Christianity • Protestantism
151-608: The Half-Way Covenant was a form of partial church membership adopted by the Congregational churches of colonial New England in the 1660s. The Puritan -controlled Congregational churches required evidence of a personal conversion experience before granting church membership and the right to have one's children baptized . Conversion experiences were less common among second-generation colonists, and this became an issue when these unconverted adults had children of their own who were ineligible for baptism. The Half-Way Covenant
302-512: A gathered church of believers (i.e., only those who were thought to be among the elect and could give an account of a conversion experience were admitted as members). Every congregation was founded upon a church covenant , a written agreement signed by all members in which they agreed to uphold congregational principles, to be guided by sola scriptura in their decision making, and to submit to church discipline. The right of each congregation to elect its own officers and manage its own affairs
453-661: A synod of ministers and lay representatives to meet in Cambridge to craft such a statement. The Cambridge Platform was completed by the synod in 1648 and commended by the General Court as an accurate description of Congregational practice after the churches were given time to study the document, provide feedback, and finally, ratify it. While the Platform was legally nonbinding and intended only to be descriptive, it soon became regarded by ministers and laypeople alike as
604-769: A 1957 merger with the Evangelical and Reformed Church . Congregationalists who chose not to join the United Church of Christ founded two alternative denominations: the National Association of Congregational Christian Churches and the Conservative Congregational Christian Conference . The Congregational tradition was brought to America in the 1620s and 1630s by the Puritans —a Calvinistic group within
755-653: A General Convention for that state in 1796. The University of Vermont and Middlebury College were founded by Congregationalists. Congregational churches had been present in eastern New York prior to the Revolution, but expansion into the central and western parts of that state took place in the 1790s as emigration increased from Massachusetts and Connecticut. As New Englanders settled in the Old Northwest , they brought Congregationalism with them. The First Congregational Church of Marietta, Ohio , gathered in 1796,
906-466: A broad level, the mysteries are an affirmation of the goodness of created matter, and are an emphatic declaration of what that matter was originally created to be. Despite this broad view, Orthodox divines do write about there being seven "principal" mysteries. On a specific level, while not systematically limiting the mysteries to seven, the most profound Mystery is the Eucharist or Synaxis , in which
1057-654: A long series of crises in Massachusetts, beginning with King Phillip's War (1675–1678) and ending with the Salem Witch Trials (1693). Many Puritans believed God was punishing the colony for failing to bring more people into the covenant. The Massachusetts General Court called the Reforming Synod (1679–1680) to consider the causes for decline. By the end of the 17th century, four out of every five Congregational churches in Massachusetts had adopted
1208-685: A modification of the Westminster Confession of Faith , was adopted as a Congregationalist confessional statement in Massachusetts in 1680 and Connecticut in 1708. In 1684, Massachusetts' colonial charter was revoked. It was merged with the other Bible Commonwealths along with New York and New Jersey into the Dominion of New England . Edmund Andros , an Anglican , was appointed royal governor and demanded that Anglicans be allowed to worship freely in Boston. The Dominion collapsed after
1359-470: A regenerate [church] membership was renewed, while Stoddardeanism and the Half-Way Covenant were called into question." Jonathan Edwards , Stoddard's grandson, was influential in undermining both Stoddardeanism and the Half-Way Covenant, but he also attacked the very idea of a national covenant. Edwards believed there was only one covenant between God and man—the covenant of grace . This covenant
1510-495: A religious Utopia to a legalized order" in which assurance of salvation became essentially a private matter and the "churches were pledged, in effect, not to pry into the genuineness of any religious emotions, but to be altogether satisfied with decorous semblances." Historian Sydney Ahlstrom writes that the covenant was "itself no proof of declension" but that it "documented the passing of churches composed solely of regenerate 'saints'." Historian Francis Bremer writes that it weakened
1661-429: A religious revival in which an unusually large number of converts joined the church. Before being admitted into the church, the converts engaged in a Puritan practice of lay sermonizing or prophesying in which they recounted to the congregation the process by which they became convinced of their election. This practice spread to other churches and by 1640 had become a requirement throughout New England. With this new rule,
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#17327727430311812-501: A supply of educated ministers, Harvard University was founded in 1636. In the aftermath of the Antinomian Controversy (1636–1638), ministers realized the need for greater communication between churches and standardization of preaching. As a consequence, nonbinding ministerial conferences to discuss theological questions and address conflicts became more frequent in the following years. A more substantial innovation
1963-434: A variety of reasons, including a belief that it is better to concentrate on the reality behind the symbols; however, it does not forbid its members from receiving sacraments in other denominations. The Quakers (Religious Society of Friends) also do not practice formal sacraments, believing that all activities should be considered holy. Rather, they are focused on an inward transformation of one's whole life. Some Quakers use
2114-492: Is a Christian rite that is recognized as being particularly important and significant. There are various views on the existence, number and meaning of such rites. Many Christians consider the sacraments to be a visible symbol of the reality of God , as well as a channel for God's grace . Many denominations , including the Roman Catholic , Lutheran , Presbyterian , Anglican , Methodist , and Reformed , hold to
2265-662: Is the oldest Congregational church in the region. In 1798, the Connecticut General Association created the Connecticut Missionary Society to provide for the religious needs of the new settlements. Between 1798 and 1818, the society sent 148 ministers to the frontier settlements of northern New England, Pennsylvania, and the Old Northwest. Initially, the society recruited settled pastors to undertake four-month tours in
2416-902: The American Education Society in 1815 (which provided financial aid for seminary students), the American Bible Society in 1816, the American Colonization Society in 1817, and the American Temperance Society in 1826. Some of these were joint projects with Presbyterians. Following the example of the churches in Connecticut and Vermont, Congregationalists in other parts of the Northeast formed statewide associations. The Massachusetts General Association
2567-690: The Catholic tradition and the Protestant Reformation . The Catholic heritage is perhaps most strongly asserted in the importance Anglicanism and Methodism places on the sacraments as a means of grace and sanctification , while the Reformed tradition has contributed a marked insistence on "lively faith" and "worthy reception". Anglican and Roman Catholic theologians participating in an Anglican/Roman Catholic Joint Preparatory Commission declared that they had "reached substantial agreement on
2718-614: The Church of England that desired to purify it of any remaining teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church . As part of their reforms, Puritans desired to replace the Church of England's episcopal polity (rule by bishops ) with another form of church government. Some English Puritans favored presbyterian polity (rule by assemblies of presbyters ), as was utilized by the Church of Scotland , but those who founded
2869-626: The Connecticut Colony in 1636 and New Haven Colony in 1637. Eventually, there were 33 Congregational churches in New England. According to historian James F. Cooper Jr., Congregationalism helped imbue the political culture of Massachusetts with several important concepts: "adherence to fundamental or 'higher' laws, strict limitations upon all human authority, free consent, local self-government, and, especially, extensive lay participation." However, congregational polity also meant
3020-703: The Coptic Orthodox Church , Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , and the Armenian Orthodox Church . The Czechoslovak Hussite Church recognizes seven sacraments: baptism , eucharist , penance , confirmation , holy matrimony , holy orders , and anointing of the sick . The Moravian Church administers the sacraments of baptism and eucharist, as well as the rites of confirmation, holy matrimony, and holy orders. Lutherans hold that sacraments are sacred acts of divine institution. Whenever they are properly administered by
3171-546: The Eastern Orthodox the term "sacrament" is a term which seeks to classify something that may, according to Orthodox thought, be impossible to classify. The Orthodox communion's preferred term is "Sacred Mystery", and the Orthodox communion has refrained from attempting to determine absolutely the exact form, number and effect of the sacraments, accepting simply that these elements are unknowable to all except God. On
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#17327727430313322-508: The Evangelist Blessing , and administration to the sick". The enumeration, naming, understanding, and the adoption of the sacraments formally vary according to denomination , although the finer theological distinctions are not always understood and may not even be known to many of the faithful. Many Protestants and other post-Reformation traditions affirm Luther's definition and have only Baptism and Eucharist (or Communion or
3473-707: The First and Second Great Awakenings and were early promoters of the missionary movement of the 19th century. The Congregational tradition has shaped both mainline and evangelical Protestantism in the United States. In the 20th century, the Congregational tradition in America fragmented into three different denominations . The largest of these is the United Church of Christ , which resulted from
3624-539: The Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, and a new charter was granted in 1691. However, the power of the Congregational churches remained diminished. The governor continued to be appointed by the Crown , and voting rights were now based on wealth rather than church membership. In the 18th century, Congregational ministers began forming clerical associations for fellowship and consultation. The first association
3775-781: The Massachusetts Bay Colony organized their churches according to congregational polity (rule by members of the local church). The first Congregational church organized in America was First Parish Church in Plymouth , which was established in 1620 by Separatist Puritans known as Pilgrims . The first Congregational church organized in the Massachusetts Bay Colony was First Church in Salem , established in 1629. By 1640, 18 churches had been organized in Massachusetts. In addition, Puritans established
3926-869: The Patriots and American independence. This was largely because ministers chose to stand with their congregations who felt the British government was becoming tyrannical. Ministers were also motivated by fear that the British would appoint Anglican bishops for the American colonies. This had been proposed as a practical measure; American bishops could ordain Anglican priests in the colonies without requiring candidates for ordination to travel to England. Congregationalists, however, remembered how their Puritan ancestors were oppressed by bishops in England and had no desire to see
4077-497: The visible church , and in it all the benefits of Christ are offered to the baptized. On the Lord's supper, Westminster takes a position between Lutheran sacramental union and Zwinglian memorialism: "the Lord's supper really and indeed, yet not carnally and corporally, but spiritually, receive and feed upon Christ crucified, and all benefits of his death: the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally in, with, or under
4228-554: The "Black Regiment" or "Black-Robed Regiment" by the British. By 1776, there were 668 Congregational churches—21 percent of all churches in America. Congregationalism had been a tradition largely confined to New England, but Congregationalists would migrate westward as the new United States expanded. Vermont was the first of these new territories to be opened up. The first church was established in 1762, but there were 74 Congregational churches in Vermont by 1800. Those churches organized
4379-482: The 1700s. Other churches went beyond the Half-Way Covenant, opening baptism to all infants whether or not their parents or grandparents had been baptized. While the conservatives were outvoted in the synod, they continued to publicly protest, and both sides engaged in a pamphlet war . Chauncey, Davenport and Increase Mather wrote against the synod, while Mitchell, John Allen and Richard Mather defended it. Eventually, Increase Mather changed his position and supported
4530-438: The 19th century. Nineteenth-century Congregationalist ministers Leonard Bacon and Henry Martyn Dexter saw the Half-Way Covenant's adoption as the beginning of the decline of New England's churches that continued into the 1800s. Some historians also identify the Half-Way Covenant with Puritan decline or declension. Historian Perry Miller identifies its adoption as the final step in "the transformation of Congregationalism from
4681-636: The Augsburg Confession defines sacraments, according to the German text, as "outward signs and ceremonies that have God's command and have an attached divine promise of graces". His Latin text was shorter: "rites that have the command of God, and to which is added a promise of grace". This strict definition narrowed the number of sacraments down to three: Holy Baptism , the Eucharist , and Holy Absolution . Lutherans do not dogmatically define
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4832-545: The Awakening, with Old Lights opposing it and New Lights supporting it. A notable example of revival radicalism was James Davenport , a Congregational minister who preached to large crowds throughout Massachusetts and Connecticut. Davenport denounced ministers who opposed him as being "unconverted" and "leading their people blindfold to hell." In March 1743, he held a book burning of the works of Increase Mather, William Beveridge , John Flavel , and others. Concerns over
4983-532: The Bible, attended church, and raised their children as Christians. Nevertheless, they were barred from receiving the Lord's Supper, voting, or holding office in the church. In the 1660s, the Half-Way Covenant was proposed, which would allow the grandchildren of church members to be baptized as long as their parents accepted their congregation's covenant and lived Christian lives. Some churches maintained
5134-721: The Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Tetons, Blackfeet, and Winnebagos. As a plaintiff in Worcester v. Georgia , American Board missionary Samuel Worcester fought to prevent the forced relocation of the Cherokees , and the United States Supreme Court ruled in his favor. When President Andrew Jackson refused to enforce the decision, the Cherokee were sent to Oklahoma, and American Board missionaries followed them there. Sacrament A sacrament
5285-635: The Christian faith. The English word sacrament is derived indirectly from the Ecclesiastical Latin sacrāmentum , from the Latin sacrō ( ' hallow, consecrate ' ), itself derive from the Latin sacer ( ' sacred, holy ' ). In Ancient Rome , the term meant a soldier's oath of allegiance . Tertullian , a 3rd-century Christian writer, suggested that just as the soldier's oath
5436-634: The Church affirms that for believers the sacraments are necessary for salvation. Through each of them, Christ bestows that sacrament's particular healing and transforming grace of the Holy Spirit, making them participants in the divine nature through union with Christ. Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: The Eastern Orthodox tradition does not limit
5587-484: The Church itself. Many Protestant denominations, such as those within the Reformed denomination of Calvinism , preach just two sacraments instituted by Christ, the Eucharist (or Holy Communion) and Baptism. The Lutheran sacraments include these two, often adding Confession (and Absolution) as a third sacrament. Anglican and Methodist teaching is that "there are two Sacraments ordained of Christ our Lord in
5738-596: The Edwardsean school of thought, became known, sought to answer Arminian objections to Calvinism and to provide a theological basis for the revivalism that had been unleashed by the Great Awakening. The New Divinity would remain the dominant theological orientation within the Congregational churches into the 19th century. During the American Revolution , most Congregational ministers sided with
5889-565: The Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Order, and Matrimony; or even that any one of these seven is not truly and properly a sacrament; let him be anathema . [...] CANON IV. – If any one saith, that the sacraments of the New Law are not necessary unto salvation, but superfluous; and that, without them, or without the desire thereof, men obtain of God, through faith alone, the grace of justification; – though all (the sacraments) are not necessary for every individual; let him be anathema. During
6040-713: The Gospel ... but have not the like nature of Sacraments with Baptism and the Lord's Supper, for they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained by God." These phrases have led to a debate as to whether the five are to be called sacraments or not. A recent author writes that the Anglican Church gives "sacramental value to the other five recognized by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches" but these "do not reveal those essential aspects of redemption to which Baptism and Communion point". Some Anglicans maintain that
6191-589: The Gospel, that is to say, Baptism and the Supper of the Lord," and that "those five commonly called Sacraments, that is to say, Confirmation, Penance, Orders, Matrimony, and Extreme Unction, are not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel." Some traditions, such as The Religious Society of Friends do not observe any of the rites, or, in the case of Anabaptists , hold that they are simply reminders or commendable practices that do not impart actual grace—not sacraments but " ordinances " pertaining to certain aspects of
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6342-539: The Great Awakening, for example, was " Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God ", delivered by Edwards at Enfield, Connecticut , in July 1741. Many in the congregation were affected by Edwards's sermon, with minister Stephen Williams reporting "amazing shrieks and cries" caused by the heightened religious excitement. By 1742, the revival had entered a more radical and disruptive phase. Lay people became more active participants in
6493-399: The Half-Way Covenant, with some also extending access to the Lord's Supper. As the Half-Way Covenant became widely adopted, it became typical for a New England congregation to have a group of regular churchgoers who were considered Christians by their behavior but who never professed conversion. Often, these half-way members outnumbered full members. One Massachusetts estimate from 1708 stated
6644-470: The Half-Way Covenant. Critics argued that the Half-Way Covenant would end commitment to the Puritan ideal of a regenerate church membership, either by permanently dividing members into two classes (those with access to the Lord's Supper and those with only baptism) or by starting the slippery slope to giving the unconverted access to the Lord's Supper. Supporters argued that to deny baptism and inclusion in
6795-419: The Half-Way Covenant. Among the 70 members of the synod, the strongest advocate for the Half-Way Covenant was Jonathan Mitchell , pastor of Cambridge's First Parish , and the leader of the conservative party, President Chauncey. Under congregationalist polity, the decision to accept or reject the Half-Way Covenant belonged to each congregation. Some churches rejected it and maintained the original standard into
6946-464: The Lord's Supper (Eucharist), ordination (for males), initiatory (called Chrismation in other Christian traditions), endowment (similar to a monastic initiation involving the taking of vows and reception of priestly clothing), and marriage. In the Community of Christ , eight sacraments are recognized, including "baptism, confirmation, blessing of children, the Lord's Supper, ordination , marriage,
7097-692: The Lord's Supper affirms "to such as rightly, worthily, and with faith, receive the same, the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ". In the Exhortations of the Prayer Book rite, the worthy communicant is bidden to "prepare himself by examination of conscience, repentance and amendment of life and above all to ensure that he is in love and charity with his neighbours" and those who are not "are warned to withdraw". This particular question
7248-555: The Lord's Supper or vote on church business (such as choosing ministers or disciplining other members) until they had professed conversion. These recommendations were controversial and met with strong opposition, inducing the Massachusetts General Court to call a synod of ministers and lay delegates to deliberate further on the question of who should be baptized. Like the 1657 assembly, the Synod of 1662 endorsed
7399-459: The Lord's Supper was a memorial rather than a means of grace or a converting ordinance. As a result, they believed that distinguishing between full members and half-way members was "undemocratic, illiberal, and anachronistic". These liberal currents would eventually lead to beliefs in Unitarianism and universal salvation and the creation of a distinct American Unitarian denomination in
7550-460: The Lord's Supper) as sacraments, while others see the ritual as merely symbolic, and still others do not have a sacramental dimension at all. In addition to the traditional seven sacraments, other rituals have been considered sacraments by some Christian traditions. In particular, foot washing as seen in Anabaptist , Schwarzenau Brethren , German Baptist groups or True Jesus Church , and
7701-519: The Lord's Supper. Open communion was justified because Stoddard believed the sacrament was a "converting ordinance" that prepared people for conversion. Stoddardeanism was an attempt to reach people with the gospel more effectively, but it did so, according to historian Mark Noll , by "abandoning the covenant as a unifying rationale". Historian Sydney E. Ahlstrom writes that during the First Great Awakening (1734–1745), "The ideal of
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#17327727430317852-557: The Lord's Supper. He and all Reformed theologians following him completely rejected the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and the treatment of the Supper as a sacrifice. He also could not accept the Lutheran doctrine of sacramental union in which Christ was "in, with and under" the elements. The Westminster Confession of Faith also limits the sacraments to baptism and the Lord's Supper. Sacraments are denoted "signs and seals of
8003-471: The Lutheran church. Luther himself around the time of his marriage and afterwards became one of the greatest champions of Marriage (Holy Matrimony), and the other two ( Confirmation and Ordination ) were kept in the Lutheran Church for purposes of good order. Within Lutheranism, the sacraments are a Means of Grace , and, together with the Word of God , empower the Church for mission. Anglican and Methodist sacramental theology reflects its dual roots in
8154-486: The Massachusetts General Association to support the creation of a foreign missionary society. The Connecticut General Association was invited to participate as well and hosted the first meeting of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions . Through the American Board, Congregational churches supported missionaries in India, Ceylon, South Africa, Turkey, and the Hawaiian Islands. The American Board also established missions among Native American tribes, including
8305-420: The Massachusetts ministerial associations met in Boston in September 1705. They proposed a plan with two major features. The first was that associations examine and license ministerial candidates, investigate charges of ministerial misconduct, and annually elect delegates to a colony-wide general association. The second feature was the creation of "standing councils" of ministers and lay representatives to supervise
8456-489: The Middle Ages, sacramental records were in Latin. Even after the Reformation, many ecclesiastical leaders continued using this practice into the 20th century. On occasion, Protestant ministers followed the same practice. Since W was not part of the Latin alphabet, scribes only used it when dealing with names or places. In addition, names were modified to fit a "Latin mold". For instance, the name Joseph would be rendered as Iosephus or Josephus. The Catholic Church indicates that
8607-468: The Moderates preached on practical topics and emphasized preparing for conversion through the use of the means of grace (preaching, catechizing , prayer) and pastoral care . Ezra Stiles was a notable Old Calvinist. In the two decades after the First Great Awakening, the tone of Congregational thought was set by New Light theologian Jonathan Edwards and his followers, the most notable being Joseph Bellamy and Samuel Hopkins . The New Divinity , as
8758-417: The Puritan vision, every church member should be a "visible saint", someone who not only demonstrated an understanding of Christian doctrine and was free of social scandal but who also could claim a conscious conversion experience . This experience indicated to Puritans that a person had been regenerated and was, therefore, one of the elect destined for salvation. To ensure only regenerated persons entered
8909-453: The Puritans believed they had come closer to making the visible church a more accurate reflection of the invisible church . As Calvinists , Congregationalists did not believe the sacraments had any power to produce conversion or determine one's spiritual state. The sacraments were seals of the covenant meant to confirm one in their election, which was already predestined by God. While children could not be presumed to be regenerated, it
9060-428: The Sick (Extreme Unction). The Eastern Churches , such as the Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Church as well as the Eastern Catholic Churches , also believe that there are seven major sacraments, but apply the words sacred mysteries corresponding to Greek word, μυστήριον ( mysterion ), and also to rites that in the Western tradition are called sacramentals and to other realities, such as
9211-461: The Sick (before the Second Vatican Council generally called Extreme Unction). The list of seven sacraments already given by the Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) was reaffirmed by the Council of Trent (1545–1563), which stated: CANON I. – If any one saith, that the sacraments of the New Law were not all instituted by Jesus Christ, our Lord; or that they are more, or less, than seven, to wit, Baptism, Confirmation,
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#17327727430319362-421: The State of Religion in New England , which attacked the enthusiasm and extravagant behaviors of revival meetings. Other Congregationalists met at Boston in 1743 under the leadership of Benjamin Colman of Brattle Street Church and Thomas Prince of Old South Church . They issued a resolution supporting the revival as the work of God and downplaying the impact of "irregularities" that had occurred. Nevertheless,
9513-443: The Younger , William Brattle (pastor of First Parish in Cambridge ), Thomas Brattle , and Ebenezer Pemberton (pastor of Old South Church ) proposed a number of changes in Congregational practice. These changes included abandoning the consideration of conversion narratives in granting church membership and allowing all baptized members of a community (whether full members or not) to vote in elections for ministers. They also supported
9664-445: The absence of any centralized church authority. The result was that at times the first generation of Congregationalists struggled to agree on common beliefs and practices. To help achieve unity, Puritan clergy would often meet in conferences to discuss issues arising within the churches and to offer advice. Congregationalists also looked to the ministers of the First Church in Boston to set examples for other churches to follow. One of
9815-411: The actual theology is sacramental in nature. Latter-day Saint ordinances are understood as conferring an invisible form of grace of a saving nature and are required for salvation and exaltation . Latter-day Saints often use the word " sacrament " to refer specifically to the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, also known as the Lord's Supper , in which participants eat bread and drink wine (or water, since
9966-406: The atmosphere toward revival had changed by 1744 when Whitefield returned to New England. The faculties of Harvard and Yale issued statements critical of his methods, and ministerial associations throughout the region spoke against allowing him to preach in their churches. While most New Lights stayed within the established Congregational churches, there were still those in New England who embraced
10117-442: The baptism of all children presented by any Christian sponsor and the liturgical use of the Lord's Prayer . These changes were strongly opposed by Increase Mather , president of Harvard. The result was that Thomas Brattle and his associates built a new church in Boston in 1698. They invited Benjamin Colman, then in England, to become the pastor. Coleman was ordained by Presbyterians in England before leaving for America because it
10268-533: The baptismal covenant. At least in this way, they argued, a larger number of people would be subject to the church's discipline and authority. By the 1660s, churches in Connecticut were divided between those who utilized the Half-Way Covenant, those who completely rejected it and those who allowed anyone to be a full member. With the colony's clergy divided over the issue, the Connecticut legislature decided in 1669 that it would tolerate both inclusive and exclusive baptism practices. It also permitted churches divided over
10419-451: The baptized children of this first generation had become adults themselves and were beginning to have children; however, many within this second generation had not experienced conversion. As a result, their children were denied infant baptism and entry into the covenant. As this group increased, Congregationalists grew concerned that the church's influence over society would weaken unless these unconverted adults and their children were kept in
10570-419: The bread and wine; yet, as really, but spiritually, present to the faith of believers in that ordinance as the elements themselves are to their outward senses." Irvingian denominations such as the New Apostolic Church teach three sacraments: Baptism , Holy Communion and Holy Sealing . Members of the Latter-day Saint movement often use the word " ordinance " in the place of the word "sacrament", but
10721-403: The children of unconverted baptized adults receive baptism if their parents publicly agreed with Christian doctrine and affirmed the church covenant in a ceremony known as "owning the baptismal covenant" in which "they give up themselves and their children to the Lord, and subject themselves to the Government of Christ in the Church". These baptized but unconverted members were not to be admitted to
10872-547: The church, prospective members were required to provide their personal conversion narratives to be judged by the congregation. If accepted, they could affirm the church covenant and receive the privileges of membership, which included participating in the Lord's Supper and having their children baptized . The sharing of conversion narratives prior to admission was first practiced at the First Church in Boston in 1634 during
11023-436: The church. A number of Congregational churches split over the issue. The Half-Way Covenant's adoption has been interpreted by some historians as signaling the decline of New England Puritanism and the ideal of the church as a body of exclusively converted believers. For other historians, it signaled a move away from sectarianism . The Half-Way Covenant also opened the door to further divisions among Congregationalists concerning
11174-513: The church. It seemed that the Puritan ideal of a pure church of authentic converts was clashing with the equally important ideal of a society united in covenant with God. As early as 1634, the church in Dorchester , Massachusetts, asked the advice of Boston's First Church concerning a church member's desire to have his grandchild baptized even though neither of his parents were full members. First Church recommended that this be allowed. The issue
11325-442: The churches at Salem , Dorchester and Ipswich adopted the halfway system. The provisions of the Half-Way Covenant were outlined and endorsed by a meeting of ministers initiated by the legislatures of Connecticut and Massachusetts. This ministerial assembly met in Boston on June 4, 1657. Plymouth Colony sent no delegates, and New Haven declined to take part, insisting on adhering to the older practice. The assembly recommended that
11476-535: The churches within a geographical area and to act as counterparts to the ministerial associations. The decisions of these councils were to be "final and decisive" but could be referred to a neighboring standing council for further review. If a church refused to adhere to a council's ruling, the neighboring churches would withdraw communion from the offending church. In Massachusetts, the proposals encountered much opposition as they were viewed as being inconsistent with congregational polity. The creation of standing councils
11627-633: The covenant bonds linking individuals, churches and society until the First Great Awakening definitively marked the end of the Puritan era. Congregationalism in the United States Congregationalism in the United States consists of Protestant churches in the Reformed tradition that have a congregational form of church government and trace their origins mainly to Puritan settlers of colonial New England . Congregational churches in other parts of
11778-408: The covenant of grace". Westminster speaks of "a sacramental relation, or a sacramental union, between the sign and the thing signified; whence it comes to pass that the names and effects of the one are attributed to the other". Baptism is for infant children of believers as well as believers, as it is for all the Reformed except Baptists and some Congregationalists . Baptism admits the baptized into
11929-422: The covenant to the grandchildren of first generation members was in essence claiming that second-generation parents had forfeited their membership and "discovenanted themselves", despite for the most part being catechized churchgoers. Supporters believed the Half-Way Covenant was a "middle way" between the extremes of either admitting the ungodly into the church or stripping unconverted adults of their membership in
12080-538: The covenant. In this environment, the Half-Way system ceased to function as a source of religious and social cohesion. The New Light followers of Edwards would continue to insist that the church be a body of regenerate saints. The liberal, Arminian Congregationalists who dominated the churches in Boston and on the East Coast rejected the necessity of any specific conversion experience and would come to believe that
12231-564: The definition of sacrament formulated by Augustine of Hippo : an outward sign of an inward grace, that has been instituted by Jesus Christ. Sacraments signify God's grace in a way that is outwardly observable to the participant. The Catholic Church , Hussite Church and the Old Catholic Church recognise seven sacraments: Baptism , Penance (Reconciliation or Confession), Eucharist (or Holy Communion), Confirmation , Marriage (Matrimony), Holy Orders , and Anointing of
12382-455: The division over the Half-Way Covenant was part of a larger loss of confidence experienced by Puritans in the latter half of the 17th century. In the 1660s and 1670s, Puritans began noting signs of moral decline in New England, and ministers began preaching jeremiads calling people to account for their sins. The most popular jeremiad, Michael Wigglesworth 's " The Day of Doom ", became the first bestseller in America. The Savoy Declaration ,
12533-509: The doctrine of the Eucharist". Similarly, Methodist/Roman Catholic Dialogue has affirmed that "Methodists and Catholics affirm the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. This reality does not depend on the experience of the communicant, although it is only by faith that we become aware of Christ's presence." The Catholic Church and the World Methodist Council jointly understand the word "sacrament" as referring not only to
12684-435: The earthquake of October 29, 1727. In 1735, Jonathan Edwards led his First Church congregation of Northampton, Massachusetts , through a religious revival. His Narrative of Surprising Conversions , describing the conversion experiences that occurred in the revival, was widely read throughout New England and raised hopes among Congregationalists of a general revival of religion. These hopes were seemingly fulfilled with
12835-717: The effect of the sacraments comes ex opere operato , by the very fact of being administered, regardless of the personal holiness of the minister administering it. However, as indicated in this definition of the sacraments given by the Catechism of the Catholic Church , a recipient's own lack of proper disposition to receive the grace conveyed can block a sacrament's effectiveness in that person. The sacraments presuppose faith and, through their words and ritual elements, nourish, strengthen and give expression to faith. Though not every individual has to receive every sacrament,
12986-652: The effects of the sacraments. Some hold views similar to the Roman Catholic ex opere operato theory. Article XXVI (entitled Of the unworthiness of ministers which hinders not the effect of the Sacrament ) states that the "ministration of the Word and Sacraments" is not done in the name of the minister, "neither is the effect of Christ's ordinance taken away by their wickedness," since the sacraments have their effect "because of Christ's intention and promise, although they be ministered by evil men". As in Roman Catholic theology,
13137-505: The end of the 18th century, Congregationalists were divided between liberal, Old Calvinist, and New Divinity factions. Under the influence of Enlightenment thought, liberals rejected the Calvinism of their Puritan heritage, particularly the doctrines of total depravity , unconditional election, and double predestination . These taught that sinners were deserving of damnation while helpless to achieve salvation. Liberals believed this
13288-499: The exact number of sacraments. Luther's initial statement in his Large Catechism speaks of two sacraments, Baptism and the Eucharist, in addition to Confession and Absolution, "the third sacrament". The definition of sacrament in the Apology of the Augsburg Confession lists Absolution as one of them. It is important to note that although Lutherans do not consider the other four rites as sacraments, they are still retained and used in
13439-463: The final version of the Platform due to the opposition of important figures, such as Charles Chauncy who would later become president of Harvard College . Samuel Stone and John Cotton supported the more inclusive view. In 1650, Samuel Stone of Hartford , Connecticut, called for a synod to settle the issue, and he warned that if this did not occur the Connecticut churches would proceed to implement halfway covenant principles. Between 1654 and 1656,
13590-610: The hearing of the Gospel, as understood by a few Christian groups (such as the Polish National Catholic Church of America ), have been considered sacraments by some churches. The Assyrian Church of the East holds the Holy Leaven and the sign of the cross as sacraments. Since some post-Reformation denominations do not regard clergy as having a classically sacerdotal or priestly function, they avoid
13741-701: The ideology of its leaders, the society's literature heavily favored the writings of Jonathan Edwards and the New Divinity. Its most widely circulated publication was the Connecticut Evangelical Magazine , which provided coverage of revivals and missions around the world and which was read as far south as Georgia. In 1799, the Massachusetts Missionary Society was established under the leadership of Nathanael Emmons . Like its Connecticut counterpart, it
13892-434: The issue to split. Several churches split over the Half-Way Covenant's adoption, including churches at Hartford , Windsor and Stratford. One minister, Abraham Pierson of Branford, led his congregation to New Jersey to escape its influence. The churches of Massachusetts were slower to accept inclusive baptism policies. Lay church members were divided with some supporting the new measures and others strongly opposing. The result
14043-404: The late 1800s) as tokens of the flesh and blood of Christ. In Latter-day Saint congregations, the sacrament is normally provided every Sunday as part of the sacrament meeting and, like other Latter-day Saint ordinances such as baptism and confirmation, is considered an essential and sacred rite. Latter-day Saint ordinances which are considered "saving" include baptism, confirmation, sacrament of
14194-595: The limitation of voting rights to full church members threatened to appeal to the English Parliament , raising fears that the English government might intervene to change the churches' restrictive membership policies. It was also thought necessary to combat the threat of Presbyterianism at home. Conflict erupted in the churches at Newbury and Hingham when their pastors began introducing presbyterian governance. The Massachusetts General Court called for
14345-400: The local pastor; violation of the law would result in the loss of a minister's state-provided salary. In 1743, the annual Massachusetts Ministerial Convention condemned "the disorderly tumults and indecent behaviors" that occurred in many revival meetings. Charles Chauncy of Boston's First Church became the leader of the revival's opponents with the publication of his Seasonable Thoughts on
14496-484: The mercy of God." In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, "the sacraments are efficacious signs of grace , instituted by Christ and entrusted to the Church, by which divine life is dispensed to us. The visible rites by which the sacraments are celebrated signify and make present the graces proper to each sacrament. They bear fruit in those who receive them with the required dispositions." While
14647-488: The middle of the 17th century, most churches did not have lay elders, and deacons assisted the minister in leading the church. Congregations also elected messengers to represent them in synods (church councils) for the purpose of offering non-binding advisory opinions. The Puritans created a society in which Congregationalism was the state church , its ministers were supported by taxpayers, and only full church members could vote in elections. To ensure that Massachusetts had
14798-406: The more exclusive admission policy, writing that the doctrine of local church covenants "is wholly unscriptural, [it] is the reason that many among us are shut out of the church, to whom church privileges do belong." Stoddard still believed that New England was a Christian nation and that it had a national covenant with God. The existence of such a covenant, however, required all citizens to partake of
14949-417: The most prominent of these ministers was John Cotton , considered by historians to be the "father of New England Congregationalism", who through his preaching, helped to standardize Congregational practices. Because of these efforts, agreement on baptism , church discipline , and the election of church officers were largely achieved by 1635. The colonists developed a system in which each community organized
15100-441: The nature of the sacraments and the necessity of conversion. Liberal Congregational churches extended church membership to all professing Christians, and in time many of these churches became Unitarian . The revivalism unleashed by the First Great Awakening was in part a reaction against the Half-Way Covenant. The term Halfway Covenant was a derogatory label applied by opponents of the practice. The term used by supporters at
15251-580: The new settlements. When this approach proved unworkable, the society shed its opposition to itinerant ministry and began ordaining young men to serve as full-time evangelists. These operated similarly to the Methodist circuit riders , "moving from town to town, preaching revival sermons, catechizing youth, administering the sacraments, and distributing religious literature." The society distributed tracts , hymnals, sermon collections, and theological treatises for use in religious worship and education. Reflecting
15402-482: The number of sacraments to seven, holding that anything the Church does as Church is in some sense sacramental . However, it recognizes these seven as "the major sacraments" which are completed by many other blessings and special services. Some lists of the sacraments taken from the Church Fathers include the consecration of a church, monastic tonsure , and the burial of the dead . More specifically, for
15553-610: The opposite end of the theological spectrum were the Old Calvinists, who continued to adhere to Reformed covenant theology and the doctrines contained in the Westminster Standards . The Old Calvinists included both Old Lights, New Lights, and Moderate Calvinists within their ranks. Moderate Calvinists avoided preaching on the doctrines of election and reprobation in response to attacks on Calvinism from Enlightenment philosophers. To make Calvinism less offensive,
15704-440: The opposition of Mather and other conservatives, however, the church gained recognition, and in time it became indistinguishable from other Congregational churches. By the 1730s, Colman was the leading evangelical pastor in Boston. Ultimately, the formation of Brattle Street Church spurred Congregationalists to modify their polity and strengthen the role of associations in order to promote greater uniformity. Representatives from
15855-430: The original standard into the 1700s. Other churches went beyond the Half-Way Covenant, opening baptism to all infants whether or not their parents or grandparents had been baptized. Other churches, citing the belief that baptism and the Lord's Supper were "converting ordinances" capable of helping the unconverted achieve salvation, allowed the unconverted to receive the Lord's Supper as well. The decline of conversions and
16006-541: The partakers, by participation in the liturgy and receiving the consecrated bread and wine (understood to have become the body and blood of Christ) directly communicate with God. No claim is made to understand how exactly this happens. The Eastern Orthodox merely state: "This appears to be in the form of bread and wine, but God has told me it is His Body and Blood. I will take what He says as a 'mystery' and not attempt to rationalize it to my limited mind". The seven sacraments are also accepted by Oriental Orthodoxy , including
16157-519: The radical wing of the Awakening–with its trances, visions and shouting. When radical revivalists could not control their local churches, they separated from the state churches and formed new congregations. These Separate or Strict Congregationalists were often poor. They rejected the necessity of an educated ministry, ministerial associations (which had tried to control the revival), and the Half-Way Covenant. Prone to schisms and forced to pay taxes for
16308-422: The ratio was four half-way members to each full member. The Half-Way Covenant continued to be practiced by three-fourths of New England's churches into the 1700s, but opposition continued from those wanting a return to the strict admission standards as well as those who wanted the removal of all barriers to church membership. Northampton pastor Solomon Stoddard (1643–1729) attacked both the Half-Way practice and
16459-538: The religious constitution of Massachusetts, guaranteeing the rights of church officers and members. Missionary efforts among the Native Americans began in the 1640s. John Eliot started missionary work among the natives in 1646 and later published the Eliot Indian Bible , a Massachusett language translation. The Mayhew family began their work among the natives of Martha's Vineyard around
16610-472: The religious, political, and cultural history of the United States. Congregational practices concerning church governance influenced the early development of democratic institutions in New England. Many of the nation's oldest educational institutions, such as Harvard University , Bowdoin College and Yale University , were founded to train Congregational clergy. Congregational churches and ministers influenced
16761-638: The revival led the Connecticut General Assembly to call a synod in 1741, which was the last Congregational synod convened under state authority. This "General Consociation" consisted of both lay and clerical representatives from all of the consociations in the colony. It ruled that itinerant ministers should preach in no parish except with the permission of the local pastor. In May 1742, the General Assembly passed legislation requiring ministers to receive permission to preach from
16912-503: The sacerdotal role. Baptists and Pentecostals , among other Christian denominations , use the word ordinance rather than sacrament because of certain sacerdotal ideas connected, in their view, with the word sacrament . These churches argue that the word ordinance points to the ordaining authority of Christ which lies behind the practice. Some denominations do not have a sacramental dimension (or equivalent) at all. The Salvation Army does not practice formal sacraments for
17063-500: The sacrament of Baptism, but he himself is not bound by his sacraments," and accordingly, "since Christ died for the salvation of all, those can be saved without Baptism who die for the faith ( Baptism of blood ). Catechumens and all those who, even without knowing Christ and the Church, still (under the impulse of grace) sincerely seek God and strive to do his will can also be saved without Baptism ( Baptism of desire ). The Church in her liturgy entrusts children who die without Baptism to
17214-416: The sacraments are necessary for salvation, though not every sacrament is necessary for every individual. The Church applies this teaching even to the sacrament of baptism, the gateway to the other sacraments. It states that "Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament." But it adds: "God has bound salvation to
17365-731: The sacraments considered here, but also to Christ and the Church. Article XXV of the Thirty-Nine Articles in Anglicanism and Article XVI of the Articles of Religion in Methodism recognise only two sacraments (Baptism and the Supper of the Lord) since these are the only ones ordained by Christ in the Gospel. The article continues stating that "Those five commonly called Sacraments ... are not to be counted for Sacraments of
17516-540: The sacraments in the Catholic Church are regarded as means of Divine Grace, The Catholic definition of a sacrament is an event in Christian life that is both spiritual and physical. The seven Catholic sacraments have been separated into three groups. The first three Sacraments of Initiation are Baptism, Communion, and Confirmation. The two Healing Sacraments are Anointing of the Sick and Penance. The two Sacraments of Vocation are Matrimony and Holy Orders. The Church teaches that
17667-400: The same system in America. Ministers preached patriotic sermons on Sundays and during militia musters. Jonathan Mayhew, for example, preached an early revolutionary sermon on The Danger of Unlimited Submission . Many went to war as chaplains , and some actually bore arms in times of extreme danger. Because of their overwhelming support for independence, Congregational ministers were called
17818-533: The same time as Eliot. These missionary efforts suffered serious setbacks as a result of King Philip's War . By 1696, New England had over 130 white churches and 30 Native American towns with Native American preachers. In the years after the Antinomian Controversy, Congregationalists struggled with the problem of decreasing conversions among second-generation settlers. These unconverted adults had been baptized as infants, and most of them studied
17969-541: The seals of the covenant" led to the Cambridge Synod of 1646, which created the Cambridge Platform outlining Congregational church discipline . Initially, the Platform included language declaring that baptism was open to all descendants of converted church members who "cast not off the covenant of God by some scandalous and obstinate going on in sin". Nevertheless, this statement was not included in
18120-520: The second generation often doubted the validity of their own experiences. Pope and Morgan theorize that it was scrupulosity rather than impiety that led to the decline in church membership. Historian Mark Noll writes that by keeping the rising generation officially within the church the Half-Way Covenant actually preserved New England's Puritan society, while also maintaining conversion as the standard for full church membership. Due to its widespread adoption, most New Englanders continued to be included within
18271-401: The services by crying out, exhorting, or having visions . Uneducated men and women began to preach without formal training, and some itinerant preachers were active in parishes without the approval of the local pastor. Enthusiasts even claimed that many of the clergies were unconverted themselves and thus unqualified to be ministers. Congregationalists split into Old Lights and New Lights over
18422-533: The start of the Great Awakening , which was initiated by the preaching of George Whitefield , an Anglican priest who had preached revivalistic sermons to large audiences in England. He arrived in Boston in September 1740, preaching first at Brattle Street Church, and then visited other parts of New England. Though he was only in New England for a few weeks, the revival spread to every part of the region in
18573-561: The state churches, Separate Congregationalists did not survive long. The more traditional ones returned to the established Congregational churches, while the most radical embraced adult baptism and became Baptists . Shubal Stearns , a Separate Congregationalist missionary to the South , became the founding father of the Separate Baptists . The Great Awakening further aggravated theological divisions that had already existed. By
18724-403: The term "sacrament", preferring the terms "sacerdotal function", "ordinance", or "tradition". This belief invests the efficacy of the ordinance in the obedience and participation of the believer and the witness of the presiding minister and the congregation. This view stems from a highly developed concept of the priesthood of all believers . In this sense, the believer himself or herself performs
18875-506: The time as "low and unemotional." To spiritually awaken their congregations and rescue the original Puritan mission of creating a godly society, Congregational ministers promoted revivalism , the attempt to bring spiritual renewal to an entire community. The first two decades of the 18th century saw local revivals occur that resulted in large numbers of converts. These revivals sometimes resulted from natural disasters that were interpreted as divine judgment. For example, revival followed after
19026-469: The time was "large Congregationalism". Beginning in the 1620s and 1630s, colonial New England was settled by Puritans who believed that they were obligated to build a holy society in covenant with God. The covenant was the foundation for Puritan convictions concerning personal salvation , the church, social cohesion and political authority. The first colonists organized themselves into Congregational churches by means of church covenants . According to
19177-531: The two years following his brief tour. Whitefield was followed by the itinerant preacher and Presbyterian minister Gilbert Tennent and dozens of other itinerants. Initially, the Awakening's strongest supporters came from Congregational ministers, who had already been working to foster revivals in their parishes . Itinerants and local pastors worked together to produce and nourish revivals, and often local pastors would cooperate together to lead revivals in neighboring parishes. The most famous sermon preached during
19328-569: The unity of the Congregational churches and that the bitter fighting between ministers over its adoption led to a loss of respect for the Puritan clergy as a social class. Historian Robert G. Pope questioned the "myth of declension", writing that the process labeled decline was, in reality, the "maturation" of the Congregational churches away from sectarianism . Pope and Edmund Morgan found that many church members were very scrupulous in Massachusetts. While second-generation colonists were having conversion experiences similar to those of their parents,
19479-640: The use of "commonly" implies that the others can legitimately be called sacraments (perhaps more exactly "Sacraments of the Church" as opposed to "Sacraments of the Gospel"); others object that at the time the Articles were written "commonly" meant "inaccurately" and point out that the Prayer Book refers to the creeds "commonly called the Apostles' Creed" and the "Athanasian" where both attributions are historically incorrect. Anglicans are also divided as to
19630-440: The use of the physical component commanded by God along with the divine words of institution, God is, in a way specific to each sacrament, present with the Word and physical component. He earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament forgiveness of sins and eternal salvation. He also works in the recipients to get them to accept these blessings and to increase the assurance of their possession. Melanchthon 's Apology of
19781-661: The world are often related to these in the United States due to American missionary activities. These principles are enshrined in the Cambridge Platform (1648) and the Savoy Declaration (1658), Congregationalist confessions of faith . The Congregationalist Churches are a continuity of the theological tradition upheld by the Puritans . Their genesis was through the work of Congregationalist divines Robert Browne , Henry Barrowe , and John Greenwood . Congregational churches have had an important impact on
19932-613: The worthiness or unworthiness of the recipient is of great importance. Article XXV in the Thirty-Nine Articles of Anglicanism and Article XVI in the Articles of Religion in Methodism states: "And in such only as worthily receive the [sacraments], they have a wholesome effect and operation: but they that receive them unworthily purchase for themselves damnation," and Article XXVIII in Anglicanism's Thirty-Nine Articles (Article XVIII in Methodism's Articles of Religion ) on
20083-430: Was schism as congregations divided over implementing the synod's recommendations. A prominent example was the division of Boston's First Church after the death of its pastor John Wilson , a Half-Way supporter, in 1667. Davenport was called by the congregation as its new pastor, and this was followed by the withdrawal of 28 disgruntled members who formed Third Church (better known as Old South Church ). For 14 years, there
20234-480: Was a cleansing purgatory , not an eternal punishment. Many liberals rejected the doctrine of the Trinity in favor of an Arian Christology that preserved the unity of God. For this reason, their opponents disparagingly called them Unitarians , even though they called themselves liberal Christians or Arminians. Alongside Chauncy, Jonathan Mayhew of Boston's West Church was another prominent liberal minister. At
20385-408: Was a sign of the beginning of a new life, so too was initiation into the Christian community through baptism and Eucharist . Roman Catholic theology enumerates seven sacraments: Baptism , Confirmation (Chrismation), Eucharist (Communion), Penance (Reconciliation, Confession), Matrimony (Marriage), Holy Orders (ordination to the diaconate , priesthood , or episcopate ) and Anointing of
20536-440: Was an internal covenant, taking place in the heart. Infant baptism and the Lord's Supper were covenant privileges available only to "visible and professing saints". Opponents of the Awakening saw Edwards' views as a threat to family well-being and the social order, which they believed were promoted by the Half-Way system. The Great Awakening left behind several religious factions in New England, and all of them had different views on
20687-460: Was approved by the General Assembly, and associations and consociations were formed in every county. The General Association of Connecticut was formed as a colony-wide organization of ministers and met for the first time in May 1709. The Saybrook Platform was legally recognized until 1784 and continued to govern the majority of Connecticut churches until the middle of the 19th century. Yale University
20838-464: Was assumed that the conservative churches of Boston would have opposed his ordination in New England. After arriving in November 1699, his manner of ordination was controversial given that it had not been done by the congregation he was to serve, as was Congregational practice. Brattle Street Church was organized on December 12, 1699, but without the support of the other churches in the colony. Despite
20989-412: Was believed that children of church members were already included in the church covenant on the basis of their parent's membership and had the right to receive the initial sacrament of baptism. When these baptized children became adults, it was expected that they too would experience conversion and be admitted into full communion with the right to participate in the Lord's Supper. By the 1650s and 1660s,
21140-474: Was brought up on other occasions from time to time. Thomas Hooker , founder of Connecticut, and John Davenport , a prominent minister and founder of New Haven Colony , believed that only children of full members should be baptized. George Phillips of Watertown, Massachusetts, however, believed that all descendants of converts belonged within the church. In the 1640s, a protest movement led by Robert Child over complaints that children were being "debarred from
21291-615: Was dominated by Edwardseans and published its own periodical, the Massachusetts Missionary Magazine . The New Hampshire Missionary Society was organized in 1801, and the Vermont General Convention organized its own missionary society in 1807. Besides those dedicated to missions, Congregationalists created voluntary societies for encouraging education, Bible reading, and moral reform. Some of these became national organizations, such as
21442-407: Was established by the Congregational clergy of Connecticut in 1701. By 1740, there were 423 Congregational churches in colonial America—33.7 percent of all churches. Nevertheless, at the start of the 18th century, many believed that New England had become a morally degenerate society more focused on worldly gain than religious piety. Church historian Williston Walker described New England piety of
21593-459: Was fiercely debated in the 19th century arguments over Baptismal Regeneration , culminating in the Gorham Case , wherein the Church of England decided in favor of Baptismal Regeneration, but the secular court overruled them. John Calvin defined a sacrament as an earthly sign associated with a promise from God. He accepted only two sacraments as valid under the new covenant: baptism and
21744-702: Was founded in 1803 by the Old Calvinists and Edwardseans of that state. In 1808, the churches in Rhode Island organized the Evangelical Consociation of Rhode Island. The New Hampshire General Association was established in 1809. The General Conference of Maine was founded sometime in the 1820s, and the New York General Association was formed in 1834. In 1810, a group of students at Andover Theological Seminary , led by Samuel John Mills and Adoniram Judson , convinced
21895-625: Was never acted on, but Massachusetts associations did adopt a system of ministerial licensure. While largely rejected in Massachusetts, the proposals of 1705 received a more favorable reception in Connecticut. In September 1708, a synod met at the request of the Connecticut General Assembly to write a new platform of church government. The Saybrook Platform called for the creation of standing councils called consociations in every county and tasked associations with providing ministerial consultation and licensure. The platform
22046-399: Was no communion between the two churches, and the conflict affected the rest of Massachusetts' Congregational churches. Those who were against the Half-Way Covenant favored First Church and those who approved favored Third Church. Until 1676, opponents of the Half-Way Covenant in Massachusetts were successful at preventing its adoption in all major churches. That year marked the beginning of
22197-444: Was proposed as a solution to this problem. It allowed baptized but unconverted parents to present their own children for baptism; however, they were denied the other privileges of church membership. The Half-Way Covenant was endorsed by an assembly of ministers in 1657 and a church synod in 1662. Nevertheless, it was highly controversial among Congregationalists with many conservatives being afraid it would lead to lower standards within
22348-551: Was the Cambridge Association , formed in 1690 for ministers in and around Boston. It met in Cambridge on the grounds of Harvard. Its purpose was to "debate any matter referring to ourselves" and "to hear and consider any cases that shall be proposed unto us, from churches or private persons". By 1692, two other associations had been formed, and the number had increased to five by 1705. In the 1690s, John Leverett
22499-550: Was the implementation of the "third way of communion", a method of isolating a dissident or heretical church from neighboring churches. Members of an offending church would be unable to worship or receive the Lord's Supper in other churches. In the 1640s, Congregationalists were under pressure to craft a formal statement of congregational church government. This was partly motivated by the need to reassure English Puritans (who favored presbyterian polity) about congregational government. In 1645, residents of Massachusetts who resented
22650-414: Was unfair and adopted an Arminian theology that gave individuals a role in their own salvation. Liberal Arminians did not teach that good works could earn salvation, but they did teach that a person who strove for regeneration by virtuous living and the performance of good works could expect to receive eternal life. Liberals such as Charles Chauncy embraced universal salvation and believed that hell
22801-423: Was upheld. The major offices were elder (or presbyter) and deacon . Teaching elders or ministers were responsible for preaching and administering the sacraments . In some churches, prominent laymen would be elected for life as ruling elders to govern the church alongside teaching elders (lay elders could preach but not administer sacraments). In the beginning, deacons largely handled financial matters. By
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