Is distinct from a short development, such as in the opening movement of Mozart's Violin Sonata in G major, K. 379 . Another instance of a truncated sonata form has the development section completely omitted altogether, and the recapitulation immediately follows the exposition (even without a retransitional passage). This occurs in the first movement of Tchaikovsky 's Serenade for Strings , and

1819-446: Is even more wide-ranging. It begins in F ♯ minor, moves into A major, then through B ♭ major to F major. In the recapitulation section, the key of the first subject group may be in a key other than tonic, most often in the subdominant, known as a "subdominant recapitulation". In some pieces by Haydn and Mozart, such as Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 16 in C, K. 545 , or the finale of his String Quartet No. 14 in G, K. 387 ,

1926-415: Is for the dominant to be substituted with the dominant of the relative minor key: one example is the first movement of Haydn's String Quartet in E major, Op. 54 No. 3. Occasionally, the retransition can begin with a false recapitulation, in which the opening material of the first theme group is presented before the development has completed. The surprise that ensues when the music continues to modulate toward

2033-402: Is in the relative B minor while the second theme is in the parallel submediant B major . The first subject group need not be entirely in the tonic key. In the more complex sonata expositions there can be brief modulations to fairly remote keys, followed by reassertion of the tonic. For example, Mozart's String Quintet in C, K. 515 , visits C minor and D ♭ major as chromaticism within

2140-468: Is known as sonatina form. An important variant on traditional sonata-allegro form is found in the first movement of the Classical concerto . Here, the sonata-allegro's customary 'repeated exposition' is replaced by two different but related sections: the 'tutti exposition' and the 'solo exposition'. Prototypically the 'tutti exposition' does not feature the soloist (except, in early classical works, in

2247-469: Is later stated in the exposition. The introduction increases the weight of the movement (such as the famous dissonant introduction to Mozart's "Dissonance" Quartet , K. 465), and also permits the composer to begin the exposition with a theme that would be too light to start on its own, as in Haydn's Symphony No. 103 ("The Drumroll") and Beethoven's Quintet for Piano and Winds Op. 16 . The introduction usually

SECTION 20

#1732780887431

2354-646: Is left for us to write?" Wagner, when reflecting on Op. 131's first movement, said that it "reveals the most melancholy sentiment expressed in music". Of the late quartets , Beethoven cited his own favorite as Op. 131 , which he saw as his most perfect single work. Mendelssohn 's six string quartets span the full range of his career, from 1828 to 1847; Schumann 's three string quartets were all written in 1842 and dedicated to Mendelssohn, whose quartets Schumann had been studying in preparation, along with those of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. Several Romantic-era composers wrote only one quartet, while Dvořák wrote 14. In

2461-407: Is little disagreement that on the largest level, the form consists of three main sections: an exposition, a development, and a recapitulation; however, beneath this general structure, sonata form is difficult to pin down to a single model. The standard definition focuses on the thematic and harmonic organization of tonal materials that are presented in an exposition , elaborated and contrasted in

2568-667: Is not included in the exposition repeat: the Pathétique is a possible counterexample. Much later, Chopin's Piano Sonata No. 2 (Op. 35) is a clear example where the introduction is also included. On occasion, the material of introduction reappears in its original tempo later in the movement. Often, this occurs as late as the coda, as in Mozart's String Quintet in D major, K. 593 , Haydn's "Drumroll" Symphony, Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 8 ("Pathétique") , or Schubert's Symphony No. 9 ("Great") . Sometimes it can appear earlier: it occurs at

2675-480: Is not necessarily the case that the move to the dominant key in the exposition is marked by a new theme. Haydn in particular was fond of using the opening theme, often in a truncated or otherwise altered form, to announce the move to the dominant, as in the first movement of his Sonata Hob. XVI No. 49 in E ♭ major. Mozart also occasionally wrote such expositions: for instance in the Piano Sonata K. 570 or

2782-498: Is not reached until the last possible moment. (Furthermore, the identification of a minor key with its relative major is common in the Romantic period, supplanting the earlier Classical identification of a minor key with its parallel major.) In some pieces in sonata form, in the recapitulation, the first subject group is omitted, leaving only the second subject group, like the second movement of Haydn 's Sonata Hob. XVI/35, as well as

2889-485: Is said to be completed harmonically. If the movement continues, it is said to have a coda. The coda is optional in Classical-era works, but became essential in many Romantic works. After the final cadence of the recapitulation, the movement may continue with a coda that will contain material from the movement proper. Codas, when present, vary considerably in length, but like introductions are not generally part of

2996-441: Is the 'ownership' of certain themes or materials by the solo instrument; such materials will thus not be exposed until the 'solo' exposition. Mozart was fond of deploying his themes in this way. Towards the end of the recapitulation of a concerto movement in sonata form, there is usually a cadenza for the soloist alone. This has an improvisatory character (it may or may not actually be improvised), and, in general, serves to prolong

3103-468: Is the first movement of Dvorak 's Symphony No. 9. The recapitulation begins in the tonic E minor for the first subject group, but the second subject group modulates to G-sharp minor, then through A-flat major before modulating back to the tonic key for the coda. Similarly, in Beethoven's "Waldstein" Sonata , the first subject group is in the tonic C major, then modulates to A major for the first part of

3210-401: Is typically used in the first movement of multi-movement pieces, it is sometimes used in subsequent movements as well—particularly the final movement. The teaching of sonata form in music theory rests on a standard definition and a series of hypotheses about the underlying reasons for the durability and variety of the form—a definition that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century. There

3317-556: The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , sonata form is "the most important principle of musical form, or formal type, from the Classical period well into the 20th century ". As a formal model it is usually best exemplified in the first movements of multi-movement works from this period, whether orchestral or chamber , and has, thus, been referred to frequently as "first-movement form" or "sonata-allegro form" (since

Kuss Quartet - Misplaced Pages Continue

3424-814: The Alban Berg Quartet . In the season 2001/02, the quartet accepted an invitation from Paul Katz of the Cleveland Quartet to study at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston. There, they completed a Graduate Diploma Program for string quartet. The ensemble made its debut in 1993 at the Palace Concert of the German President Richard von Weizsäcker . The Quartet won international prizes at

3531-507: The String Quintet K. 593 . Such expositions are often called monothematic , meaning that one theme serves to establish the opposition between tonic and dominant keys. This term is misleading, since most "monothematic" works have multiple themes: most works so labeled have additional themes in the second subject group. Rarely, as in the fourth movement of Haydn's String Quartet in B ♭ major, Op. 50, No. 1 , did composers perform

3638-407: The classical period usually had four movements, with a structure similar to that of a symphony : The positions of the slow movement and third movement are flexible. For example, in Mozart's six quartets dedicated to Haydn , three have a minuet followed by a slow movement and three have the slow movement before the minuet. Substantial modifications to the typical structure were already present by

3745-417: The symphony , concerto , string quartet , and so on. Accordingly, there is a large body of theory on what unifies and distinguishes practice in the sonata form, both within and between eras. Even works that do not adhere to the standard description of a sonata form often present analogous structures or can be analyzed as elaborations or expansions of the standard description of sonata form. According to

3852-403: The tour de force of writing a complete sonata exposition with just one theme. A more recent example is Edmund Rubbra 's Symphony No. 2. The fact that so-called monothematic expositions usually have additional themes is used by Charles Rosen to illustrate his theory that the Classical sonata form's crucial element is some sort of dramatization of the arrival of the dominant. Using a new theme

3959-484: The "argument" of the work in the Classical era. Codas became increasingly important and essential parts of the sonata form in the nineteenth century. The coda often ends with a perfect authentic cadence in the original key. Codas may be quite brief tailpieces, typically in the Classical era, or they may be very long and elaborate. An example of the more extended type is the coda to the first movement of Beethoven 's Eroica Symphony , and an exceptionally long coda appears at

4066-456: The "classical" string quartet around 1757, but the consensus amongst most authorities is that Haydn is responsible for the genre in its currently accepted form. The string quartet enjoyed no recognized status as an ensemble in the way that two violins with basso continuo – the so-called ' trio sonata ' – had for more than a hundred years. Even the composition of Haydn's earliest string quartets owed more to chance than artistic imperative. During

4173-533: The 1750s, when the young composer was still working mainly as a teacher and violinist in Vienna, he would occasionally be invited to spend time at the nearby castle at Weinzierl of the music-loving Austrian nobleman Karl Joseph Weber, Edler von Fürnberg. There he would play chamber music in an ad hoc ensemble consisting of Fürnberg's steward, a priest, and a local cellist, and when the Baron asked for some new music for

4280-421: The 19th century and onward, some of these parallelisms are subject to considerable exceptions), which include: The exposition is commonly repeated, particularly in classical and early romantic works, and more likely in solo or chamber works and symphonies than for concerti. Often, though not always, first and second endings are employed during the last measure(s) of the exposition. The first ending to point back to

4387-1024: The Bubenreuth Competition (1997), the Karl-Klingler Competition (Berlin, 1998) and the International String Quartet Competition in Banff (Canada, 2001). In June 2002, the Kuss Quartet was awarded 1st prize at the International String Quartet Competition Premio Paolo Borciani in Reggio Emilia/Italy. At the same time as the Borciani competition, the ECHO (European Concert Halls Organisation) decided to award

Kuss Quartet - Misplaced Pages Continue

4494-489: The C major first subject group, before finally moving to D major, the dominant of the dominant major (G major), preparing the second subject group in the dominant. Many works by Schubert and later composers utilized even further harmonic convolutions. In the first subject group of Schubert's Piano Sonata in B ♭ , D. 960, for example, the theme is presented three times, in B ♭ major, in G ♭ major, and then again in B ♭ major. The second subject group

4601-1052: The Kuss Quartet the title of German Artist of the Rising Stars Programme. As a result, the Quartet made its debut in the 2003/04 season at the Royal Concertgebouw in Amsterdam, the Vienna Konzerthaus , Carnegie Hall , the Athens Concert Hall and the Birmingham Symphony Hall . The quartet was also supported by the Borletti-Buitoni Trust . Since then, it has been one of the established ensembles of its generation, giving concerts in Europe,

4708-510: The Op. 20 quartets as follows: "Haydn's quartets of the late 1760s and early 1770s [opp. 9, 17, and 20] are high points in the early history of the quartet. Characterized by a wide range of textures, frequent asymmetries and theatrical gestures...these quartets established the genre's four-movement form, its larger dimensions, and ...its greater aesthetic pretensions and expressive range." That Haydn's string quartets were already "classics" that defined

4815-570: The US, South America and Japan. The Kuss Quartet has played with chamber music partners such as the singer Mojca Erdmann , the cellist Miklós Perényi , the clarinettists Sharon Kam and Paul Meyer . It has developed special concert formats such as the classical music lounge at the Watergate Club, the discussion concerts "Explica" and programmes combining literature and music with the actor Udo Samel . String quartet The string quartet

4922-467: The beginning of the development in the Pathétique Sonata, and at the beginning of the recapitulation of Schubert's Symphony No. 1 . The primary thematic material for the movement is presented in the exposition. This section can be further divided into several sections. The same section in most sonata form movements has prominent harmonic and thematic parallelisms (although in some works from

5029-399: The development section consists of or ends with another exposition, often in the relative minor of the tonic key. At the end, the music will usually return to the tonic key in preparation of the recapitulation. (On occasion, it will actually return to the sub-dominant key and then proceed with the same transition as in the exposition.) The transition from the development to the recapitulation

5136-424: The development. If a theme from the second subject group has been elaborated at length in the development in a resolving key such as the tonic major or minor or the subdominant, it may also be omitted from the recapitulation. Examples include the opening movements of Mozart's piano sonata in C minor, K. 457 , and Haydn's String Quartet in G major, Op. 77 No. 1. After the closing cadence, the musical argument proper

5243-616: The difference between one masterpiece and the next." The musicologist Roger Hickman has however demurred from this consensus view. He notes a change in string quartet writing towards the end of the 1760s, featuring characteristics which are today thought of as essential to the genre – scoring for two violins, viola and cello, solo passages, and absence of actual or potential basso continuo accompaniment. Noting that at this time other composers than Haydn were writing works conforming to these 'modern' criteria, and that Haydn's earlier quartets did not meet them, he suggests that "one casualty [of such

5350-417: The distinction between the sharp and flat directions and the blurring of tonal areas true recapitulations beginning in other keys became possible after around 1825. It is also possible for the first subject group to begin in tonic (or a key other than tonic), modulate to another key and then back to tonic for the second subject group. In the finale of the original 1872 version of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 2 ,

5457-441: The dominant (for a major-mode sonata movement) or relative major (for a minor-key movement). A second option for minor-mode sonata form movements was to modulate to the minor dominant; this option, however, robs the sonata structure of the space of relief and comfort that a major-mode second theme would bring, and was therefore used primarily for a bleak, grim effect, as Beethoven did with some frequency. Mendelssohn also did this in

SECTION 50

#1732780887431

5564-424: The dominant seventh chord on C, as if the music were proceeding to F major, only to take up immediately the first theme in C major. Another exception is the fourth movement of Schubert 's Symphony No. 9. The home key of the movement is C major. The retransition prolongates over the dominant chord on G, but suddenly takes up the first theme in the flattened mediant E ♭ major . A particularly common exception

5671-413: The early "quartets" are actually symphonies missing their wind parts. They have five movements and take the form: fast movement, minuet and trio I, slow movement, minuet and trio II, and fast finale . As Ludwig Finscher notes, they draw stylistically on the Austrian divertimento tradition. After these early efforts, Haydn did not return to the string quartet for several years, but when he did so, it

5778-400: The end of the finale of Beethoven's Symphony No. 8 . Explanations for why an extended coda is present vary. One reason may be to omit the repeat of the development and recapitulation sections found in earlier sonata forms of the 18th century. Indeed, Beethoven's extended codas often serve the purpose of further development of thematic material and resolution of ideas left unresolved earlier in

5885-476: The entire work effectively a single-movement sonata. Some Classical slow movements involve a different sort of truncation, in which the development section is replaced altogether by a short retransition. This occurs in the slow movements of Mozart's quartets K. 387 , K. 458 , K. 465 , K. 575 , and K. 589 . It is also common in overtures, occurring for example in Mozart's overture to Le nozze di Figaro , or Rossini's overture to Il barbiere di Siviglia . This

5992-414: The finale of D 664 . Sometimes this effect is also used for false reprises in the "wrong key" that are soon followed by the actual recapitulation in the tonic, such as in the first movement of Haydn's quartet Op. 76 No. 1 in G (false reprise in the subdominant), or the finale of Schubert's piano sonata in A, D 959 (false reprise in the major submediant). A special case is the recapitulation that begins in

6099-407: The finales of nos. 2, 5 and 6. After Op. 20, it becomes harder to point to similar major jumps in the string quartet's development in Haydn's hands, though not due to any lack of invention or application on the composer's part. As Donald Tovey put it: "with Op. 20 the historical development of Haydn's quartets reaches its goal; and further progress is not progress in any historical sense, but simply

6206-407: The first movement of Mozart's Symphony No. 31 and again in the third movement of his Symphony No. 34 . It also occurs in the first movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 1 . In the exposition, the first subject group ends on a half-cadence in tonic, and the second subject group immediately follows in the dominant key (without a transition). The key of the second subject may be something other than

6313-399: The first movement of his Symphony No. 3 and the last movement of his Symphony No. 4 . About halfway through his career, Beethoven also began to experiment with other tonal relationships between the tonic and the second subject group. The most common practice, for Beethoven and many other composers from the Romantic era, was to use the mediant or submediant , rather than the dominant, for

6420-453: The first movement of the "Eroica" Symphony ). Developments in the Classical era are typically shorter due to how much composers of that era valued symmetry, unlike the more expressive Romantic era in which development sections gain a much greater importance. However, it almost always shows a greater degree of tonal, harmonic, and rhythmic instability than the other sections. In a few cases, usually in late Classical and early Romantic concertos,

6527-429: The first subject group begins in the tonic C major , modulates to E ♭ major , then through E major , and then modulates back to tonic for the second subject group and coda. And in the last movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 9 in C major, the first subject group is in the flattened mediant E ♭ major, modulates to the subdominant F major and then back to tonic for the second subject group and coda. It

SECTION 60

#1732780887431

6634-425: The first subject group is cut. On the other hand, it is also possible for the subject groups to be reversed in order, like the fourth movement of Bruckner 's Symphony No. 7 , or the first movement of Mozart's piano sonata in D major, K. 311 . The second subject group's melody can be different compared to the exposition, like Haydn 's Symphony No. 44 . Such melodic adjustment is common in minor-key sonata forms, when

6741-445: The first subject group will be in the subdominant and then modulate back to tonic for the second subject group and coda. This case is also found in the first movement of Beethoven's "Kreutzer" sonata . Schubert was also a prominent user of the subdominant recapitulation; it appears for example in the opening movements of his Symphonies No. 2 and No. 5 , as well as those of his piano sonatas D 279 , D 459 , D 537 , D 575 , as well as

6848-708: The form we are used to today, he defined it in terms of the movement's plan of modulation and principal cadences , without saying a great deal about the treatment of themes . Seen in this way, sonata form was closest to binary form , out of which it probably developed. The model of the form that is often taught currently tends to be more thematically differentiated. It was originally promulgated by Anton Reicha in Traité de haute composition musicale in 1826, by Adolf Bernhard Marx in Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition in 1845, and by Carl Czerny in 1848. Marx may be

6955-459: The genre by 1801 can be judged by Ignaz Pleyel 's publication in Paris of a "complete" series that year, and the quartet's evolution as vehicle for public performance can be judged by Pleyel's ten-volume set of miniature scores intended for hearers rather than players – early examples of this genre of music publishing . Since Haydn's day, the string quartet has been prestigious and considered one of

7062-509: The genre, and it remains an important and refined musical form. The standard structure for a string quartet as established in the Classical era is four movements , with the first movement in sonata form , allegro, in the tonic key; a slow movement in a related key and a minuet and trio follow; and the fourth movement is often in rondo form or sonata rondo form , in the tonic key. Some string quartet ensembles play together for many years and become established and promoted as an entity in

7169-575: The genre. During his tenure as Master of the Queen's Music , Peter Maxwell Davies produced a set of ten entitled the Naxos Quartets (to a commission from Naxos Records ) from 2001 to 2007. Margaret Jones Wiles composed over 50 string quartets. David Matthews has written eleven, and Robin Holloway both five quartets and six "quartettini". Over nearly five decades, Elliott Carter wrote

7276-430: The group to play, Haydn's first string quartets were born. It is not clear whether any of these works ended up in the two sets published in the mid-1760s and known as Haydn's Opp. 1 and 2 ('Op. 0' is a quartet included in some early editions of Op. 1, and only rediscovered in the 1930s), but it seems reasonable to assume that they were at least similar in character. Haydn's early biographer Georg August Griesinger tells

7383-399: The last movement of his Symphony No. 2 ; the movement is in C major and modulates to the flattened submediant A ♭ major . The young Chopin even experimented with expositions that do not modulate at all, in the opening movements of his Piano Sonata No. 1 (remaining in C minor throughout) and his Piano Concerto No. 1 (moving from E minor to E major). Beethoven began also to use

7490-412: The late 18th century or "Classical" period , the title "sonata" is typically given to a work composed of three or four movements. Nonetheless, this multi-movement sequence is not what is meant by sonata form, which refers to the structure of an individual movement. The definition of sonata form in terms of musical elements sits uneasily between two historical eras. Although the late 18th century witnessed

7597-632: The major dominant, as in the first movements of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 1 and Brahms' Symphony No. 4 . The exposition need not only have two key areas. Some composers, most notably Schubert , composed sonata forms with three or more key areas. The first movement of Schubert's Quartet in D minor, D. 810 ("Death and the Maiden") , for example, has three separate key and thematic areas, in D minor, F major, and A minor. Similarly, Chopin 's Piano Concerto in F minor uses F minor, A ♭ major, and C minor in its first movement's exposition. In both cases,

7704-435: The many late- Baroque extended binary forms that bear similarities to sonata form, sonata form can be distinguished by the following three characteristics: The standard description of the sonata form is: The introduction section is optional, or may be reduced to a minimum. If it is extended, it is, in general, slower than the main section and frequently focuses on the dominant key . It may or may not contain material that

7811-467: The mode of the second subject needs to be changed, for example in the opening movement of Mozart's wind serenade K. 388 . In rare cases, the second subject theme can be omitted, as in the finale of Tchaikovsky's Violin Concerto in D major. Occasionally, especially in some Romantic works, the sonata form extends only as far as the end of the exposition, at which point the piece transitions directly into

7918-469: The modern era, the string quartet played a key role in the development of Schoenberg (who added a soprano in his String Quartet No. 2 ), Bartók , and Shostakovich especially. After the Second World War , some composers, such as Messiaen questioned the relevance of the string quartet and avoided writing them. However, from the 1960s onwards, many composers have shown a renewed interest in

8025-404: The most exemplary achievements in the form, above all from Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , a compositional theory of the time did not use the term "sonata form". Perhaps the most extensive contemporary description of the sonata-form type of movement may have been given by the theorist Heinrich Christoph Koch in 1793: like earlier German theorists and unlike many of the descriptions of

8132-440: The movement. Another role that these codas sometimes serve is to return to the minor mode in minor-key movements where the recapitulation proper concludes in the parallel major, as in the first movements of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 or Schumann 's Piano Concerto , or rarely, to restore the home key after an off-tonic recapitulation, such as in the first movements of Brahms's Clarinet Quintet and Dvořák 's Symphony No. 9 . It

8239-561: The next movement instead of a development section. One example is Henryk Wieniawski 's Violin Concerto No. 2 in D minor . Another example is Fritz Seitz 's Violin Concertos for students, where such a truncated sonata form is used ostensibly to cut down on the first movements' length. Sometimes, the third movement of such works is the recapitulation of the first movement (one example being Franz Strauss' Horn Concerto in C Minor), making

8346-433: The octave. In the first movement of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4 , the first subject group is in the tonic F minor but modulates to G ♯ minor and then to B major for the second subject group. The recapitulation begins in D minor and modulates to F major , and goes back to the parallel F minor for the coda. Also in the late Romantic period, it was possible for a minor-key sonata form movement to modulate to

8453-411: The opening movements of Chopin's Piano Sonata No. 2 and No. 3 . It is also possible for the first subject group to be slightly different in comparison of the exposition, like the fourth movement of Dvorak 's Symphony No. 9 . Another example occurs in the finale of Mozart's string quartet K. 387 , where the opening of the first subject group is cut, and in the quintet K. 515, where a later portion of

8560-490: The opening piano solo or early piano flourishes actually precede the start of the exposition proper. This presentation is also found in Classical-to-Romantic transition, such as Beethoven's piano concertos No. 4 or No. 5 , and Romantic concertos, like Grieg's A minor concerto or Brahms' B ♭ major concerto . A structural feature that the special textural situation of the concerto makes possible

8667-420: The originator of the term "sonata form". This model was derived from the study and criticism of Beethoven 's piano sonatas. A sonata-allegro movement is divided into sections. Each section is felt to perform specific functions in the musical argument . The term 'sonata form' is controversial and has been called misleading by scholars and composers almost from its inception. Its originators implied that there

8774-409: The plural in 'sonata forms'. These variations include, but are not limited to: Through the Romantic period, formal distortions and variations become so widespread ( Mahler , Elgar and Sibelius among others are cited and studied by James Hepokoski ) that 'sonata form' as it is outlined here is not adequate to describe the complex musical structures that it is often applied to. In the context of

8881-454: The progressive aims of the Op. 20 set of 1772, in particular, makes them the first major peak in the history of the string quartet. Certainly they offered to their own time state-of-the art models to follow for the best part of a decade; the teenage Mozart , in his early quartets, was among the composers moved to imitate many of their characteristics, right down to the vital fugues with which Haydn sought to bring greater architectural weight to

8988-564: The pursuit of the more advanced quartet style found in the eighteen works published in the early 1770s as Opp. 9, 17, and 20 . These are written in a form that became established as standard both for Haydn and for other composers. Clearly composed as sets, these quartets feature a four-movement layout having broadly conceived, moderately paced first movements and, in increasing measure, a democratic and conversational interplay of parts, close-knit thematic development, and skilful though often restrained use of counterpoint. The convincing realizations of

9095-412: The recapitulation begins again in D ♯ minor and ends in the relative major F ♯ major, and stays there till the end of the movement. Such a scheme may have been constructed to conform with the programmatic nature of the movement, but also fits well with the Romantic penchant for beginning a work at maximum tension and decreasing the tension afterwards, so that the point of ultimate stability

9202-411: The relative minor (first movements of Beethoven Triple Concerto and Brahms Piano Trio No. 1) or even the minor dominant (Brahms Piano Concerto No. 2, i). In such cases, the second theme will often return initially in the tonic minor in the recapitulation, with the major mode restored later on. During the late Romantic period, it was also possible to modulate to remote tonal areas to represent divisions of

9309-412: The scheme i–v–VII. An extreme example is the finale to Schubert's Symphony No. 6 , D. 589, which has a six-key exposition (C major, A ♭ major, F major, A major, E ♭ , and G major), with a new theme for each key. The second subject group can start in a particular key and then modulate to that key's parallel major or minor. In the first movement of Brahms' Symphony No. 1 (in C minor),

9416-415: The second group. For instance, the first movement of the "Waldstein" sonata , in C major , modulates to the mediant E major , while the opening movement of the "Hammerklavier" sonata , in B ♭ major , modulates to the submediant G major , and String Quartet No. 13 in the same key modulating to the flattened submediant key of G ♭ major . Tchaikovsky also implemented this practice in

9523-401: The second subject group begins in the relative E ♭ major and goes to the parallel mediant E ♭ minor . Similarly, the opening movement of Dvorak's Symphony No. 9 in E minor has its second subject group start in the minor mediant G minor and then to its parallel G major. And in the opening movement of his Symphony No. 6 in D major , the first theme of the second subject group

9630-491: The second subject group but quickly goes through A minor to modulate back to tonic for the rest of the second subject group and coda. Romantic works even exhibit progressive tonality in sonata form: for example, the second movement 'Quasi-Faust' from Charles-Valentin Alkan 's Grande sonate 'Les quatre âges' is in D ♯ minor, and while the exposition travels from D ♯ to the major subdominant G ♯ major,

9737-910: The story thus: The following purely chance circumstance had led him to try his luck at the composition of quartets. A Baron Fürnberg had a place in Weinzierl , several stages from Vienna, and he invited from time to time his pastor, his manager, Haydn, and Albrechtsberger (a brother of the celebrated contrapuntist Albrechtsberger ) in order to have a little music. Fürnberg requested Haydn to compose something that could be performed by these four amateurs. Haydn, then eighteen years old [ sic ], took up this proposal, and so originated his first quartet which, immediately it appeared, received such general approval that Haydn took courage to work further in this form. Haydn went on to write nine other quartets around this time. These works were published as his Op. 1 and Op. 2; one quartet went unpublished, and some of

9844-426: The string quartet can be further traced back to the Baroque trio sonata , in which two solo instruments performed with a continuo section consisting of a bass instrument (such as the cello) and keyboard . A very early example is a four-part sonata for string ensemble by the Italian composer Gregorio Allegri that might be considered an important prototype. By the early 18th century, composers were often adding

9951-477: The string quartet: Further expansions have also produced works such as the String octet by Mendelssohn , consisting of the equivalent of two string quartets. Notably, Schoenberg included a soprano in the last two movements of his second string quartet , composed in 1908. Adding a voice has since been done by Milhaud , Ginastera , Ferneyhough , Davies , İlhan Mimaroğlu and many others. Another variation on

10058-423: The submediant D ♭ major , as do the F minor first movements of Brahms' first clarinet sonata and piano quintet ; all three works balance this downward third by moving up to the major mediant ( A ♭ major ) for the key of the second movement. Rarely, a major-mode sonata form movement will modulate to a minor key for the second subject area, such as the mediant minor (Beethoven Sonata Op. 31/1, i),

10165-469: The submediant major with more frequency in minor-key sonata-form movements, as in the first movements of Symphony No. 9 , Piano Sonata No. 32 , and String Quartets No. 11 and No. 15 . The latter case transposes the second repeat of its exposition by a fifth, starting on the minor dominant (instead of the tonic) and finishing on the major mediant (instead of the submediant). The first movement of Richard Strauss 's Symphony No. 2 , in F minor , modulates to

10272-449: The time of Beethoven's late quartets, and despite some notable examples to the contrary, composers writing in the twentieth century increasingly abandoned this structure. Bartók's fourth and fifth string quartets, written in the 1930s, are five-movement works, symmetrical around a central movement. Shostakovich's final quartet , written in the 1970s, comprises six slow movements. Many other chamber groups can be seen as modifications of

10379-408: The tonic can be used for either comic or dramatic effect. An example occurs in the first movement of Haydn's String Quartet in G major, Op. 76 No. 1. The recapitulation is an altered repeat of the exposition, and consists of: Exceptions to the recapitulation form include Mozart and Haydn works that often begin with the second subject group when the first subject group has been elaborated at length in

10486-410: The tonic minor, for example in the slow movement of Haydn's quartet Op. 76 No. 4 in E ♭ , or the opening movement of Haydn's Symphony No. 47 in G major. In the Classical period, the subdominant is the only possible substitute for the tonic at this position (because any other key would need resolution and would have to be introduced as a false reprise in the development), but with the erosion of

10593-415: The tonic, where the exposition began, and the second ending to point towards the development. In general, the development starts in the same key as the exposition ended, and may move through many different keys during its course. It will usually consist of one or more themes from the exposition altered and on occasion juxtaposed and may include new material or themes—though exactly what is acceptable practice

10700-550: The traditional string quartet is the electric string quartet with players performing on electric instruments . Notable works for string quartet include: Whereas individual string players often group together to make ad hoc string quartets, others continue to play together for many years in ensembles which may be named after the first violinist (e.g. the Takács Quartet ), a composer (e.g. the Borodin Quartet ) or

10807-402: The transition is i–III–v, an elaboration of the minor schema of either using i–III or i–v. This is by no means the only scheme, however: the opening movement of Schubert's Violin Sonata in G minor, D. 408, uses the scheme i–III–VI, and the opening movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 2 in B ♭ major, D. 125, uses the scheme I–IV–V. The first movement of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 5 uses

10914-413: The true tests of a composer's art. This may be partly because the palette of sound is more restricted than with orchestral music, forcing the music to stand more on its own rather than relying on tonal color ; or from the inherently contrapuntal tendency in music written for four equal instruments. Quartet composition flourished in the Classical era. Mozart , Beethoven and Schubert each composed

11021-525: The typical first movement in a three- or four-movement cycle will be in allegro tempo ). However, as what Grove, following Charles Rosen , calls a "principle"—a typical approach to shaping a large piece of instrumental music—it can be seen to be active in a much greater variety of pieces and genres , from minuet to concerto to sonata-rondo . It also carries with it expressive and stylistic connotations: "sonata style"—for Donald Tovey and other theorists of his time—was characterized by drama, dynamism, and

11128-407: Was a set template to which Classical and Romantic composers aspired, or should aspire. However, sonata form is currently viewed as a model for musical analysis, rather than compositional practice. Although the descriptions on this page could be considered an adequate analysis of many first-movement structures, there are enough variations that theorists such as Charles Rosen have felt them to warrant

11235-408: Was a very common way to achieve this, but other resources such as changes in texture, salient cadences and so on were also accepted practice. In some sonata-form works, especially in the Classical period, there is no transitional material linking the subject groups. Instead, the piece moves straight from the first subject group to the second subject group via common-tone modulation . This happens in

11342-468: Was developed into its present form by the Austrian composer Joseph Haydn , whose works in the 1750s established the ensemble as a group of four more-or-less equal partners. Since that time, the string quartet has been considered a prestigious form; writing for four instruments with broadly similar characteristics both constrains and tests a composer. String quartet composition flourished in the Classical era , and Mozart , Beethoven and Schubert each wrote

11449-496: Was to make a significant step in the genre's development. The intervening years saw Haydn begin his employment as Kapellmeister to the Esterházy princes, for whom he was required to compose numerous symphonies and dozens of trios for violin, viola, and the bass instrument called the baryton (played by Prince Nikolaus Esterházy himself). The opportunities for experiment which both these genres offered Haydn perhaps helped him in

#430569