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60-471: Kvichak Bay is an arm on the northeast side of Bristol Bay in southern Alaska , at 58°26′N 157°54′W  /  58.433°N 157.900°W  / 58.433; -157.900 . It is 80 km (50 mi) long and 48 km (30 mi) wide. The Kvichak River flows into the bay at its furthest northeast point, while the Naknek River comes in from the east about 16 km (9.9 mi) to

120-410: A claim on the site in 2001 and with its partners, invested 500 million dollars into the project. The mining company lost all of its partners in 2011 due to increasing government regulations and distrust by its partners. Because of the estimated 10 billion tons of mining waste that must be permanently stored in the area, which is an active earthquake zone, and Rio Tinto's environmental track record, which

180-487: A female or for longevity on the spawning grounds. Sockeye salmon with longer and more difficult migration routes produce fewer eggs on the spawning grounds. High water temperatures also increase the energy expenditure of sockeye salmon as they migrate upriver. Aggressive behavior displayed by dominant males is predominantly directed towards intruding dominant males. Sometimes sockeye salmon males behave aggressively towards subordinate males. These encounters are short, with

240-700: A habitat. Stranding is when salmon swim into dry land or shallow water during their migration for spawning and die from suffocation. In fact, studies show that the sockeye salmon with the largest bodies are most susceptible to stranding mortality.   Reproduction is marked by depletion in energy stores. Fat, protein, and somatic energy stores decrease from the final moments in marine migration through freshwater entry, spawning, and death. Sockeye salmon do not feed during reproduction. Feeding ends once they enter into freshwater, which can be several months before spawning. Embryos are maintained with only endogenous food supplies for about 3–8 months. Reproduction in

300-728: A landlocked variety termed black kokanee, or " kunimasu " in Japanese, was deemed to be extinct after 1940, when a hydroelectric project made its native lake in northern Akita Prefecture more acidic. The species seems to have been saved by transferring eggs to Saiko Lake , 500 kilometers to the south, however. This fish has been treated as a subspecies of sockeye Oncorhynchus nerka kawamurae , or even an independent species Oncorhynchus kawamurae . Sockeye salmon use patterns of limnetic feeding behavior, which encompasses vertical movement, schooling , diel feeding chronology , and zooplankton prey selectivity. They can change their position in

360-441: A relatively rare creature. Like other wild salmon species, Sockeye harvests fluctuate but comprise 4 to 7 percent of global salmon production and 13 to 20 percent of wild salmon harvests. Between 2011 and 2014, Sockeye salmon accounted for 5 percent of the world's salmon harvest by volume and 15 percent of the world's wild salmon harvest. Bristol Bay is home to the world's largest salmon run. All five Eastern Pacific species spawn in

420-841: A spot on their tail or back. Sockeye salmon range as far south as the Columbia River in the eastern Pacific (although individuals have been spotted as far south as the 10 Mile River on the Mendocino Coast of California ) and in northern Hokkaidō Island in Japan in the western Pacific. They range as far north as the Bathurst Inlet in the Canadian Arctic in the east and the Anadyr River in Siberia in

480-753: A subordinate male will move quickly into the redd and release their sperm. Nearby dominant males from other redds will also do this. Male social status is positively correlated to length and dorsal hump size. Larger females tend to spawn in shallower water, which is preferred over deeper water. There is a dramatic sexual dimorphism at maturity. Males go through numerous morphological changes at maturation including, an increase in body depth, hump height, and snout length. Snout size also increases in females, but hump height and adipose fin length do not increase. This could mean that longer snout sizes are sexually selected, but hump height and adipose fin length are not. Females develop large gonads that are about 25% of

540-436: Is determined by the number of eggs she lays, her body size, and the survival of the eggs, which is due in part to the quality of the nest environment. Male spatial distribution depends on shifts in reproductive opportunities, physical traits of breeding sites, as well as the operational sex ratio (OSR) of the environment. Non-dominant males adopt a subordinate behavior, acting as a satellite to mated pairs. During spawning,

600-490: Is one of the most dangerous regions for large vessels. In ancient times, much of Bristol Bay was dry and arable, along with much of the Bering Sea Land Bridge . More recently, its proximity to mineral, animal and seafood riches provided an incentive for human habitation along its shoreline. Early Russian and English exploration provided most of the non-native influences of the area. During his voyage through

660-952: Is red-fish name in the Sinixt Interior Salish language and silver trout in the Okanagan language . They are much smaller than the anadromous variety and are rarely over 35 cm (14 in) long. In the Okanagan Lake and many others, there are two kinds of kokanee populations – one spawns in streams and the other near lake shores. Landlocked populations occur in the Yukon Territory and British Columbia in Canada , as well as, in Alaska , Washington , Oregon , California , New York , Utah , Idaho , Montana , Nevada , Colorado , New Mexico , and Wyoming in

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720-526: Is seen as poor by many environmental advocacy groups, fears have been raised about the potential impact on the Bristol Bay area and its wildlife and residents. In April 2003, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency issued an assessment of the impact of the proposed mining operations on fisheries, wildlife, and native Alaska tribes. Between 2014 and May 2017, Pebble sued the EPA several times. The company argued

780-456: Is the usual color of females. Even small changes in wavelength , saturation , and brightness can affect preference. Some traits that lead to reproductive success, such as body size and sexual dimorphism can affect one's survival. This leads to opposing pressures of natural selection and sexual selection . Larger males are favored, unless the risk of predation is very high. Sockeye salmon that die prematurely from predation are typically

840-576: Is under review by Fisheries and Oceans Canada as part of its Wild Salmon Policy strategy to standardize monitoring of wild salmon status. Salmon runs of particular note are the Skeena and Nass river runs, and the most famous is the Fraser River sockeye run. The Fraser River salmon run has experienced declines in productivity since the 1990s, mirroring a similar decline in the 1960s. The return abundance (population) of Fraser River sockeye in 2009

900-530: Is when species emphasize their differences in diet and habitat to avoid competition. Interspecific competition can affect the growth rates of the salmon if their access to resources is limited. The total registered fisheries harvest of the sockeye in 2010 was some 170,000 tonnes , of which 115,000 tonnes were from the United States and the rest was equally divided between Canada and Russia. This corresponds to some 65 million fish in all, and to some 19% of

960-980: The Kamchatka Peninsula of the Russian Far East , especially on the Ozernaya River of the Kurile Lake , which accounts for nearly 90% of all Asian sockeye salmon production, and is recognized as the largest spawning ground outside of Alaska. Illegal fishing in Kamchatka is subject to environmental concern. Sockeye is almost never farmed. A facility in Langley, BC harvested its first salmon in March 2013, and continues to harvest farmed salmon from its inland facility. United States sockeye salmon populations are currently listed under

1020-637: The Northern Pacific Ocean and rivers discharging into it. This species is a Pacific salmon that is primarily red in hue during spawning. They can grow up to 84 cm (2 ft 9 in) in length and weigh 2.3 to 7 kg (5–15 lb). Juveniles remain in freshwater until they are ready to migrate to the ocean , over distances of up to 1,600 km (1,000 mi). Their diet consists primarily of zooplankton . Sockeye salmon are semelparous , dying after they spawn . Some populations, referred to as kokanee , do not migrate to

1080-597: The Nushagak Bay near Dillingham and another near Naknek in Kvichak Bay have tidal extremes in excess of 10 m (30 ft), ranking them — and the area — as eighth highest in the world. Coupled with the extreme number of shoals, sandbars, and shallows, it makes navigation troublesome, especially during the area's frequently strong winds. As the shallowest part of the Bering Sea, Bristol Bay

1140-700: The United States . Nantahala Lake is the only place in North Carolina where kokanee salmon are found. The fish, which is native to western North America, was stocked in Nantahala Lake in the mid-1960s by the NC Wildlife Resources Commission in an attempt to establish the species as a forage fish for other predator fishes in the lake. This stock has remained and become a favorite target for anglers. In Japan,

1200-428: The fry typically rear in lakes before migrating to the ocean. Males partake in competitive and sneaking tactics, formation of hierarchies , and non-hierarchical groupings around females who are ready to mate. Reproductive success varies more in males than females. The greater variability in male reproduction is associated with the greater average size and exaggerated shape of males. Reproductive success in females

1260-713: The American fisherman and dominated the bay that summer. In 1938, the United States agreed with Japan that the Japanese would refrain from fishing in Alaskan waters. This agreement was honored until Japan and the United States entered World War 2. In the 1950s, Japan was strengthening its fishing presence in the Pacific; the US, Canada, and Japan passed the North Pacific Fisheries Treaty. This treaty managed

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1320-408: The EPA unfairly assumed the scope of the mine before it formally filed mining plans. Northern Dynasty Minerals LLC. accused the government agency of colluding with anti-mine activists to reach its conclusions. In July 2019, the EPA withdrew their preemptive proposed determination to restrict use of the pebble deposit area as a disposal site. In September 2020, while posing as potential investors in

1380-424: The Fraser River and its tributaries in 2010. In total, approximately 11,591,000 Fraser sockeye were caught by Canadian fishers and 1,974,000 Fraser sockeye were caught by American fishers. The final projected escapement (fish which were not caught) was 15,852,990 fish. Recent unpredictable fluctuations in runs are speculated to be due to changing water temperatures. There is high variation in thermal tolerance among

1440-413: The Fraser River, marine environmental conditions, aquaculture, predators, diseases, water temperature and other factors that may have affected the ability of sockeye salmon to reach traditional spawning grounds or reach the ocean." During the commission, hundreds of thousands of documents and scientific research papers were reviewed. Twelve technical reports were published using that information, looking at

1500-485: The Pebble Mine would have unacceptable adverse affects to salmon fishery areas in the Bristol Bay watershed. 57°40′N 159°50′W  /  57.667°N 159.833°W  / 57.667; -159.833 Sockeye salmon The sockeye salmon ( Oncorhynchus nerka ), also called red salmon , kokanee salmon , blueback salmon , or simply sockeye , is an anadromous species of salmon found in

1560-729: The Russians after they arrived in the area in 1819 (1821-“Naugeik”; 1880- “Kinuyak”; and finally Naknek as named by Russian Navy Captain Tebenkov). Later, in 1819, an Aleut by the name of Andrei Ustiugov drew the first intensive charts of Bristol Bay. Additionally, ships of the Russian Navy conducted extensive surveys of the Bering Sea coastline into the mid-19th century, naming many of the geographical features commonly used today: Capes Constantine, Chichagof, Menshikof and Greig, Mounts Veniaminof and Pavlof , Becharof Lake , etc. In 1883

1620-1192: The US Endangered Species Act by the National Marine Fisheries Service as an endangered species in the Snake River and as a threatened species in Lake Ozette , Washington. The Snake River sockeye salmon was listed as endangered in November 1991, after the Shoshone - Bannock Tribe at Fort Hall Indian Reservation petitioned the National Marine Fisheries Service. Sockeye is an exception to 2010's forecast resurgence of Oregonian fish stocks. Spring Chinook , summer steelhead , and Coho are forecast to increase by up to 100% over 2008 populations. The sockeye population peaked at over 200,000 in 2008 and were forecast to decline to just over 100,000 in 2010. As an early indication of

1680-603: The ability to bury eggs deeper and provide more protection. Females vary their breeding rate depending on the size of the courting male, mating more quickly with larger males. This increases the likelihood that larger males will displace attending, smaller males. Male sockeye salmon social status and greater reproductivity are directly associated with larger body size and more extreme body shapes; Larger bodies provide males with advantages when it comes to intrasexual competition and being selected for by females during reproduction. Males preferentially spawn with females who are red, which

1740-721: The area in 1778, the famed British navigator and explorer Captain James Cook named the area "in honor of the Admiral Earl of Bristol " in England. After establishing some temporary settlements in the late 1790s, The Russian American Company sent exploratory parties to document the coast and nearby inland areas of Bristol Bay. One of these charted the area between the Kuskokwim and Nushagak Rivers . The original Eskimo village at Naknek went through various names as recorded by

1800-451: The area to hard rock mining and oil and gas drilling. The largest community in the Bristol Bay area is Dillingham . Many other communities dot the coastline and rivers of Bristol Bay, including: All of these communities are primarily inhabited by Alaska Natives , except for Dillingham and King Salmon ; the former being influenced early-on by salmon-cannery employees from around the world including European and Asian people. King Salmon

1860-653: The associated canneries, sport fishing , hunting and tourism . The number of business lodges, hunting- and fishing-resorts and visitors to the nearby Katmai National Park and Preserve has grown exponentially in recent years. Sports fishing is another important local industry. Many lodges cater to sport fishermen targeting the salmon and trout populations in the freshwater tributaries. Freshwater species include humpback whitefish (Coregonus pidschianpp), Dolly Varden trout (Salvelinus malma), and Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).[18] The area has also experienced significant interest in oil and mineral development, most notably with

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1920-444: The bay's freshwater tributaries. Commercial fisheries include the world's largest Sockeye salmon fishery. The Kvijack drains from Lake Iliamna. Along with herring and other fisheries, salmon fishing accounts for nearly 75% of local jobs. During the first 50 years of commercial salmon fishing in Bristol Bay, the fishing boats were restricted to sail power. When this restriction lifted in 1951, it took only seven short years to outfit all

1980-966: The boats (approximately 1,500) with diesel or gas engines. In the late 1920s another law was passed restricting the length of the boats to 32 feet. This law holds true even today. Bristol Bay is a remote part of Alaska. The canneries preserve the freshness of the salmon which are gutted, cleaned, and processed on site. These companies have established a presence in Bristol Bay. Canneries include North Pacific Seafoods, Togiak Seafoods, Bristol Bay Setnet, Friedman Family Fisheries, Peter Pan Seafoods, Ekuk Fisheries, Big Creek Shore plant, Coffee Point Seafood, Icicle Seafoods, Wild Premium Salmon, Seafood Enterprises of Alaska, Alaska General Seafoods, Alaska Salmon Wild, Da Kine Enterprise, Extreme Salmon, Great Ruby Fish, My Girl, Naknek Family Fisheries, North Pacific Seafoods, Ocean Beauty, Silver Bay Seafoods, Trident Seafoods, Tulchina Fisheries, Diamond Lodge Smokehouse, and Nakeen Homepack. Major industries are commercial fishing and

2040-538: The body mass. Females are responsible for parental care. They select, prepare, and defend a nest site until they die or are displaced. Males do not participate in parental care at all, and they move between females after egg deposition. Sexual selection favors large males and females. Males choose females based on their readiness to spawn and their size in order to maximize their breeding opportunities. Larger bodies allow females to reproduce larger and more numerous eggs, better nest choice and ability to defend it, and

2100-630: The company is seeking a 20 year permit, Thiessen outlined how it could last another 160 years. After more than two decades of opposition by a majority of Bristol Bay residents and Tribes, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) used its authority under the Clean Water Act 404(c) to stop the proposed Pebble Mine project. The EPA released a Final Determination which declared that after extensive scientific and technical research and robust stakeholder engagement that

2160-417: The different sockeye salmon populations that migrate up the Fraser River. The Chilko River sockeye salmon population is able to maintain cardiorespiratory function at higher temperatures, which may make them more resilient to the effects of rising river temperatures. In one study examining possible physiological mechanisms underlying these population differences in thermal tolerance, juvenile sockeye salmon from

2220-736: The first salmon cannery was open in Bristol Bay” (Source information from the cannery article to give context on the expansion of the salmon industry in Alaska and the history of growth. The influence of the Katmai Volcano Explosion in 1912 and the influenza epidemic in 1919 decimated the Naknek people and area. According to oral history, there were only about three original families left at that time. On July 7 1937, Alaskans witnessed conflict as Japanese fishing vessels entered

2280-653: The harvest of all Pacific salmon species by weight. Commercial fishermen in Alaska net this species using seines and gillnets for fresh or frozen fillet sales and canning . The annual catch can reach 30 million fish in Bristol Bay , Alaska , which is the site of the world's largest sockeye harvest. Sockeye salmon have long been important in the diet and culture of the Coast Salish people of British Columbia. The largest spawning grounds in Asia are located on

2340-520: The headwaters of the sockeye salmon by preventing industrial development in roadless areas . Record numbers of a once-waning population of sockeye salmon have been returning to the Northwest's Columbia Basin (as of June 2012), with thousands more crossing the river's dams in a single day than the total numbers seen in some previous years. The conservation status of sockeye populations in Canada

2400-533: The intruding male leaving after one or two aggressive interactions. Spawning females direct their aggression primarily towards intruding females or other spawning females that are close by. However, they may also direct aggression towards intruding or subordinate males. Aggressive interactions between females only last one or two charges and/or chases. The intruder retreats and the spawning female settles back in her redd . These acts of aggression are important in terms of reproductive success, because they determine

2460-415: The juvenile stage. Sockeye salmon exhibit many different life histories with the majority being anadromous where the juvenile salmon migrate from freshwater lakes and streams to the ocean before returning as adults to their natal freshwater to spawn . Similar to most Pacific salmon , sockeye salmon are semelparous , meaning they die after spawning once. Some sockeye, called kokanee, do not migrate to

Kvichak Bay - Misplaced Pages Continue

2520-780: The language of the indigenous people along the lower reaches of the Fraser River (one of British Columbia 's many native Coast Salish languages ). Suk-kegh means "red fish". The sockeye salmon is sometimes called red or blueback salmon, due to its color. Sockeye are blue tinged with silver in color while living in the ocean. When they return to spawning grounds, their bodies become red and their heads turn green. Sockeye can be anywhere from 60 to 84 cm (2 ft 0 in – 2 ft 9 in) in length and weigh from 2.3 to 7 kg (5–15 lb). Two distinguishing features are their long, serrated gill rakers that range from 30 to 40 in number, and their lack of

2580-404: The larger ones in a population. This shows natural selection against large bodies. Populations with higher levels of predation tend to evolve smaller body size. Without the threat of predation, salmon that breed early in the season live longer than those that breed late in the season. Other ecological factors like stranding effect select for smaller body size in sockeye salmon when present in

2640-600: The low returns, the Government of Canada launched a formal inquiry into the decline, the Commission of Inquiry into the Decline of Sockeye Salmon in the Fraser River. The Commission has been tasked with investigating all the factors which may affect Fraser River sockeye salmon throughout their life cycle. According to the terms of reference, the subjects of investigation are "the impact of environmental changes along

2700-456: The mine an environmental activist group secretly taped conversations with Ronald Thiessen, chief executive of Northern Dynasty Minerals, and Tom Collier, chief executive of Pebble Limited Partnership. During the conversations Collier and Thiessen detailed their plans to gain the favor of elected politicians from Juneau to Washington, D.C. to gain a favorable outcome for the approval of the mining operation. The conversations also revealed that while

2760-576: The ocean and live their entire lives in fresh water. The sockeye salmon is the third-most common Pacific salmon species, after pink and chum salmon . Oncorhynchus comes from the Greek ὄγκος (onkos) meaning "barb", and ῥύγχος (rhynchos) meaning "snout". Nerka is the Russian name for the anadromous form. The name "sockeye" is an anglicization of suk-kegh (sθə́qəy̓), its name in Halkomelem ,

2820-476: The ocean and live their entire lives in freshwater lakes. The majority of sockeye spawn in rivers near lakes and juveniles will spend one to two years in the lake before migrating to the ocean, although some populations will migrate to saltwater in their first year. Adult sockeye will spend two to three years in the ocean before returning to freshwater. Females will spawn in 3–5 redds over a period of several days. The eggs usually hatch within six to nine weeks and

2880-448: The possible impacts of diseases and parasites, hatchery diseases, contaminants, marine ecology, salmon farms, fisheries, predators, climate change and government management on the productivity of Fraser River sockeye runs. While the commission was holding public hearings, in the late summer of 2010, the largest run of sockeye since 1913 returned to the Fraser River system. Final counts show that approximately 30 million salmon returned to

2940-609: The proposed Pebble Mine on the north shore of Iliamna Lake , and auctioning of leases to tracts in the southern Bristol Bay area known as the North Aleutians Basin , an area which has been closed to offshore oil and gas development since a moratorium in 1998. The draft plan by the Bureau of Land Management (pending public comments until 2/5/2007), also proposes to open most of the BLM's 3,600,000 acres (1,500,000 ha) in

3000-421: The quality of the nest site the female obtains and access to males. Competition for food or space while the salmon are in their lake residence period can exist. This happens when there is a more populous class of young sockeye or when there are multiple classes present. It can also happen when resources are in short supply. Interspecific competition can also occur and can lead to interactive segregation, which

3060-455: The resources of the region jointly to preserve the future generations of fish. This agreement is the model for international fisheries regulations today. Bristol Bay is home to the world's most abundant Sockeye (red) salmon fishery as well as strong runs of Chum (dog) salmon , Coho (silver) salmon , Chinook (king) salmon , and Pink (humpy) salmon , each occurring seasonally. Chinook return to their freshwater spawning grounds earliest in

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3120-416: The sockeye salmon has to be accomplished with the energy stores brought to the spawning grounds. How the salmon use their energy during migration and spawning affects how successful they will be reproductively; energy used for migration cannot also be used for courtship . If they waste too much energy, they might not be able to spawn. Males must also make the decision whether to invest energy in fighting for

3180-583: The south of the Kvichak. This article about a location in the Bristol Bay Borough, Alaska is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a location in the Lake and Peninsula Borough, Alaska is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Bristol Bay Upper reaches of Bristol Bay experience some of the highest tides in the world. One such reach,

3240-467: The summer, followed by Sockeye and Chum. Coho and Pink salmon swim to their spawning grounds last, later in the summer. Fishing activity peaks for specific species during times of the highest concentration of salmon moving from the saltwater Pacific Ocean to the brackish Bristol Bay, then finally to their freshwater natal spawning streams at the headwaters of the many lakes and rivers in the Bristol Bay watershed. On an international scale, Sockeye salmon are

3300-711: The unexpectedly high sockeye run in 2010, on July 2, 2010, the United States Army Corps of Engineers reported over 300,000 sockeye had passed over Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River. Lower temperatures in 2008 North Pacific waters brought in fatter plankton, which, along with greater outflows of Columbia River water, fed the resurgent populations. Proposed legislative efforts, such as the Northern Rockies Ecosystem Protection Act , are attempting to protect

3360-685: The water column, timing and length of feeding, school formation, and choice of prey to minimize the likelihood of predation. This also ensures they still get at least the minimum amount of food necessary to survive. All of these behaviors contribute to the survivability, and therefore fitness of the salmon. Depending on location and threat of predation, the levels of aggressive feeding behavior can vary. Sockeye salmon, unlike other species of Pacific salmon, feed extensively on zooplankton during both freshwater and saltwater life stages. They also tend to feed on small aquatic organisms such as shrimp . Insects and occasionally snails are part of their diets at

3420-474: The waters of Bristol Bay with 10,000-ton fishing trawlers to harvest salmon. At that time, the Fisheries Bureau prohibited the use of motorized vessels, fish traps, and purse seines in Alaska. This was to ensure a 50% escapement of the spawning salmon, to guarantee their sustainability. The Japanese fleet was composed of diesel-powered steel vessels. The Japanese had a technological advantage over

3480-428: The west. The farthest inland sockeye salmon travel is to Redfish Lake , Idaho, over 1,400 km (900 mi) by river from the ocean and 2,000 m (6,500 ft) in elevation. In the United States, populations of sockeye salmon have been extirpated from Idaho and Oregon . Some sockeye salmon populations are completely landlocked. Sockeye that live and reproduce in lakes are commonly called kokanee , which

3540-441: Was estimated at a very low 1,370,000, 13% of the pre-season forecast of 10,488,000. That represented a decline from the recent (1993) historical cycle peak of 23,631,000 and the return abundance was the lowest in over 50 years. The reasons for this (former) decline remain speculative. According to a consortium of scientists assembled to review the problem, the decline highlights the uncertainty in forecasting salmon returns. After

3600-583: Was populated by military personnel stationed, primarily during Cold War years, at the King Salmon Air Force Station , and later by visitors and employees of the nearby Katmai National Park and Preserve . A mineral exploration project investigating a large porphyry copper , gold , and molybdenum deposit in the Bristol Bay region has been proposed and may be undertaken by British-Australian Rio Tinto Group and Japanese conglomerate Mitsubishi . Northern Dynasty Minerals LLC staked

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