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131-625: Habilitation is the highest university degree , or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excellence in research, teaching, and further education, which usually includes a dissertation. The degree, sometimes abbreviated Dr. habil . ( Doctor habilitatus ), Dr hab. ( Doktor habilitowany ), or D.Sc. ( Doctor of Sciences in Russia and some CIS countries),

262-407: A Higher National Certificate (HNC), may allow students to enter directly into the second year of a Bachelor's program, provided that the course they completed is the same as the one they are applying for. In South Africa, grades (also known as "marks") are presented as a percentage, with anything below 50% considered a failure. Students who receive a failing grade may have the opportunity to rewrite

393-451: A VAT number . These exams are usually organized by the professional orders with the collaboration of area universities. In other cases, especially in the case of health professions or childcare professionals, not protected by a professional nature, the degree itself is a qualifying title. Finally, some habilitations, since their activities cannot be done autonomously, need to be hired in a suitable structure in order to effectively carry out

524-415: A peer-reviewed journal . To pursue a doctor of philosophy degree, students must have completed a relevant master's degree. They are required to carry out a supervised scientific study for a minimum of three years and publish at least two scientific first-author papers in peer-reviewed journals relevant to their area of study. Currently, Kenya is implementing a Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) that follows

655-727: A 2–6–3–3 education system to replace the existing 8–4–4 system which allows confirmation of undergraduate degrees upon successful completion. The CBC system was introduced in 2017. Since the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region in 1997 and the Bologna Declaration in 1999, higher education systems in Europe have been undergoing harmonisation through

786-499: A Bachelor of Arts (BA) and a Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'arts' but are nowadays considered a separate stream, with degrees of Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Master of Business Administration (MBA). Science refers to the basic sciences and natural science ( Biology , Physics , Chemistry , etc.); the corresponding degrees are Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Master of Science (MSc). Information Technology degrees are conferred specially in

917-660: A C+ (55–59%) on the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). Students pursuing a degree in engineering, such as B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering or B.Sc. Electrical and Electronics Engineering , are required to join programs that are accredited by the Engineers Board of Kenya and the Commission for University Education. The B.Sc. degree in engineering typically takes five years to complete. A degree in medicine or surgery may take six to seven years, while

1048-480: A bogus institution or simply invented, is often covered by fraud laws. Depending on the culture and the degree earned, degrees may be indicated by a pre-nominal title , post-nominal letters , a choice of either, or not indicated at all. In countries influenced by the UK, post-nominal letters are the norm, with only doctorates granting a title, while titles are the norm in many northern European countries. Depending on

1179-399: A class on medieval Islam, nor can an art historian run an organic chemistry lab. Moreover, there is no way that the employing institution can provide the kind of retraining that would facilitate such a transformation... even the largest and most well-endowed institution lacks the resources to reevaluate and replace its medieval Islamicists and algebraic topologists every year. Tenure thus lets

1310-541: A college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely on a distance learning basis through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting. Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the need for people to have flexible school schedules that enable them to work while attending school have led to

1441-531: A country abbreviation with the university's name. For example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' or 'Newc (UK)' and 'Newc (Aus.) are commonly used to denote degrees conferred by these universities where the potential for confusion exists, and institution names are given in this form in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS indicates Master of Science in

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1572-527: A credit-based system for degrees, with different levels of National Qualifications Framework (NQF) ratings corresponding to each degree level. For example, an undergraduate degree in Science is rated at NQF level 6, while an additional year of study in that discipline would result in an NQF level 8 (honours degree) rating. In Kenya, the first undergraduate degree is pursued after students have completed four years of secondary school education and attained at least

1703-468: A degree in education or management takes around four years. For students pursuing a master's degree, they must have completed an undergraduate degree and attained at least a second-class honours upper division (60–69%) or lower division plus at least two years of relevant experience. Most master's degree programs take two years to complete. In an engineering master's degree program, students are typically required to publish at least one scientific paper in

1834-407: A faculty supervisor. In the sciences , publication of numerous (sometimes ten or more) research articles is required during the habilitation period of about four to ten years. In the humanities , a major book publication may be a prerequisite for defense. It is possible to get a professorship without habilitation, if the search committee attests the candidate to have qualifications equaling those of

1965-565: A fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. This right remained a point of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the Pope to the University of Paris in 1231 where it became

2096-518: A few fields, such as medicine and dentistry, the Finnish system of higher education degrees is in compliance with the Bologna process. Universities award bachelor's degrees ( kandidaatti / kandidat ), Master's degrees ( maisteri / magister ) and doctoral degrees ( lisensiaatin tutkinto / licentiat examen and tohtorin tutkinto / doktorexamen ). In most fields, the system of doctoral degrees is two-tier,

2227-572: A full professor ( professor titular ), most notably in the three state universities of the state of São Paulo , as well as at the Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP). The degree of Docteur d'État (State Doctor) or Doctorat d'État (State Doctorate), called Doctorat ès lettres (Doctor of Letters) or Doctorat ès sciences (Doctor of Sciences) before the 1950s, formerly awarded by universities in France had

2358-444: A full professorship with an international finding commission includes a venia docendi (UG2002 §98(12)), which is restricted to the time of the appointment (UG2002 §98(13) – Habilitation ad positionem ). While the habilitation ensures the rights of the independent research and the supervision, it is on behalf of the statute of the universities to give those rights also to, e.g., associate professors without habilitation. Currently

2489-419: A habilitation and the higher-ranking bodies (the university's senate and the country's ministry of education) approve. However, while some subjects make liberal use of this (e.g., the natural sciences in order to employ candidates from countries with different systems and the arts to employ active artists), in other subjects it is rarely done. The habilitation is awarded after a public lecture, to be held after

2620-469: A habilitation, where older candidates often feel discriminated against, for example under the DFG 's Emmy-Noether programme. Furthermore, internal "soft" money might only be budgeted to pay for younger postdoctoral scientists. Because of the need to chase short-term research contracts, many researchers in the natural sciences apply for more transparent career development opportunities in other countries. In summary,

2751-585: A higher status than the master's degree . This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across

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2882-531: A license to teach ( Latin : licentia docendi ) at a medieval university. Its roots can be traced to the early church when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles , church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible . The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved by the church which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay

3013-426: A pay increase may be required to compensate faculty members for the lost job security. Some U.S. states have considered legislation to remove tenure at public universities. A further criticism of tenure is that it rewards complacency. Once professors are awarded tenure, they may begin putting reduced effort into their job, knowing that their removal is difficult or expensive to the institution. Another criticism

3144-427: A peer-reviewed demonstration of a successful academic development and an international outlook is considered more than compensation for an habilitation where there is evidence of grant applications, well-cited publications, a network of collaborators, lecturing and organisational experience, and experience of having worked and published abroad. On the other hand, amongst many senior researchers, especially in medicine ,

3275-473: A position of a lecturer, with a much higher teaching load and no research obligations, or even be dismissed. In practice, however, on many occasions schools extend the deadlines for habilitation for most scholars if they do not make it in time, and there is evidence that they are able to finish it in the near future. In Austria, the procedure is currently regulated by national law (Austrian University Act UG2002 §103). The graduation process includes additionally to

3406-504: A practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge , as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews , Glasgow , Aberdeen and Edinburgh . In medieval European universities , candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium ( grammar , rhetoric and logic ) and the quadrivium ( arithmetic , geometry , astronomy and music ), together known as

3537-671: A prerequisite for being able to be selected by a university committee to fill these roles, it is necessary to have obtained the scientific qualification for the relative kind of teaching. For STEM fields (so called "bibliometric fields"), the qualifications requires a two-step evaluation: The successful candidate will then receive his or her ASN habilitation as associate or full professor (or, in some instances, for both) and may thus apply for those vacancies in Italian universities. The ASN habilitation also allows to compete for three-year tenure-track assistant professorship positions (called RTDb in

3668-515: A principal investigator, as well as a sound, ambitious, and feasible five-year research project. Outstanding postdoctoral researchers who are not yet appointed to a university could also obtain the habilitation if they meet the requirements. The French habilitation committee is constituted by a majority of external and sometimes foreign referees. The French habilitation entitles assistant professors ( maîtres de conférences ) to apply for full professor positions ( professeur des universités ). As such,

3799-412: A problem but fail to see how abolishing tenure would help. As things stand, some heterodox scholars do get hired and tenured.. If only the heterodox need formal protection, and we have a problem with growing orthodoxy, then eliminating the formal protection will exacerbate the problem." Skoble argues categorically and plainly against critics that say "tenure protects incompetent professors": "My argument

3930-461: A proliferation of online colleges that award associate's, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees. Bangladesh and India mostly follow the colonial era British system for the classification of degrees, however, Pakistan has recently switched to the US model of a two-year associate degree and a four-year bachelor's degree program. The arts, referring to the performing arts and literature, may confer

4061-401: A relatively late age, as on average one becomes an Academic Assistant at the age of 42. In 2002 the "Juniorprofessur" position (comparable to an assistant professor in the US, but not always endowed with a tenure track) was introduced as an alternative to "Habilitation". However, the degree of formal equivalence between a "Habilitation" and a successfully completed "Juniorprofessur" varies across

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4192-418: A scale of 0 to 20. The minimum score for passing is set at 10 out of 20. This numerical system exclusively evaluates a student's academic accomplishments, serving as the determinant for admission into advanced programs. For instance, a student's grades obtained for their bachelor's degree are considered when they apply for a Master's program. Level 4 courses, which include the first year of a Bachelor's program or

4323-523: A series of attendant rights and benefits, yet this status is subject to discussion. In the W pay scale the professorial pay is related to performance rather than merely to age, as it was in C. Under the tenure systems adopted by many universities and colleges in the United States and Canada, some faculty positions have tenure and some do not. Typical systems (such as the widely adopted "1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure" of

4454-405: A similar structure: the term "Bachiller" was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as "Bachillerato" . The standard Spanish university 5-year degree was "Licenciado" , (although there were a few 3-year associate degrees called "diplomaturas" , from where the "diplomados" could move to study a related licenciatura ). The highest level was "Doctor". In

4585-406: A six year program and obligatory exam they achieve the title MUDr. (equivalent to MD degree in the United States of America) , or MDDr. for dentists and MVDr. for veterinary physicians . They can also get a "big doctorate" ( Ph.D. ) after another three or four years of study. Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and small doctorates in the form of letters (Bc., Mgr., Ing., ...) are listed before

4716-762: A somewhat similar purpose. In 1984, the Doctorat d'État was replaced by the Habilitation à diriger des recherches (or French habilitation ). The award of the French habilitation is a general requirement for being the main supervisor of PhD students and to be eligible for full professor positions. The official eligibility named qualification is granted by the French Conseil National des Universités (CNU). Members of Directeur de Recherche corps who are assimilated to full professors by

4847-467: A specific academic subject at universities (sometimes also referred to as Venia docendi , Latin for "right of teaching"). Someone in possession of the Venia legendi but not a professorship has the right to carry the title Privatdozent (for men) or Privatdozentin (for women), abbreviated PD or Priv.-Doz. . The status as a PD requires doing some (generally unpaid) teaching in order to keep

4978-476: A specific, unpublished thesis, which then tends to be very long. While cumulative habilitations are predominant in some fields (such as medicine ), they have been, since about a century ago, almost unheard of in others (such as law ). The level of scholarship of a habilitation is considerably higher than for a doctoral dissertation in the same academic tradition in terms of quality and quantity, and must be accomplished independently, without direction or guidance of

5109-518: A universal license to teach ( licentia ubique docendi ). While the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree ( Baccalaureus ), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate , both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching. In universities, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild . The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to

5240-501: A university or "externally" as a research and teaching-oriented practitioner. Once the habilitation thesis ( Habilitationsschrift , often simply Habilitation ) and all other requirements are completed, the candidate (called Habilitand/in in German) "has habilitated him- or herself" and receives an extension to his/her doctoral degree, namely Dr. habil. (with the specification, such as Dr. rer. nat. habil. ). The habilitation

5371-409: Is 180, 210, or 240 ECTS-points. The academic degrees available at universities are: Historically, the Finnish higher education system is derived from the German system. The current system of higher education comprises two types of higher education institutions, the universities and the polytechnics , many of whom refer to themselves as universities of applied sciences (UAS). With the exception of

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5502-499: Is a much later creation and was not introduced in England before 1900. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified as sciences and humanities . George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in medieval Islamic madrasas in the 9th century was the origin of the doctorate that later appeared in medieval European universities. Alfred Guillaume , Syed Farid al-Attas and Devin J. Stewart agree that there

5633-408: Is a resemblance between the ijazah and the university degree. However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory. Devin J. Stewart finds that the ijazat al-ifta , license to teach Islamic law and issue legal opinions, is most similar to the medieval European university degree in that it permits entry into certain professions. A key difference was that the granting authority of the ijaza

5764-613: Is a standard list of abbreviations for university names given in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. In practice, many variations are used and the Yearbook notes that the abbreviations used may not match those used by the universities concerned. For some British universities it is traditional to use Latin abbreviations, notably 'Oxon' and 'Cantab' for the universities of Oxford and Cambridge respectively, in spite of these having been superseded by English 'Oxf' and 'Camb' in official university usage, particularly in order to distinguish

5895-466: Is based on the Latin gradus ("step"). The naming of degrees eventually became linked to the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as "masters", but those in theology , medicine and law were known as "doctors". As a study in the arts or grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed

6026-870: Is covered by the Doctorate  [ fr ] degree ( French : Doctorat ; Dutch : Doctoraat ) that covers a 3-to-7-year-long PhD , depending on whether the doctoral student has teaching responsibilities in addition to conducting research or not (typically 6 years for teaching assistants and 4 years for research-only mandates). The Czech Republic has implemented the Bologna process, and functionally has three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (4 years after Master). The Czech Republic also has voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e.g. RNDr. for natural sciences, PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) which are achieved after passing an additional exam. Medical students do not get bachelor's or master's degrees, but instead attend

6157-445: Is essential in teaching and research in this regard. In the United States, tenure rights for teachers serving in (K-12) public schools also have been in existence for more than a hundred years. Defenders of tenure, like Ellen Schrecker and Aeon J. Skoble, generally acknowledge flaws in how tenure approvals are currently run and problems in how tenured professors might use their time, security, and power; however, as Skoble puts it,

6288-620: Is in practical contrast with the spirit of the Gelmini-reform. If an ASN habilitation application fails, the candidate can apply again, but only after a 12-month hiatus. The ASN habilitation was initially valid for four years, but this validity term was extended many times. Currently (2023), due to extreme scarcity of tenure track positions in Italy, the ASN habilitation validity has been recently increased to ten years by government decree. In

6419-448: Is often a qualification for full professorship in those countries. In German-speaking countries it allows the degree holder to bear the title PD (for Privatdozent ). In a number of countries there exists an academic post of docent , appointment to which often requires such a qualification. The degree conferral is usually accompanied by a public oral defence event (a lecture or a colloquium) with one or more opponents. Habilitation

6550-564: Is regulated by the three communities of Belgium , all have common and comparable systems of degrees that were adapted to the Bologna structure during the 2000s . The primary 3-cycle structure is called BMD (Bachelor-Master-Doctorate; French : Bachelier-Master-Doctorat or Dutch : Bachelor-Master-Doctoraat ). In the first cycle, the Bachelor's degree is issued after 180 ECTS (3 years, EQF level 6). Other first cycle degrees include

6681-496: Is still possible—and encouraged—for an academic career in many subjects in Germany to pursue a habilitation. Academic degree In the UK and countries whose educational systems are based on the British system, honours degrees are divided into classes: first, second (broken into upper second, or 2.1, and lower second, or 2.2) and third class. The doctorate ( Latin : doceo , "I teach") first appeared in medieval Europe as

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6812-400: Is that it may cause the institution to tolerate incompetent professors if they are tenured. Gilbert Lycan, a history professor at Stetson University , writing in respect of a fellow professor he deemed unacceptable, stated that "the dean ... would not tolerate ineffective teaching by a non-tenured teacher who was making no effort to improve," thereby tacitly admitting, or at least leaving open

6943-476: Is that the more I am persuaded that there is groupthink orthodoxy afoot, the more I want assurances that I would not get fired if I write an essay on free trade or the Second Amendment or a book on anarchism. I take it the counterargument is that the more entrenched the orthodoxy becomes, the less likely a heterodox scholar will be tenured, or even hired, in the first place... I can see that this poses

7074-519: Is that when this happens, it is a malfunction of the system, not an intrinsic feature of its proper use. The way it is supposed to work is that incompetent professors do not get tenure in the first place. The rebuttal is 'but they do, therefore tenure is a bad idea.' But that is like arguing that because you ran a red light and caused a train wreck, driving is a bad idea." Some have argued that modern tenure systems diminish academic freedom, forcing those seeking tenured positions to profess conformance to

7205-417: Is thus an additional qualification at a higher level than the German doctoral degree . Only those candidates receiving the highest (or second-highest) grade for their doctoral thesis are encouraged to proceed with a habilitation. A typical procedure after completing the habilitation is that the successful researcher officially receives the so-called Venia legendi (Latin for "permission for lecturing") for

7336-511: Is usually awarded 5–15 years after a PhD degree or its equivalent. Achieving this academic degree does not automatically give the scientist a paid position, though many people who apply for the degree already have steady university employment. The term habilitation is derived from the Medieval Latin habilitare , meaning "to make suitable, to fit", from Classical Latin habilis "fit, proper, skillful". The degree developed in

7467-537: The American Association of University Professors ) allow only a limited period to establish a record of published research, ability to attract grant funding, academic visibility , teaching excellence, and administrative or community service. They limit the number of years that any employee can remain employed as a non-tenured instructor or professor, compelling the institution to grant tenure to or terminate an individual, with significant advance notice, at

7598-601: The Bologna Process , which is based on a three-cycle hierarchy of degrees: Bachelor's / Licence – Master's – Doctorate . This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system previously used in some countries and is combined with other elements such as the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) and the use of Diploma Supplements to make comparisons between qualifications easier. The European Higher Education Area (EHEA)

7729-591: The Bundestag (the federal parliament) cannot pass such a law, because the German constitution explicitly states that affairs of education are the sole responsibility of the states and declared the law to be invalid in June 2004. In reaction, a new federal law was passed, giving the states more freedom regarding habilitations and junior professors. The junior professor has since been legally established in all states, but it

7860-504: The Education Reform Act 1988 , many educational institutions other than universities have been granted degree-awarding powers, including higher education colleges and colleges of the University of London , many of which are now effectively universities in their own right. In many countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution, identifying

7991-505: The European Commission Directorate-General for Research, and therefore usually implies the holder of such title has a degree equivalent to habilitation. In 2004, the habilitation was the subject of a major political debate in Germany. The former Federal Minister for Education and Science, Edelgard Bulmahn , aimed to abolish the system of the habilitation and replace it with the alternative concept of

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8122-546: The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation in the seventeenth century ( c.  1652 ). Initially, habilitation was synonymous with "doctoral qualification". The term became synonymous with "post-doctoral qualification" in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation". Afterwards, it became normal in

8253-422: The Latin magister , "master" (typically indicating a teacher), entitling one to teach these subjects. Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law , Medicine or Theology and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degree in these subjects. Thus, a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which

8384-537: The Liberal Arts , and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts . The term "bachelor" comes from the Latin baccalaureus , a term previously used to describe a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a knight . Further study and, in particular, successful participation in, and moderation of, disputations would earn one the Master of Arts degree, from

8515-596: The Medieval university , they were equivalent terms. The use of them in the degree name was a matter of custom at a university. Most universities conferred the Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity, depending on the place. The earliest doctoral degrees ( theology – Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), law – Legum Doctor (LL.D., later D.C.L.) and medicine – Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected

8646-603: The Oxbridge MA from an earned MA. Other Latin abbreviations commonly used include 'Cantuar' for Lambeth degrees (awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury ), 'Dunelm' for Durham University , 'Ebor' for the University of York and 'Exon' for the University of Exeter . The Ancient universities of Scotland and the University of London have abbreviations that are the same in English and Latin. (See Universities in

8777-482: The United States in the early 20th century, and several other countries have since adopted it. Tenure is a means of defending the principle of academic freedom , which holds that it benefits society in the long run if academics are free to hold and espouse a variety of views, even if the views are unpopular or controversial. Tenure was introduced into American universities in the early 1900s in part to prevent

8908-509: The brain drain of talented young researchers who think their chances of getting a professorship at a reasonable age to be better abroad and hence move, for example, to the UK or the USA. Many feel overly dependent on their supervising principal investigators (the professor heading the research group) since superiors have power to delay the process of completing the habilitation. A further problem comes with funding support for those who wish to pursue

9039-510: The humanities and the social sciences , the habilitation was—and still is—regarded as a valuable instrument of quality control before giving somebody a tenured position for life. Bavaria, Saxony and Thuringia, three states with conservative governments, filed suit at the German Constitutional Court against the new law replacing the habilitation with the junior professor. The Court concurred with their argument that

9170-482: The "downsides are either not as bad as claimed, or [are] costs outweighed by the benefits"—and he points out that the very debate about tenure in which he is engaging is made possible by the academic freedom which tenure makes possible. "Tenure remains scholars' best defense of free inquiry and heterodoxy," writes Skoble, "especially in these times of heightened polarization and internet outrage. Let us focus on fixing it, not scrapping it." Supporters of tenure argue that

9301-433: The "social justice" element of Schrecker's defense makes it seem like present-day assurances of academic freedom create a politically left echo chamber in academic departments, Skoble observes that tenure thus becomes all the more necessary to preserve a diversity of ideas: "There is an orthodoxy in the academy, a well-documented leftward slant in political affiliation. To Bruce, this is an argument against tenure, but my point

9432-461: The 1970s and 1980s and are often no longer refilled after a retirement. In order to attain the position of professor, in some fields, an academic must usually complete a " Habilitation " (a kind of broader second PhD thesis; the very highest degree available within the university, entitling the holder to be a "full professor"), after which they are eligible for tenureship. This means that, compared to other countries, academics in Germany obtain tenure at

9563-571: The AAUP and the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U), the 1940 Statement is endorsed by over 250 scholarly and higher education organizations and is widely adopted into faculty handbooks and collective bargaining agreements at institutions of higher education throughout the United States. This statement holds that, "The common good depends upon the free search for truth and its free exposition" and stresses that academic freedom

9694-473: The CNU do not require the French habilitation to supervise PhD students. Depending on the field, the French habilitation requires consistent research from five to ten years after appointment as an assistant professor ( maître de conférences ), a substantial amount of significant publications, the supervision of at least one PhD student from start to graduation, a successful track record securing extramural funding as

9825-451: The EHEA. In Austria , there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees: The two-cycle degree system was phased out by 2010, with a few exceptions. However, some of the established degree naming has been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes. While higher education

9956-566: The Eastern bloc is equivalent to a habilitation. The cumulative form of the habilitation can be compared to the higher doctorates , such as the D.Sc. ( Doctor of Science ), Litt.D. (Doctor of Letters), LL.D. (Doctor of Laws) and D.D. (Doctor of Divinity) found in the UK, Ireland, and some Commonwealth countries, which are awarded on the basis of a career of published work. However, higher doctorates from these countries (except Russia) are often not recognized by any German state as being equivalent to

10087-539: The French habilitation is similar to the promotion to associate professor in North America. In other words, the North American ranks of assistant professor, associate professor, and full professor are equivalent to maître de conférences , French habilitation / qualification , and professeur des universités , respectively, in France. In order to hold the rank of a full professor ( W3 ) within

10218-420: The German university system to write two doctoral theses: the inaugural thesis ( Inauguraldissertation ), completing a course of study, and the habilitation thesis ( Habilitationsschrift ), which opens the road to a professorship. Habilitation qualifications exist or existed in: A habilitation thesis can be either cumulative (based on previous research, be it articles or monographs) or monographical, i.e.,

10349-425: The German university system, it is necessary to have obtained the habilitation (or "habilitation-equivalent achievements"). This can be demonstrated by leading a research group, being a junior professor , or other achievements in research and teaching as a post-doctoral researcher. The habilitation in Germany is usually earned after several years of independent research and teaching, either "internally" while working at

10480-468: The Italian system, for ricercatore a tempo determinato di tipo b ). At the end of the three-year contract the assistant professor must have a valid ASN habilitation in order to become a permanent associate professor; otherwise, he or she is permanently laid off. To prevent this (which may be disastrous to already undermanned Italian departments), it is common practice to award RTDb positions to people already habilitated as associate or full professors, which

10611-450: The Pope. Among educational institutions, St David's College, Lampeter , was granted limited degree awarding powers by royal charter in the nineteenth century, despite not being a university. The University College of North Staffordshire was also granted degree awarding powers on its foundation in 1949, despite not becoming a university (as the University of Keele ) until 1962. Following

10742-654: The Third Reich. Adolf Hitler called universal education "the most corroding and disintegrating poison". He appointed Education Minister Bernard Rust , to ensure Nazi racial theories were integrated in university curriculums. This caused a purge of 1500 professors, and by 1939, nearly half of all faculty posts were occupied by Nazis. In the late 1940s, the University of Illinois at Urbana fired several prominent economists for teaching Keynesian economics . Danish universities in advertisements for faculty positions usually state that professor positions are tenured. However,

10873-422: The US and places following American usage, but Master of Surgery in the UK and most Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for Master of Science is MSc. Common abbreviations include BA and MA for Bachelor and Master of Arts , BS/BSc and MS/MSc for Bachelor and Master of Science , MD for Doctor of Medicine and PhD for Doctor of Philosophy . An online degree is an academic degree (usually

11004-574: The United Kingdom § Post-nominal abbreviations for a more complete list and discussion of abbreviations for British universities.) Confusion can result from universities sharing similar names, e.g. the University of York in the UK and York University in Canada or Newcastle University in the UK and the University of Newcastle in Australia. In this case, the convention is to include

11135-408: The academic community avoid excessive turnover while still ensuring the quality of the institution's faculty. It is structured around two assessments – one at hiring, the other some six years later – that are far more rigorous than those elsewhere in society and give the institution enough confidence in the ability of the successful candidates to retain them on a permanent basis." Tenure also locks in

11266-469: The academic course report is replaced by a research proposal or a proposal for advanced PhD studies. After the candidate submits the habilitation thesis, a jury composed of five to nine full professors or coordinator researchers first evaluates the submitted documents; the majority needs to approve the candidate's request. If approved, the candidate then needs to defend their thesis in a two-day public defense. The public defense lasts for two hours each day. On

11397-492: The academic world. The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have completed their secondary education and allows the student to attend university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded a licence , much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. Spain had

11528-603: The arbitrary dismissal of faculty members who expressed unpopular views. One notable instance was the case of the resignation of Brown University president Elisha Andrews , who advocated silver coinage to reduce the impact on Americans and farmers who owed larger and larger loans due to deflation . The board of Brown University, many of whom were creditors and landowners (positions that benefited from deflation), told Andrews to cease his public advocacy. The Dean of Yale Law School , Francis Wayland , argued that Andrew's free expression threatened donations to Brown, and that money

11659-562: The colonial Dutch system for the classification of degrees. However, Indonesia has been dropping the Dutch titles and developing its own distinctions. Sri Lanka , like many other commonwealth countries, follows the British system, but with its own distinctions. Degrees are approved by the University Grants Commission . Tunisia's educational grading system, ranging from elementary school to Ph.D. programs, operates on

11790-411: The culture and the purpose of the listing, only the highest degree, a selection of degrees, or all degrees might be listed. The awarding institution may be shown and it might be specified if a degree was at honours level, particularly where the honours degree is a separate qualification from the ordinary bachelor's degree. For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities , there

11921-597: The degree of licentiate is an independent academic degree but completing the degree of doctor does not require completion of a licentiate degree. The polytechnics (universities of applied sciences) have the right to award bachelor's and master's degrees; the degree titles are distinct from the titles used for university degrees. Academic tenure Tenure is a type of academic appointment that protects its holder from being fired or laid off except for cause , or under extraordinary circumstances such as financial exigency or program discontinuation. Academic tenure originated in

12052-451: The degrees is very similar, with minor changes. Any PhD holder can submit a habilitation thesis to obtain the degree. For agregação , the thesis is composed by a detailed CV of the achievements obtained after concluding the PhD, a detailed report of an academic course taught at the university (or a proposed course to be taught), and the summary of a lesson to be given. For habilitação ,

12183-427: The different states ( Bundesländer ), and the informal recognition of having served as a "Juniorprofessur" as a replacement for the "Habilitation" in the appointment procedures for professorships varies greatly between disciplines. Due to a university system that guarantees universities relative academic freedom, the position of professor in Germany is relatively strong and independent. As civil servants, professors have

12314-660: The dismissal had not followed the collective agreements and Thybo received an economic compensation. Thybo had insisted that he should be reinstated in his previous position, but this was not supported by the court and the university did not rehire him. The original form of academic tenure was removed in the United Kingdom in 1988 through the Education Reform Act . In its place, there is the distinction between permanent and temporary contracts for academics. A permanent lecturer in UK universities usually holds an open-ended position that covers teaching, research and administrative responsibilities. Academics are divided into two classes: On

12445-448: The end of a specified time period. Some institutions require promotion to associate professor as a condition of tenure. A university may also offer research positions or professional track and clinical track academic positions which are said to be "non-tenure track". Positions with titles such as instructor, lecturer, adjunct professor, research professor etc. do not carry the possibility of tenure, have higher teaching loads (other than maybe

12576-435: The exam, depending on the criteria established by their institution. Degrees in almost any field of study can be pursued at one of the institutions in the country, with certain institutions being known for excelling in specific fields. Major fields of study across the country include Arts , Commerce , Engineering , Law , Medicine , Science , and Theology . The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) has developed

12707-680: The field of computer science , and include Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (B.Sc.IT.) and Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc.IT.). The engineering degree in India follows two nomenclatures, Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.) and Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.). Both represent bachelor's degree in engineering . In Pakistan, engineering degrees are Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) and Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.S./B.Sc. Engineering). Both are

12838-430: The field of free regulated professions, protected by a professional body (architects, lawyers, engineers, doctors, pharmacists, journalists, etc.), it identifies the state examination, more properly called "state examination for the qualification for the exercise of professions" that allows already graduated students or those with the necessary titles to register on the list of professionals and work. Many state exams include

12969-477: The first day, the curriculum of the candidate is discussed (for both degrees) and in the case of agregação , the candidate also needs to present the academic course selected. On the second day, the candidate needs to present a lecture ( agregação ) or a proposal of a research project ( habilitação ). The Doctor of Science in Russia and some other countries formerly part of the Soviet Union or

13100-456: The guild of "Master of Arts" was seven years. This was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree . Today the terms "master" (from the Latin magister , lit.   ' teacher ' ), "Doctor", and "Professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in

13231-702: The habilitation. In 1999, Russia and Germany signed a Statement on Mutual Academic Recognition of Russian Academic Degrees and German Academic Qualifications, including the equivalence of the Russian Doctor of Science and the German Habilitation qualification. Furthermore, the position or title of an associate professor (or higher) at a European Union-based university is systematically translated into or compared to titles such as Universitätsprofessor (W2) (Germany), førsteamanuensis (Norway), or Doktor hab. (Poland) by institutions such as

13362-682: The highest professional standards while also trying to contribute in some way to the cause of freedom and social justice, I am viewed as a controversial figure in some circles. I would be seriously hampered in my work, however, if I was constantly worrying about losing my job because of something I wrote or said... Tenure is also the mechanism through which institutions create a protected space within which college and university teachers can exercise their craft without worrying that an unpopular or unorthodox undertaking might put their careers at risk. More concretely, it creates an economically secure cohort of senior faculty members who can (and sometimes do) defend

13493-558: The historical separation of all higher University study into these three fields. Over time, the D.D. has gradually become less common outside theology and is now mostly used for honorary degrees, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used more often for earned degrees. Studies outside theology , law , and medicine were then called " philosophy ", due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation. The degree title of Doctor of Philosophy

13624-628: The interpretation of tenure at Danish universities has been a matter of controversy. Denmark adopted a more hierarchical management approach for universities in the early 2000s. This new system was introduced by parliament on proposal by the Minister of Science, Technology and Development, Helge Sander , based on his vision that Danish universities in the future should compete about funding in order to increase their attention to marketing and industry. The controversial understanding of tenure in Denmark

13755-576: The junior professor: a researcher should first be employed for up to six years as a "junior professor" (a non- tenured position roughly equivalent to assistant professor in the United States) and so prove his/her suitability for holding a tenured professorship. Many, especially researchers in the natural sciences , as well as young researchers, have long demanded the abandonment of the habilitation as they think it to be an unnecessary and time-consuming obstacle in an academic career, contributing to

13886-445: The kinds of financial remuneration that similarly educated individuals in other fields expect." Furthermore, Schrecker continues, because research positions require extreme specialization, they must consolidate the frequency and intensity of performance evaluations across a given career, and they cannot have the same flexibility or turnover rates as other jobs, making the tenure process a practical necessity: "A mathematician cannot teach

14017-413: The level of mediocrity as those awarding the tenured professorships. For example, according to physicist Lee Smolin , "...it is practically career suicide for a young theoretical physicist not to join the field of string theory ." Economist Steven Levitt , who recommends the elimination of tenure (for economics professors) in order to incentivize higher performance among professors, also points out that

14148-477: The major Austrian universities do that only for master's level students, but not for PhD programs. Livre-docência is a title (similar to Habilitation in Germany) granted to holders of doctorate degrees upon submission of a cumulative thesis followed by a viva voce examination . It has practically disappeared amongst Brazilian Federal HEIs . It is still required at a few institutions for admissions as

14279-688: The major points of the Lisbon Recognition Convention in national legislation. Since 2008, the European Union has been developing the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). This is an eight-level framework designed to allow cross-referencing of the various national qualifications frameworks. While it is not specific to higher education , the top four levels (5–8) correspond to the short cycle, first cycle, second cycle, and third cycle of

14410-622: The non-pecuniary aspects of academic compensation, lowering the required salary. Above all, however, tenure is essential because it protects academic freedom: not only in cases in which a scholar's politics may run counter to those of their department, institution, or funding bodies, but also and most often in cases when a scholar's work innovates in ways that challenge received wisdom in the field. As much as Ellen Schrecker identifies its flaws, she asserts tenure's crucial role in preserving academic freedom: And yet, despite its whittling away by such unfortunate decisions as Urofsky, Garcetti, and Hong,

14541-707: The one hand, professors (W2/W3&C3/C4 positions in the new and old systems of pay grades) are employed as state civil servants and hold tenure as highly safeguarded lifetime employment; On the other hand, there is a much larger group of "junior staff" on fixed-term contracts, research grants, fellowships and part-time jobs. In 2010, 9% of academic staff were professors, 66% were "junior staff" (including doctoral candidates on contracts), and 25% were other academic staff in secondary employment. Permanent research, teaching and management positions below professorship as an "Akademischer Rat" (a civil service position salaried like high school teachers) have become relatively rare compared to

14672-1006: The one-year Advanced Bachelor's degree  [ fr ; nl ] degree ( French : Bachelier de spécialisation , lit.   'Specialized Bachelor'; Dutch : Bachelor-na-bachelor , lit.   'Bachelor-after-bachelor') and the Brevet (in the French-speaking Community only) for short-cycle higher education programmes. Bachelor's degrees are followed in the second cycle ( EQF level 7) by Master's degrees  [ fr ] that last two years, completing an extra 120 ECTS credits. The master's degree can be followed by an Advanced Master's degree  [ fr ; nl ] ( French : Master de spécialisation , lit.   'Specialized Master'; Dutch : Master-na-master , lit.   'Master-after-master') that lasts one year (60 ECTS). The third cycle of Belgium's higher education

14803-545: The past, degrees have been directly issued by the authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Great Britain , Lambeth degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury . The Archbishop of Canterbury's right to grant degrees is derived from the Peter's Pence Act 1533 , which empowered the Archbishop to grant dispensations previously granted by

14934-829: The person's name, and Doctor's degrees (Ph.D.) are listed after name (e.g. MUDr. Jan Novák, Ph.D.). The Czech Republic previously had more degrees that were awarded. Before the adoption of the Bologna Process, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at universities in Denmark was equivalent to a master's degree ( kandidatgrad ). Officially, a bachelor's degree was always obtained after 3 years' university studies. Various medium-length (2–4 years) professional degrees have been adopted, so they now have status as professional bachelor's degrees of varying length. As opposed to academic bachelor's degrees, they are considered to be "applied" degrees. A professional bachelor's degree

15065-403: The possession of a specific qualification among the requirements. For example, to take the habilitation exam for to become an architect or an engineer, one must have already graduated from a university. However, in order to actually practice the profession it is necessary to register with the relevant professional association and, if the profession is exercised independently, it is necessary to have

15196-470: The profession in question. This is for example the case of the education sector: once the qualifying examination has been passed, a public competition must be won for recruitment in an upper or lower secondary school. In the Portuguese legal system, there are two types of habilitation degree. The first is normally given to university professors and is named agregação or Decree of Law 239/2007 while

15327-726: The quality of American education as well as the ability of their colleagues to teach, do research, and speak out as citizens without fear of institutional reprisals. Such, at least, is the idealized version of the relationship between tenure and academic freedom. In elementary and secondary schools, tenure also protects teachers from being fired for personal, political, or other non-work related reasons: tenure prohibits school districts from firing experienced teachers to hire less experienced, less expensive teachers as well as protects teachers from being fired for teaching unpopular, controversial, or otherwise challenged curricula such as evolutionary biology, theology, and controversial literature. If

15458-483: The research positions), have less influence within the institution, lower compensation with few or no benefits (see adjunct professor ), and little protection of academic freedom . In response to Nazi manipulations of university faculty in Germany, the modern conception of tenure in US higher education originated with the American Association of University Professors ' (AAUP) 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure. Jointly formulated and endorsed by

15589-530: The same in curriculum , duration and pattern, and differ only in nomenclature. The engineering degree in Bangladesh is a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.Sc. Engineering). Other degrees include the medical degree ( Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS)), dental degree ( Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS)) and computer application degrees ( Bachelor of Computer Application (BCA)) and Master of Computer Application (MCA). Indonesia follows

15720-537: The second is named habilitação (Decree of Law 124/99) and is used by doctoral researchers working in institutes outside universities. Legally, they are equivalent and are required for a professor ( agregação ) or a researcher ( habilitação ) to reach the top of their specific careers (full professor or coordinator researcher). Both degrees aim to evaluate if the candidate has achieved significant outputs in terms of scientific activity, including activities in postgraduation supervision. The process to obtain any of

15851-432: The security granted by tenure is necessary to recruit talented individuals into university professorships, because in many fields private industry jobs pay significantly more; as Schrecker puts it, providing professors "the kind of job security that most other workers can only dream of" counterbalances universities' inability to compete with the private sector: "Universities, after all, are not corporations and cannot provide

15982-420: The status of the individual wearing them. In many countries, degrees may only be awarded by institutions authorised to do so by the national or regional government. Frequently, governments will also regulate the use of the word university in the names of businesses. This approach is followed, for example, by Australia, the United Kingdom and Israel. The use of fake degrees by individuals, either obtained from

16113-438: The sub-commission of the senate (including students representatives for a hearing on the teaching capabilities of the candidate) an external reviewer. Holding a habilitation allows academics to do research and supervise (PhD, MSc, ...) on behalf of this university. As it is an academic degree, this is even valid if the person is not enrolled (or not enrolled anymore) at this institution ( Habilitation ad personam ). Appointment to

16244-450: The thesis has been accepted, and after which the venia legendi (Latin: 'permission to read', i.e., to lecture) is bestowed. In some areas, such as law, philosophy, theology and sociology, the venia , and thus the habilitation, is given only for certain sub-fields (such as criminal law , civil law , or philosophy of science , practical philosophy , etc.); in others, for the entire field. Although disciplines and countries vary in

16375-516: The title ( Titellehre or titular teaching). In the Italian legal system, habilitations are different types of acts and authorizations. Regarding university habilitations, the so-called Gelmini reform of the research and university teaching system (Italian Law 240 of year 2010 and subsequent modifications) has established the national scientific habilitation for the calls in the role of associate professor and full professor (called abilitazione scientifica nazionale , or ASN). This means that, as

16506-429: The traditional form of academic freedom still exists, misunderstood and imperiled as it may be. It exists by virtue of two practices that protect the job security and institutional authority of college and university teachers: tenure and faculty governance. It exists as well because of the procedural guarantees that surround those practices... My own experiences prove tenure's value. As a historian who wants to conform to

16637-548: The typical number of years for obtaining habilitation after getting a doctorate, it usually takes longer than for the American academic tenure . For example, in Poland until 2018, the statutory time for getting a habilitation (traditionally, although not obligatorily, relying on a book publication) is eight years. Theoretically, if an assistant professor does not succeed in obtaining habilitation in this time, they should be moved to

16768-587: Was an individual professor whereas the university degree was granted by a corporate entity. The University of Bologna in Italy , regarded as the oldest university in Europe , was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including medicine . The University of Paris used the term "master" for its graduates,

16899-449: Was demonstrated by University of Copenhagen in 2016, when the university fired the internationally renowned professor, Hans Thybo , due to what they regarded as unacceptable and untenable behavior (putting pressure on postdoc in regards of an employment survey and using private emails for work related matters despite repeated warnings about it). The handling of the firing was criticized by other researchers. A later court decision ruled that

17030-516: Was formally established in 2010 and, as of September 2016, has 50 members. The implementation of the various elements of the EHEA varies between countries. Twenty-four countries have fully implemented a national qualifications framework, and a further ten have a framework but have not yet certified it against the overarching framework . In 38 countries, ECTS credits are used for all higher education programmes, and 31 countries have fully implemented diploma supplements. Only 11 countries have included all

17161-444: Was the life blood of universities. In 1897 Andrews was forced to offer his resignation, but there was a backlash by faculty and students who advocated that he should be protected under the principles of free speech. The board reversed its decision and refused Andrews' resignation. A year later, Andrews resigned anyway. Before Nazism , Germany had been a leader in academic tenure, but free speech and tenure were severely curtailed under

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