110-414: 10 December 2003 ; 20 years ago ( 2003-12-10 ) (HHKB Professional first-generation) 24 March 2006 ; 18 years ago ( 2006-03-24 ) (HHKB Professional second-generation) The Happy Hacking Keyboard (HHKB) is a small computer keyboard produced by PFU Limited of Japan, codeveloped with Japanese computer scientist and pioneer Eiiti Wada . Its reduction of keys from
220-520: A numeric keypad , and keys outside the typewriter key area are mainly accessible through the Fn key . The keys are arranged in a layout resembling the Sun Type 3 keyboard. Specifically: On the far side of the keyboard there are DIP switches . These may be used to: It is roughly the size of A5 paper. Model names with JP denote a Japanese layout variant. Computer keyboard A computer keyboard
330-429: A time-sharing configuration, as well as portability. Unix systems are characterized by various concepts: the use of plain text for storing data; a hierarchical file system ; treating devices and certain types of inter-process communication (IPC) as files; and the use of a large number of software tools , small programs that can be strung together through a command-line interpreter using pipes , as opposed to using
440-484: A time-sharing operating system for the GE 645 mainframe computer. Multics featured several innovations , but also presented severe problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics, but not by its goals, individual researchers at Bell Labs started withdrawing from the project. The last to leave were Ken Thompson , Dennis Ritchie , Douglas McIlroy , and Joe Ossanna , who decided to reimplement their experiences in
550-751: A "battery bump", similar to the previous HHKB Professional BT. However, unlike the HHKB Professional BT, these models can also be used with a wired connection via the USB-C port. HHKB Professional Hybrid models also support PFU's official key remapping software. Some of the Happy Hacking Keyboard design tenets, as dictated by Wada, include a minimal 60-key design, no cursor or function keys, and standard keyboard pitch, all optimized for use in Unix environments. Happy Hacking Keyboards lack
660-519: A 1999 interview, Dennis Ritchie voiced his opinion that Linux and BSD Unix operating systems are a continuation of the basis of the Unix design and are derivatives of Unix: I think the Linux phenomenon is quite delightful, because it draws so strongly on the basis that Unix provided. Linux seems to be among the healthiest of the direct Unix derivatives, though there are also the various BSD systems as well as
770-657: A board with fewer keys. Court reporters' stenotype machines use chorded keyboards to enable them to enter text much faster by typing a syllable with each stroke instead of one letter at a time. The fastest typists (as of 2007) use a stenograph, a kind of chorded keyboard used by most court reporters and closed-caption reporters. Some chorded keyboards are also made for use in situations where fewer keys are preferable, such as on devices that can be used with only one hand, and on small mobile devices that don't have room for larger keyboards. Chorded keyboards are less desirable in many cases because it usually takes practice and memorization of
880-448: A certain pattern, allowing only one beam per row of keys (most commonly horizontal beam). Alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic characters become uppercase when
990-570: A chorded keyboard, was invented by Douglas Engelbart . Other types of one-handed keyboards include the FrogPad , the Half-keyboard , and one-handed Dvorak keyboard layouts designed for one hand typing . While other keyboards generally associate one action with each key, chorded keyboards associate actions with combinations of key presses. Since there are many combinations available, chorded keyboards can effectively produce more actions on
1100-410: A command line, window form or dialog box to operate its default function, which is typically to finish an "entry" and begin the desired process. In word processing applications, pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one. Navigation keys or cursor keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to different positions on the screen. Arrow keys are programmed to move the cursor in
1210-526: A computer. The HHKB Professional 2 was released in March 2006 and is also available in either white or charcoal (black) with either blank or printed keycaps. Its main feature is a built-in 2-port USB hub for connecting mice and other peripherals. In 2011, PFU released the HHKB Professional 2 Type-S. Only available in white (but with either blank or printed keycaps), the HHKB Professional 2 Type-S
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#17327765888431320-460: A convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmers. The system grew larger as the operating system started spreading in academic circles, and as users added their own tools to the system and shared them with colleagues. At first, Unix was not designed to support multi-tasking or to be portable . Later, Unix gradually gained multi-tasking and multi-user capabilities in
1430-464: A cursor hovering above a menu. On some Samsung keyboards the cursor in the icon is not present, showing the menu only. This key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many Windows applications,
1540-406: A game controller, and can be used as such, instead of laid out flat on top of a table surface. Typically handheld keyboards hold all the alphanumeric keys and symbols that a standard keyboard would have, yet only be accessed by pressing two sets of keys at once; one acting as a function key similar to a 'Shift' key that would allow for capital letters on a standard keyboard. Handheld keyboards allow
1650-482: A laser, onto a flat surface. The device then uses a camera or infrared sensor to "watch" where the user's fingers move, and will count a key as being pressed when it "sees" the user's finger touch the projected image. Projection keyboards can simulate a full size keyboard from a very small projector. Because the "keys" are simply projected images, they cannot be felt when pressed. Users of projected keyboards often experience increased discomfort in their fingertips because of
1760-549: A micro-USB port, it can only be used to power the keyboard in place of batteries and not for data transmission). The third-generation models of HHKB Professional: Classic, Hybrid, and Hybrid Type-S – were released in December 2019. These third-generation models feature 100% PBT keycaps, where previous models used ABS for the space bar. Furthermore, the third-generation models feature USB-C connectivity instead of mini-USB. HHKB Professional Hybrid models run on AA batteries housed in
1870-468: A modern computer, the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software: the information sent to the computer, the scan code , tells it only which physical key (or keys) was pressed or released. In normal usage, the keyboard is used as a text entry interface for typing text, numbers, and symbols into application software such as a word processor , web browser or social media app. Touchscreens use virtual keyboards . Typewriters are
1980-469: A new keyboard layout that became increasingly complex, Wada sought to create his own keyboard that he could continue to use with various different computer systems. Inspired by the original Macintosh keyboard, Professor Wada and PFU collaborated to design the Happy Hacking Keyboard with the following philosophy: Because keyboards are accessories to PC makers, they focus on minimizing the manufacturing costs. But that’s incorrect. When America’s cowboys were in
2090-405: A new project of smaller scale. This new operating system was initially without organizational backing, and also without a name. The new operating system was a single-tasking system. In 1970, the group coined the name Unics for Uniplexed Information and Computing Service as a pun on Multics , which stood for Multiplexed Information and Computer Services . Brian Kernighan takes credit for
2200-594: A numeric keypad, commonly those of laptop computers. These keys are collectively known as a numeric pad, numeric keys, or a numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following types of keys: Arithmetic operators , numbers , arrow keys , Navigation keys , Num Lock and Enter key . Multifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the standard keyboard. Many are programmable, configurable computer keyboards and some control multiple PCs, workstations and other information sources, usually in multi-screen work environments. Users have additional key functions as well as
2310-512: A potential universal operating system, suitable for computers of all sizes. The Unix environment and the client–server program model were essential elements in the development of the Internet and the reshaping of computing as centered in networks rather than in individual computers. Both Unix and the C programming language were developed by AT&T and distributed to government and academic institutions, which led to both being ported to
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#17327765888432420-426: A reduced set of keys. They may not have a numeric keypad , and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard, full-sized keyboard. The switch mechanism for a laptop keyboard is more likely to be a scissor switch than a rubber dome; this is opposite the trend for full-size keyboards. Flexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type keyboards: normal from
2530-420: A reference directory layout for Unix-like operating systems; it has mainly been used in Linux. The Unix system is composed of several components that were originally packaged together. By including the development environment, libraries, documents and the portable, modifiable source code for all of these components, in addition to the kernel of an operating system, Unix was a self-contained software system. This
2640-504: A representation like Un*x , *NIX , or *N?X is used to indicate all operating systems similar to Unix. This comes from the use of the asterisk ( * ) and the question mark characters as wildcard indicators in many utilities. This notation is also used to describe other Unix-like systems that have not met the requirements for UNIX branding from the Open Group. The Open Group requests that UNIX always be used as an adjective followed by
2750-459: A screenshot in the clipboard . The Break key /Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to teleprinter users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection. In programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break
2860-403: A set of characters engraved or printed on them, and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol . However, producing some symbols may require pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keys produce characters ( letters , numbers or symbols), other keys (such as the escape key ) can prompt the computer to execute system commands. In
2970-399: A set of cultural norms for developing software, norms which became as important and influential as the technology of Unix itself; this has been termed the Unix philosophy . The TCP/IP networking protocols were quickly implemented on the Unix versions widely used on relatively inexpensive computers, which contributed to the Internet explosion of worldwide, real-time connectivity and formed
3080-467: A similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 keyboard shortcut ). Many, but not all, computer keyboards have a numeric keypad to the right of the alphabetic keyboard, often separated from the other groups of keys such as the function keys and system command keys, which contains numbers, basic mathematical symbols (e.g., addition, subtraction, etc.), and a few function keys. In addition to
3190-487: A single monolithic program that includes all of the same functionality. These concepts are collectively known as the " Unix philosophy ". Brian Kernighan and Rob Pike summarize this in The Unix Programming Environment as "the idea that the power of a system comes more from the relationships among programs than from the programs themselves". By the early 1980s, users began seeing Unix as
3300-544: A single nine-track magnetic tape , earning its reputation as a portable system. The printed documentation, typeset from the online sources, was contained in two volumes. The names and filesystem locations of the Unix components have changed substantially across the history of the system. Nonetheless, the V7 implementation has the canonical early structure: The Unix system had a significant impact on other operating systems. It achieved its reputation by its interactivity, by providing
3410-535: A specified direction; page scroll keys, such as the Page Up and Page Down keys , scroll the page up and down. The Home key is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located; the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line. The Tab key advances the cursor to the next tab stop. The Insert key is mainly used to switch between overtype mode, in which the cursor overwrites any text that
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3520-479: A uniform interface, but at the expense of occasionally requiring additional mechanisms such as ioctl and mode flags to access features of the hardware that did not fit the simple "stream of bytes" model. The Plan 9 operating system pushed this model even further and eliminated the need for additional mechanisms. Unix also popularized the hierarchical file system with arbitrarily nested subdirectories, originally introduced by Multics. Other common operating systems of
3630-425: A variety of function keys . The repertoire of glyphs engraved on the keys of a keyboard accords with national conventions and language needs. Computer keyboards are similar to electric-typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys, such as the command key or Windows keys . Keyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance for the keystroke, shorter over travel distance, and
3740-508: A versatile document preparation system, and an efficient file system featuring sophisticated access control, mountable and de-mountable volumes, and a unified treatment of peripherals as special files ." The latter permitted the Network Control Program (NCP) to be integrated within the Unix file system, treating network connections as special files that could be accessed through standard Unix I/O calls , which included
3850-402: A wider variety of machine families than any other operating system. The Unix operating system consists of many libraries and utilities along with the master control program, the kernel . The kernel provides services to start and stop programs, handles the file system and other common "low-level" tasks that most programs share, and schedules access to avoid conflicts when programs try to access
3960-561: A wired USB connection, or be connected wirelessly and powered by batteries. Illumination facilitates the use of the keyboard or keypad in dark environments. Unix Early research and development: Merging the networks and creating the Internet: Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet: Examples of Internet services: Unix ( / ˈ j uː n ɪ k s / , YOO -niks ; trademarked as UNIX )
4070-446: Is a peripheral input device modeled after the typewriter keyboard which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches . Replacing early punched cards and paper tape technology, interaction via teleprinter -style keyboards have been the main input method for computers since the 1970s, supplemented by the computer mouse since the 1980s. Keyboard keys (buttons) typically have
4180-767: Is a family of multitasking , multi-user computer operating systems that derive from the original AT&T Unix, whose development started in 1969 at the Bell Labs research center by Ken Thompson , Dennis Ritchie , and others. Initially intended for use inside the Bell System , AT&T licensed Unix to outside parties in the late 1970s, leading to a variety of both academic and commercial Unix variants from vendors including University of California, Berkeley ( BSD ), Microsoft ( Xenix ), Sun Microsystems ( SunOS / Solaris ), HP / HPE ( HP-UX ), and IBM ( AIX ). Early versions of Unix ran on PDP-11 computers; Unix
4290-544: Is a limited workspace. A thumb keyboard (thumb board) is used in some personal digital assistants such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO . Numeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys. They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboards that do not have
4400-419: Is a silenced variant of the HHKB Professional 2 containing silenced Topre keyswitches. Another variant of the HHKB Professional 2 called the HHKB Professional BT, was released in 2016. This is the first HHKB to feature Bluetooth connectivity. HHKB Professional BT models run on AA batteries housed in a "battery bump" on the rear of the keyboard and can only be connected using Bluetooth (although these models have
4510-436: Is also descended from the mechanical typewriter. Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing. It is large enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily. Depending on the operating system, when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key, it may have functions such as resizing or closing the current window, half-spacing, or backspacing. In computer games and other applications
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4620-408: Is designed with a focus on specific features that suit particular needs. Today, most full-size keyboards use one of three different mechanical layouts, usually referred to as simply ISO ( ISO/IEC 9995 -2), ANSI ( ANSI - INCITS 154-1988), and JIS ( JIS X 6002-1980), referring roughly to the organizations issuing the relevant worldwide, United States, and Japanese standards, respectively. (In fact,
4730-546: Is possible to install multiple keyboard layouts within an operating system and switch between them, either through features implemented within the OS, or through an external application. Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac provide support to add keyboard layouts and choose from them. Keyboards and keypads may be illuminated from inside, especially on equipment for mobile use. Both keyboards built into computers and external ones may support backlighting; external backlit keyboards may have
4840-432: Is present on and after its current location, and insert mode, where the cursor inserts a character at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position further. The Delete key discards the character ahead of the cursor's position, moving all following characters one position "back" towards the freed place. On many notebook computer keyboards the key labeled Delete (sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on
4950-468: Is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Windows environments, the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system properties. The escape key ( esc ) has a variety of meanings according to Operating System, application or both. "Nearly all of
5060-782: The GNU Compiler Collection (and the rest of the GNU toolchain ), the GNU C library and the GNU Core Utilities – have gone on to play central roles in other free Unix systems as well. Linux distributions , consisting of the Linux kernel and large collections of compatible software have become popular both with individual users and in business. Popular distributions include Red Hat Enterprise Linux , Fedora , SUSE Linux Enterprise , openSUSE , Debian , Ubuntu , Linux Mint , Slackware Linux , Arch Linux and Gentoo . A free derivative of BSD Unix, 386BSD ,
5170-586: The UNIX 98 or UNIX 03 trademarks today, after the operating system's vendor pays a substantial certification fee and annual trademark royalties to The Open Group. Systems that have been licensed to use the UNIX trademark include AIX , EulerOS , HP-UX , Inspur K-UX , IRIX , macOS , Solaris , Tru64 UNIX (formerly "Digital UNIX", or OSF/1 ), and z/OS . Notably, EulerOS and Inspur K-UX are Linux distributions certified as UNIX 03 compliant. Sometimes
5280-421: The "start" button was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows 95, 98, Me, NT 4, 2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10. The 'enter key' ⌅ Enter and 'return key' ↵ Return are two closely related keys with overlapping and distinct functions dependent on operating system and application . On full-size keyboards, there are two such keys, one in the alphanumeric keys and
5390-535: The 105 key layout is the norm in the rest of the world. This number is not always followed, and individual keys or whole sections are commonly skipped for the sake of compactness or user preference. The most common choice is to not include the numpad, which can usually be fully replaced by the alphanumeric section; such designs are referred to as "tenkeyless" (or TKL). Laptops and wireless peripherals often lack duplicate keys and ones seldom used. Function- and arrow keys are nearly always present. Another factor determining
5500-456: The Esc key extensively. Historically it also served as a type of shift key, such that one or more following characters were interpreted differently, hence the term escape sequence , which refers to a series of characters, usually preceded by the escape character . On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking
5610-673: The Macintosh and Apple keyboards, the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key , respectively. On Sun Microsystems and Lisp machine keyboards, the Meta key is used as a modifier and for Windows keyboards, there is a Windows key . Compact keyboard layouts often use a Fn key . " Dead keys " allow placement of a diacritic mark, such as an accent, on the following letter (e.g., the Compose key ). The enter/return key typically causes
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#17327765888435720-487: The Open Group Base Specification. In 1999, in an effort towards compatibility, several Unix system vendors agreed on SVR4's Executable and Linkable Format (ELF) as the standard for binary and object code files. The common format allows substantial binary compatibility among different Unix systems operating on the same CPU architecture. The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard was created to provide
5830-491: The UNIX trademark to The Open Group , an industry consortium founded in 1996. The Open Group allows the use of the mark for certified operating systems that comply with the Single UNIX Specification (SUS). Unix-like operating systems have been relevant since the 1990s which function similarly to Unix: popular examples are GNU (including Linux ), FreeBSD and macOS . Unix was originally meant to be
5940-632: The added benefit of closing all connections on program exit, should the user neglect to do so. In order "to minimize the amount of code added to the basic Unix kernel ", much of the NCP code ran in a swappable user process, running only when needed. In October 1993, Novell , the company that owned the rights to the Unix System V source at the time, transferred the trademarks of Unix to the X/Open Company (now The Open Group ), and in 1995 sold
6050-451: The additional cost and space requirements of other types of hardware keyboards. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and some varieties of Linux include on-screen keyboards that can be controlled with the mouse. In these, the mouse has to be maneuvered onto the on-screen letters given by the software. On the click of a letter, the software writes the respective letter in the respective spot. Projection keyboards project an image of keys, usually with
6160-465: The basis for a widely implemented operating system interface standard (POSIX, see above). The C programming language soon spread beyond Unix, and is now ubiquitous in systems and applications programming. Early Unix developers were important in bringing the concepts of modularity and reusability into software engineering practice, spawning a "software tools" movement. Over time, the leading developers of Unix (and programs that ran on it) established
6270-435: The basis for implementations on many other platforms. The Unix policy of extensive on-line documentation and (for many years) ready access to all system source code raised programmer expectations, and contributed to the launch of the free software movement in 1983. In 1983, Richard Stallman announced the GNU (short for "GNU's Not Unix") project, an ambitious effort to create a free software Unix-like system—"free" in
6380-401: The combinations to become proficient. Virtual keyboards , sometimes called on-screen keyboards (rarely software keyboards), consist of computer programs that display an image of a keyboard on the screen. Another input device such as a mouse or a touchscreen can be used to operate each virtual key to enter text. Virtual keyboards have become very popular in touchscreen enabled cell phones due to
6490-492: The command interpreter an ordinary user-level program, with additional commands provided as separate programs, was another Multics innovation popularized by Unix. The Unix shell used the same language for interactive commands as for scripting ( shell scripts – there was no separate job control language like IBM's JCL ). Since the shell and OS commands were "just another program", the user could choose (or even write) their own shell. New commands could be added without changing
6600-827: The common 104-key layout down to 60 keys in the professional series is the basis for it having smaller overall proportions, yet full-sized keys. It returns the control key to its original position as on the early 84-key IBM Personal Computer/AT and XT layouts. The current models in production are the Happy Hacking Keyboard Professional Classic, Professional Hybrid (wired/wireless dual connectivity), and Professional Hybrid Type-S (silenced variant of Hybrid) all in either dark or light colorschemes, and either blank or printed keycaps. Professional Hybrid models are also available in Japanese layout . Frustrated that each new computer system came with
6710-479: The core of the Mac OS X operating system, later renamed macOS . Unix-like operating systems are widely used in modern servers , workstations , and mobile devices . In the late 1980s, an open operating system standardization effort now known as POSIX provided a common baseline for all operating systems; IEEE based POSIX around the common structure of the major competing variants of the Unix system, publishing
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#17327765888436820-454: The definitive ancestor of all key-based text entry devices, but the computer keyboard as a device for electromechanical data entry and communication largely comes from the utility of two devices: teleprinters (or teletypes) and keypunches . It was through such devices that modern computer keyboards inherited their layouts. As early as the 1870s, teleprinter-like devices were used to simultaneously type and transmit stock market text data from
6930-529: The earliest computers incorporated electric typewriter keyboards: the development of the ENIAC computer incorporated a keypunch device as both the input and paper-based output device, and the BINAC computer made use of an electromechanically controlled typewriter for both data entry onto magnetic tape (instead of paper) and data output. The keyboard remained the primary, most integrated computer peripheral well into
7040-402: The emitters and sensors are located in the perimeter, mounted on a small PCB . The light is directed from side to side of the keyboard interior and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys. Most optical keyboards require at least 2 beams (most commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam) to determine the actuated key. Some optical keyboards use a special key structure that blocks the light in
7150-429: The equal sign. On Japanese/Korean keyboards , there may be language input keys for changing the language to use. Some keyboards have power management keys (e.g., power key, sleep key and wake key); Internet keys to access a web browser or e-mail ; and/or multimedia keys, such as volume controls; or keys that can be programmed by the user to launch a specified application or a command like minimizing all windows. It
7260-546: The era had ways to divide a storage device into multiple directories or sections, but they had a fixed number of levels, often only one level. Several major proprietary operating systems eventually added recursive subdirectory capabilities also patterned after Multics. DEC's RSX-11M 's "group, user" hierarchy evolved into OpenVMS directories, CP/M 's volumes evolved into MS-DOS 2.0+ subdirectories, and HP's MPE group.account hierarchy and IBM's SSP and OS/400 library systems were folded into broader POSIX file systems. Making
7370-452: The era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a consumer device in 1984. By this time, text-only user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way to comparatively graphics-rich icons on screen . However, keyboards remain central to human-computer interaction to the present though mobile personal computing devices such as smartphones and tablets use a virtual keyboard . Different types of keyboards are available and each
7480-679: The first POSIX standard in 1988. In the early 1990s, a separate but very similar effort was started by an industry consortium, the Common Open Software Environment (COSE) initiative, which eventually became the Single UNIX Specification (SUS) administered by The Open Group . Starting in 1998, the Open Group and IEEE started the Austin Group , to provide a common definition of POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification, which, by 2008, had become
7590-405: The first keypunch devices, which soon evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s. The keyboard on the teleprinter played a strong role in point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication for most of the 20th century, while the keyboard on the keypunch device played a strong role in data entry and storage for just as long. The development of some of
7700-561: The full arrangement of keys, and laptop from the short key distance. Additionally, the flexibility allows the user to fold/roll the keyboard for better storage and transfer. However, for typing the keyboard must be resting on a hard surface. The vast majority of flexible keyboards in the market are made from silicone; this material makes them water- and dust-proof. This is useful in hospitals, where keyboards are subjected to frequent washing, and other dirty or must-be-clean environments. Handheld ergonomic keyboards are designed to be held like
7810-420: The idea, but adds that "no one can remember" the origin of the final spelling Unix . Dennis Ritchie, Doug McIlroy, and Peter G. Neumann also credit Kernighan. The operating system was originally written in assembly language , but in 1973, Version 4 Unix was rewritten in C . Version 4 Unix, however, still had much PDP-11 specific code, and was not suitable for porting. The first port to another platform
7920-480: The key has myriad uses in addition to its normal purpose in typing, such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes. In certain programs for playback of digital video, the space bar is used for pausing and resuming the playback. Modifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key, when the two are pressed in combination. For example, Alt + F4 in Microsoft Windows will close
8030-484: The keyboard across telegraph lines to stock ticker machines to be immediately copied and displayed onto ticker tape . The teleprinter, in its more contemporary form, was developed from 1907 to 1910 by American mechanical engineer Charles Krum and his son Howard , with early contributions by electrical engineer Frank Pearne . Earlier models were developed separately by individuals such as Royal Earl House and Frederick G. Creed . Earlier, Herman Hollerith developed
8140-406: The keyboard both with printed and blank keycaps; he found that his students quite liked blank keycaps and the tradition of HHKB's with blank keycaps continues to this day. The first Happy Hacking keyboard (HHKB) was released in 1996 and used membrane keyswitches. It used PS/2 , Sun , and ADB interfaces to connect to a computer with a detachable cable and is only available in white. The first HHKB
8250-471: The lack of "give" when typing. A flat, non-reflective surface is also required for the keys to be projected. Most projection keyboards are made for use with PDAs and smartphones due to their small form factor. Also known as photo-optical keyboard, light responsive keyboard, photo-electric keyboard and optical key actuation detection technology. An optical keyboard technology utilizes LEDs and photo sensors to optically detect actuated keys. Most commonly
8360-476: The late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to large-scale adoption of Unix ( BSD and System V ) by commercial startups, which in turn led to Unix fragmenting into multiple, similar — but often slightly and mutually incompatible — systems including DYNIX , HP-UX , SunOS / Solaris , AIX , and Xenix . In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4 ( SVR4 ), which
8470-473: The latter, the Enter key is in a single row (usually the third from the bottom) while in the former it spans over two rows and has an inverse L shape. The purpose of the ⇧ Shift key is to invoke the first alternative function of the key with which it is pressed concurrently. For alphabetic keys, shift+letter gives the upper case version of that letter. For other keys, the key is engraved with symbols for both
8580-595: The mechanical layouts referred such as "ISO" and "ANSI" comply to the primary recommendations in the named standards, while each of these standards in fact also allows the other way.) ANSI standard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers (0.75 inches (19 mm)), and have a key travel of at least 0.15 inches (3.8 mm). Modern keyboard models contain a set number of total keys according to their given standard, described as 101, 104, 105, etc. and sold as "Full-size" keyboards. Modern keyboards matching US conventions typically have 104 keys while
8690-403: The middle of a trip and their horse died, they would leave the horse there. But even if they were in the middle of a desert, they would take their saddle with them. The horse was a consumable good, but the saddle was an interface that their bodies had gotten used to. In the same vein, PCs are consumable goods, while keyboards are important interfaces. During the design process, Wada had mock-ups of
8800-428: The modular design of the Unix model, sharing components is relatively common: most or all Unix and Unix-like systems include at least some BSD code, while some include GNU utilities in their distributions. Linux and BSD Unix are increasingly filling market needs traditionally served by proprietary Unix operating systems, expanding into new markets such as the consumer desktop , mobile devices and embedded devices . In
8910-443: The more official offerings from the workstation and mainframe manufacturers. In the same interview, he states that he views both Unix and Linux as "the continuation of ideas that were started by Ken and me and many others, many years ago". OpenSolaris was the free software counterpart to Solaris developed by Sun Microsystems , which included a CDDL -licensed kernel and a primarily GNU userland. However, Oracle discontinued
9020-475: The operating system should provide a set of simple tools, each of which performs a limited, well-defined function. A unified and inode -based filesystem and an inter-process communication mechanism known as " pipes " serve as the main means of communication, and a shell scripting and command language (the Unix shell ) is used to combine the tools to perform complex workflows. In the early 1990s, AT&T sold its rights in Unix to Novell , which then sold
9130-503: The original version of Unix – the entire system was configured using textual shell command scripts. The common denominator in the I/O system was the byte – unlike "record-based" file systems . The focus on text for representing nearly everything made Unix pipes especially useful and encouraged the development of simple, general tools that could easily be combined to perform more complicated ad hoc tasks. The focus on text and bytes made
9240-416: The other one is in the numeric keys. The purpose of the enter key is to confirm what has been typed. The return key is based on the original line feed / carriage return function of typewriters : in many word processors, for example, the return key ends a paragraph; in a spreadsheet, it completes the current cell and move to the next cell. The shape of the Enter key differs between ISO and ANSI keyboards: in
9350-509: The program in an active window . In contrast, pressing just F4 will probably do nothing, unless assigned a specific function in a particular program. By themselves, modifier keys usually do nothing. The most widely used modifier keys include the Control key , Shift key and the Alt key . The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for keys that have three symbols printed on them. On
9460-599: The project upon their acquisition of Sun, which prompted a group of former Sun employees and members of the OpenSolaris community to fork OpenSolaris into the illumos kernel. As of 2014, illumos remains the only active, open-source System V derivative. In May 1975, RFC 681 described the development of Network Unix by the Center for Advanced Computation at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign . The Unix system
9570-591: The related business operations to Santa Cruz Operation (SCO). Whether Novell also sold the copyrights to the actual software was the subject of a federal lawsuit in 2006, SCO v. Novell , which Novell won. The case was appealed, but on August 30, 2011, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit affirmed the trial decisions, closing the case. Unix vendor SCO Group Inc. accused Novell of slander of title . The present owner of
9680-469: The row of number keys above the top alphabetic row, most desktop keyboards have a number pad or accounting pad, on the right hand side of the keyboard. While num lock is set, the numbers on these keys duplicate the number row; if not, they have alternative functions as engraved. In addition to numbers, this pad has command symbols concerned with calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division symbols. The enter key in this keys indicate
9790-420: The same key) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key. The Backspace key deletes the preceding character. Lock keys lock part of a keyboard, depending on the settings selected. The lock keys are scattered around the keyboard. Most styles of keyboards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled, in the upper right corner above the numeric pad. The lock keys include Scroll lock , Num lock (which allows
9900-482: The same resource or device simultaneously. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the distinction of kernel space from user space , the latter being a lower priority realm where most application programs operate. The origins of Unix date back to the mid-1960s when the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Bell Labs , and General Electric were developing Multics ,
10010-535: The sense that everyone who received a copy would be free to use, study, modify, and redistribute it. The GNU project's own kernel development project, GNU Hurd , had not yet produced a working kernel, but in 1991 Linus Torvalds released the Linux kernel as free software under the GNU General Public License . In addition to their use in the GNU operating system, many GNU packages – such as
10120-427: The shell itself. Unix's innovative command-line syntax for creating modular chains of producer-consumer processes ( pipelines ) made a powerful programming paradigm ( coroutines ) widely available. Many later command-line interpreters have been inspired by the Unix shell. A fundamental simplifying assumption of Unix was its focus on newline - delimited text for nearly all file formats. There were no "binary" editors in
10230-419: The shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys. The Space bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row, which is significantly wider than other keys. Like the alphanumeric characters, it
10340-482: The size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of the keys. The reduction is limited by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Alternatively, a tool is used for pressing small keys. Desktop computer keyboards include alphabetic characters and numerals (and usually additionally a numeric keypad ), typographical symbols and punctuation marks , one or more currency symbols and other special characters, diacritics and
10450-654: The software at a nominal fee for educational use, by running on inexpensive hardware, and by being easy to adapt and move to different machines. Unix was originally written in assembly language , but was soon rewritten in C , a high-level programming language . Although this followed the lead of CTSS , Multics and Burroughs MCP , it was Unix that popularized the idea. Unix had a drastically simplified file model compared to many contemporary operating systems: treating all kinds of files as simple byte arrays. The file system hierarchy contained machine services and devices (such as printers , terminals , or disk drives ), providing
10560-1091: The standard functions and can typically use a single keyboard and mouse to access multiple sources. Multifunctional keyboards may feature customised keypads, fully programmable function or soft keys for macros/pre-sets, biometric or smart card readers, trackballs , etc. New generation multifunctional keyboards feature a touchscreen display to stream video, control audio visual media and alarms, execute application inputs, configure individual desktop environments, etc. Multifunctional keyboards may also permit users to share access to PCs and other information sources. Multiple interfaces (serial, USB, audio, Ethernet, etc.) are used to integrate external devices. Some multifunctional keyboards are also used to directly and intuitively control video walls. Common environments for multifunctional keyboards are complex, high-performance workplaces for financial traders and control room operators (emergency services, security, air traffic management; industry, utilities management, etc.). Many keyboards have been designed for one-handed operation. The first one,
10670-418: The system far more scalable and portable than other systems. Over time, text-based applications have also proven popular in application areas, such as printing languages ( PostScript , ODF ), and at the application layer of the Internet protocols , e.g., FTP , SMTP , HTTP , SOAP , and SIP . Unix popularized a syntax for regular expressions that found widespread use. The Unix programming interface became
10780-536: The time", it signals Stop , QUIT , or "let me get out of a dialog" (or pop-up window). It triggers the Stop function in many web browsers. The escape key was part of the standard keyboard of the Teletype Model 33 (introduced in 1964 and used with many early minicomputers). The DEC VT50 , introduced July 1974, also had an Esc key. The TECO text editor (ca 1963) and its descendant Emacs (ca 1985) use
10890-459: The trademark UNIX is The Open Group, an industry standards consortium. Only systems fully compliant with and certified to the Single UNIX Specification qualify as "UNIX" (others are called " Unix-like "). By decree of The Open Group, the term "UNIX" refers more to a class of operating systems than to a specific implementation of an operating system; those operating systems which meet The Open Group's Single UNIX Specification should be able to bear
11000-419: The unshifted and shifted result. When used in combination with other control keys (such as Ctrl , Alt or AltGr ), the effect is system and application dependent. The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer keyboards. It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is usually a small icon depicting
11110-417: The use of the numeric keypad), and Caps lock . The SysRq and Print screen commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a "panic" button to recover from crashes (and it is still used in this sense to some extent by the Linux kernel ; see Magic SysRq key ). The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present it usually puts
11220-454: The user the ability to move around a room or to lean back on a chair while also being able to type in front or away from the computer. Some variations of handheld ergonomic keyboards also include a trackball mouse that allow mouse movement and typing included in one handheld device. Smaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a built-in keyboard, such as PDAs , and smartphones. Small keyboards are also useful where there
11330-536: Was a port of Version 6, made four years later (1977) at the University of Wollongong for the Interdata 7/32 , followed by a Bell Labs port of Version 7 to the Interdata 8/32 during 1977 and 1978. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are collectively referred to as Research Unix . In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to Donald B. Gillies at the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign (UIUC) Department of Computer Science. During
11440-431: Was commonly used on minicomputers and mainframes from the 1970s onwards. It distinguished itself from its predecessors as the first portable operating system: almost the entire operating system is written in the C programming language , which allows Unix to operate on numerous platforms. Unix systems are characterized by a modular design that is sometimes called the " Unix philosophy ". According to this philosophy,
11550-592: Was followed by the release of the HHKB Lite and HHKB Lite2 in 1999 and 2001 respectively. The HHKB Lite models also used membrane keyswitches but have a slightly different layout than the standard HHKB. The HHKB Lite is the first HHKB model to be available in black and the HHKB Lite2 is the first HHKB model to use the USB interface. The first HHKB Professional (not to be confused with the previously mentioned first HHKB)
11660-402: Was one of the key reasons it emerged as an important teaching and learning tool and has had a broad influence. See § Impact , below. The inclusion of these components did not make the system large – the original V7 UNIX distribution, consisting of copies of all of the compiled binaries plus all of the source code and documentation occupied less than 10 MB and arrived on
11770-573: Was released in 1992 and led to the NetBSD and FreeBSD projects. With the 1994 settlement of a lawsuit brought against the University of California and Berkeley Software Design Inc. ( USL v. BSDi ) by Unix System Laboratories , it was clarified that Berkeley had the right to distribute BSD Unix for free if it so desired. Since then, BSD Unix has been developed in several different product branches, including OpenBSD and DragonFly BSD . Because of
11880-400: Was released in December 2003 and is available in either white or charcoal (black) colorways with either blank or printed keycaps. Retroactively known as the HHKB Professional 1, this is the first HHKB model to use the famous Topre electrostatic capacitive keyswitches that all subsequent models use to this day. It also features a detachable mini-USB cable which is used to connect the keyboard to
11990-516: Was said to "present several interesting capabilities as an ARPANET mini-host". At the time, Unix required a license from Bell Telephone Laboratories that cost US$ 20,000 for non-university institutions, while universities could obtain a license for a nominal fee of $ 150. It was noted that Bell was "open to suggestions" for an ARPANET-wide license. The RFC specifically mentions that Unix "offers powerful local processing facilities in terms of user programs, several compilers , an editor based on QED ,
12100-404: Was subsequently adopted by many commercial Unix vendors. In the 1990s, Unix and Unix-like systems grew in popularity and became the operating system of choice for over 90% of the world's top 500 fastest supercomputers , as BSD and Linux distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers. In 2000, Apple released Darwin , also a Unix system, which became
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