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137-461: In antiquity the river was known as "Izumo-no-okawa" (出雲大川, "The great Izumo river"). The River Hii significantly changed its course and transformed the land several times during last 7 millennia. Alluvial deposits carried by the river joined the Shimane peninsula to the mainland, which may have been represented in the "Kunibiki-shinwa" myth. Since the 17th century it flows into lake Shinji, and since

274-487: A Class A river system by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT). The bottom gradient is about 1/160-1/700 in the upper reaches and 1/860-1/1500 in the lower part. The mean annual precipitation is about 2300 mm in the upper reaches and 1700–1845 mm in the lower reaches, most of it occurring in the southwestern part of the basin. The annual discharge in the midstream (Otsu, Izumo city)

411-403: A "centralized feudal " form of the shogunate. Instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu , the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi . Already a powerful daimyo (feudal lord), Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area. He maintained two million koku , or thirty-six hectares of land, a new headquarters at Edo ,

548-469: A "sacred" and a "true bone" parent were considered as "true bones". There were also many ways for a "sacred bone" to be demoted to a "true bone", thus making the entire system even more likely to collapse eventually. The king (or queen) theoretically was an absolute monarch, but royal powers were somewhat constrained by a strong aristocracy. The " Hwabaek " (화백,和白) served as royal council with decision-making authorities on some vital issues like succession to

685-517: A Buddhist or Shinto temple. The Dutch and Chinese were restricted, respectively, to Dejima and to a special quarter in Nagasaki . Besides small trade of some outer daimyo with Korea and the Ryukyu Islands , to the southwest of Japan's main islands, by 1641, foreign contacts were limited by the policy of sakoku to Nagasaki. The last Jesuit was either killed or reconverted by 1644. By

822-402: A brief period of about a century from the late 7th to late 8th centuries the monarchy made an attempt to divest aristocratic officialdom of their landed base by instituting a system of salary payments, or office land ( jikjeon , 직전, 職田), in lieu of the former system whereby aristocratic officials were given grants of land to exploit as salary (the so–called tax villages, or nog-eup , 녹읍, 祿邑). By

959-561: A diffusion of trade and handicraft industries. The construction trades flourished, along with banking facilities and merchant associations. Increasingly, han authorities oversaw the rising agricultural production and the spread of rural handicrafts. By the mid-18th century, Edo had a population of more than one million, likely the biggest city in the world at the time. Osaka and Kyoto each had more than 400,000 inhabitants. Many other castle towns grew as well. Osaka and Kyoto became busy trading and handicraft production centers, while Edo

1096-517: A significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication. In 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka . The Tokugawa (or Edo) period brought 250 years of stability to Japan. The political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan , a combination of the terms bakufu and han (domains) to describe the government and society of the period. In

1233-520: A strategically situated castle town (the future Tokyo ), and also had an additional two million koku of land and thirty-eight vassals under his control. After Hideyoshi's death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control of the Toyotomi clan . Ieyasu's victory over the western daimyo at the Battle of Sekigahara (October 21, 1600, or in the old Japanese calendar , on the 15th day of the ninth month of

1370-566: A strong military force. Silla helped Baekje drive Goguryeo out of the Han River ( Seoul ) area, and then wrested control of the entire central western Korea region from Baekje in 553, breaching the 120-year Baekje-Silla alliance. Also, King Jinheung established the Hwarang . The early period ended with the death of Jindeok of Silla and the demise of the "hallowed bone" ( 성골 ; seonggol ) rank system. The royal title Maripgan ( 마립간 )

1507-461: A vital commercial sector to be in flourishing urban centers, a relatively well-educated elite, a sophisticated government bureaucracy, productive agriculture, a closely unified nation with highly developed financial and marketing systems, and a national infrastructure of roads. Economic development during the Tokugawa period included urbanization , increased shipping of commodities, a significant expansion of domestic and, initially, foreign commerce, and

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1644-548: Is 1.4 bln m. The main tributaries of Hii are Ai, Ohmaki, Kuno, Mitoya and Akagawa. In addition, rivers Iinashi and Hakuta discharge into lake Nakaumi. In the upper part of the catchment over 80% of the land is covered by forests and around 10% by rice paddies. During the Last Glacial Maximum , the Shimane Peninsula  [ ja ] was fully connected to Honshu . The Old Shinji river flowed in

1781-460: Is analyzed into two elements in many popular explanations, with the first element alleged to be from the Korean root or from a word related to Middle Korean marh meaning "stake, post, pile, picket, peg, pin (of a tent)". The second element, gan ( Hangul : 간), is a likely cognate to han ( Hangul : 한) and the word for "big, great" keun, first attested as Late Old Korean 黑根 *hùkú-n. Both carry

1918-456: Is characterized by the rising power of the monarchy at the expense of the jingol nobility. This was made possible by the new wealth and prestige garnered as a result of Silla's unification of the peninsula, as well as the monarchy's successful suppression of several armed aristocratic revolts following early upon unification, which afforded the king the opportunity of purging the most powerful families and rivals to central authority. Further, for

2055-559: Is held every 10 years on the Ohashi river in Matsue. During the festival the shintai of Jozan-Inari shrine is shipped on a boat. It is one of three major ship festivals of Japan. Edo period The Edo period ( 江戸時代 , Edo jidai ) , also known as the Tokugawa period ( 徳川時代 , Tokugawa jidai ) , is the period between 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan , when Japan

2192-648: Is located on the slopes of Mount Sentsū , in the town of Okuizumo . The river flows northwards through the Chūgoku Mountains and Yokota Basin (横田盆地). Below Kisuki it joins Mitoya river (三刀屋川). In Izumo city it enters the Izumo plain  [ ru ] , where it is connected to Kando River  [ ru ] by the Hiikawa River discharge channel. Then it turns eastwards and flows through Lake Shinji and then through lake Nakaumi , discharging through

2329-541: Is pronounced Silla . According to the Samguk sagi , the name of 新羅 ( Silla ), consisting of the components sin ( 新 ), as in deogeobilsin ( 德業日新 ) and ra , as in mangnasabang ( 網羅四方 ) is thought to be a later Confucian interpretation. The modern Seoul is a shortened form of Seorabeol, meaning "capital city", and was continuously used throughout the Goryeo and Joseon periods even in official documents, despite

2466-517: The Shinsen Shōjiroku , Inahi no Mikoto the brother of the mythological Emperor Jimmu was the ancestor to the kings of Silla. Another source found in Samguk sagi claims that a Japanese man named, Hogong helped build the kingdom of Silla. In its early days, Silla started off as a city-state by the name of Saro ( 사로국 ; 斯盧國 ), initially founded by Yemaek refugees from Gojoseon . It has also accepted dispersed people fleeing from

2603-1119: The chōnin (craftsmen and merchants) class and nōmin (peasants) class were literate. Some historians partially credited Japan's relatively high literacy rates for its fast development after the Meiji Restoration. As the literacy rate was so high that many ordinary people could read books, books in various genres such as cooking, gardening, travel guides, art books, scripts of bunraku (puppet theatre), kibyōshi (satirical novels), sharebon (books on urban culture), kokkeibon (comical books), ninjōbon (romance novel), yomihon and kusazōshi were published. There were 600 to 800 rental bookstores in Edo, and people borrowed or bought these woodblock print books. The best-selling books in this period were Kōshoku Ichidai Otoko ( Life of an Amorous Man ) by Ihara Saikaku , Nansō Satomi Hakkenden by Takizawa Bakin and Tōkaidōchū Hizakurige by Jippensha Ikku and these books were reprinted many times. The flourishing of Neo-Confucianism

2740-713: The Nakdong River basin attacked the Silla-friendly Aragaya , the prince of Aragaya asked Silla for a rescue army, and the king ordered Crown Prince Seok Uro to gather his troops and attack the eight kingdoms. Crown Prince SeokUro saved Aragaya and rescued 6,000 of the pro-Silla Gaya people who had been captured and returned to their homeland. Three years later, three among the eight countries (浦上八國), Golpo-guk, Chilpo-guk, and Gosapo-guk, will launch counterattacks against Silla. A battle took place in Yeomhae ,

2877-595: The Samhan . Silla began as "Saro-guk", a statelet within the 12-member confederacy known as Jinhan . Saro-guk consisted of six clans later known as the Six Clans of Jinhan ( 진한 6부 ; 辰韓六部 ) from Gojoseon. According to Korean records, Silla was founded by Bak Hyeokgeose of Silla in 57 BCE, around present-day Gyeongju . Hyeokgeose is said to have been hatched from an egg laid from a white horse, and when he turned 13, six clans submitted to him as king and established

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3014-901: The Tang dynasty during the Silla–Tang War . The pike unit, called Changchangdang that would later be known as the Bigeum Legion ( 비금서당 ) as part of the Nine Legions ( 구서당 ) and which was consisted of Silla folks, had a special purpose to counter the Göktürks cavalries operated by the Tang army during the Silla-Tang War . In addition, Silla's central army, the Nine Legions ( 구서당 ), were consisted of Silla, Goguryeo , Baekje , and Mohe people. These nine legions aimed at defending

3151-658: The bakufu and daimyos often encouraged commercial crops and artifacts within their domains, from textiles to tea. The concentration of wealth also led to the development of financial markets. As the shogunate only allowed daimyos to sell surplus rice in Edo and Osaka, large-scale rice markets developed there. Each daimyo also had a capital city, located near the one castle they were allowed to maintain. Daimyos would have agents in various commercial centers, selling rice and cash crops, often exchanged for paper credit to be redeemed elsewhere. Merchants invented credit instruments to transfer money, and currency came into common use. In

3288-411: The bakuhan , the shōgun had national authority, and the daimyo had regional authority. This represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The Tokugawa became more powerful during their first century of rule: land redistribution gave them nearly seven million koku , control of

3425-561: The capital became complete in formation and compilation after Silla unified the Three Kingdoms . Each Legions were known for their representative colors marked on their collars and were constituted by different groups. The Golden, Red, and Dark Blue Legion employed Goguryeoans while the Blue and White Legion accepted Baekje folks into their ranks. The Bigeum (also Red in color), Green, and Purple Legion were formed by Sillan people whilst

3562-419: The emperor , the court, all daimyo, and the religious orders. The emperor was held up as the ultimate source of political sanction for the shōgun , who ostensibly was the vassal of the imperial family. The Tokugawa helped the imperial family recapture its old glory by rebuilding its palaces and granting it new lands. To ensure a close tie between the imperial clan and the Tokugawa family, Ieyasu's granddaughter

3699-648: The shōgun ' s retainers and residents of Tokugawa lands had been ordered to forswear Christianity. More restrictions came in 1616 (the restriction of foreign trade to Nagasaki and Hirado, an island northwest of Kyūshū), 1622 (the execution of 120 missionaries and converts), 1624 (the expulsion of the Spanish), and 1629 (the execution of thousands of Christians). Finally, the Closed Country Edict of 1635 prohibited any Japanese from travelling outside Japan or, if someone left, from ever returning. In 1636,

3836-707: The shōgun and daimyo could authorize the use of wood. By the 18th century, Japan had developed detailed scientific knowledge about silviculture and plantation forestry . The first shogun Ieyasu set up Confucian academies in his shinpan domains and other daimyos followed suit in their own domains, establishing what's known as han schools (藩校, hankō ). Within a generation, almost all samurai were literate, as their careers often required knowledge of literary arts. These academies were staffed mostly with other samurai, along with some buddhist and shinto clergymen who were also learned in Neo-Confucianism and

3973-482: The terakoya curriculum consisted of basic literacy and arithmetic, instead of literary arts or philosophy. High rates of urban literacy in Edo contributed to the prevalence of novels and other literary forms. In urban areas, children were often taught by masterless samurai, while in rural areas priests from Buddhist temples or Shinto shrines often did the teaching. Unlike in the cities, in rural Japan, only children of prominent farmers would receive education. In Edo,

4110-725: The 1660s, Christianity was almost completely eradicated. Its external political, economic, and religious influence on Japan became quite limited. Only China, the Dutch East India Company , and for a short period, the Portuguese, Spanish and English, enjoyed the right to visit Japan during this period, for commercial purposes only, and they were restricted to the Dejima port in Nagasaki. Other Europeans who landed on Japanese shores were put to death without trial. During

4247-412: The 1720s and 1820s, Japan had almost zero population growth , often attributed to lower birth rates in response to widespread famine ( Great Tenmei famine 1782–1788), but some historians have presented different theories, such as a high rate of infanticide artificially controlling population. At around 1721, the population of Japan was close to 30 million and the figure was only around 32 million around

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4384-399: The 5% samurai class, followed by craftsmen and merchants. However, various studies have revealed since about 1995 that the classes of peasants, craftsmen, and merchants under the samurai are equal, and the old hierarchy chart has been removed from Japanese history textbooks. In other words, peasants, craftsmen, and merchants are not a social pecking order, but a social classification. Only

4521-489: The 6th century, when Silla acquired a detailed system of law and governance, social status and official advancement were dictated by the bone rank system . This rigid lineage-based system also dictated clothing, house size, and the permitted range of marriage. Since its emergence as a centralized polity Silla society had been characterized by its strict aristocratic makeup. Silla had two royal classes: "sacred bone" ( seonggol , 성골, 聖骨) and "true bone" ( jingol , 진골, 眞骨). Up until

4658-625: The Americas and then to Europe. Also during that period, the bakufu commissioned around 720 Red Seal Ships , three-masted and armed trade ships, for intra-Asian commerce. Japanese adventurers, such as Yamada Nagamasa , used those ships throughout Asia. The "Christian problem" was, in effect, a problem of controlling both the Christian daimyo in Kyūshū and their trade with the Europeans . By 1612,

4795-548: The Black Legion took dispersed Mohe refugees into their fold that came along with Goguryeo refugees after the Fall of Goguryeo . Silla is also known for its maritime prowess shown by the navy backed with master shipbuilding and seamanship. The boats employed were usually called Sillaseon ( 신라선 ), which had an international reputation for its solid durability and effective capabilities that were said to 'enable men surf across

4932-471: The Dutch were restricted to Dejima , a small artificial island —and thus, not true Japanese soil—in Nagasaki's harbor. The shogunate perceived Christianity to be an extremely destabilizing factor, and so decided to target it. The Shimabara Rebellion of 1637–1638, in which discontented Catholic samurai and peasants rebelled against the bakufu—and Edo called in Dutch ships to bombard the rebel stronghold—marked

5069-526: The Edo period coincides with the last decades of the Nanban trade period during which intense interaction with European powers, on the economic and religious plane, took place. It is at the beginning of the Edo period that Japan built its first ocean-going warships , such as the San Juan Bautista , a 500- ton galleon -type ship that transported a Japanese embassy headed by Hasekura Tsunenaga to

5206-585: The Hii river, which together generate up to 55000 kWh of electricity. Downstream of the dams ayu (the main fishery resource) and carp are caught in the river. The catches are smaller compared to other rivers in the prefecture and to lakes Shinji and Nakaumi. In many locations the riverbanks are a popular tourist destination. The riverbanks in Mitoya ( Unnan ) and Kisuki are famous for sakura blossoms. The Horanenya  [ ja ] matsuri (shinto festival)

5343-604: The Kandono-mizuumi lagune and deposited their sediment there. According to some researchers, this change may have been reflected in the Kunibiki-shinwa ("Land-pulling myth"). It tells the story of the expansion of Izumo land by pulling to it pieces of "land in excess" from neighbouring areas. According to the Izumo-fudoki annals, the local deity Yatsukamizu-omitsuno(-no-mikoto) said: "The country Izumo, of

5480-572: The Kim clan established a hereditary monarchy and took the royal title of Maripgan (麻立干; 마립간). However, in the Samguk sagi , Naemul of Silla still appears as a title of Isageum (泥師今; 이사금). He is considered by many historians as the starting point of the Gyeongju Kim period, which lasted more than 550 years. However, even when the Kim monopolized the throne for more than 500 years, the veneration of

5617-551: The Lelang Commandery after Goguryeo's invasion, while later on incorporating native Jin people in the vicinity and Ye people to the North. Talhae of Silla (57 CE–80 CE) was the son-in-law of Namhae of Silla (4 CE–24 CE). According to the Samguk sagi , Seoktalhae was the prince of Yongseongguk (龍成國) or Dapana (多婆那國), located 1,000- ri (里), northeast of Japan (?). Following the will of Namhae of Silla, he became

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5754-668: The Meiji Restoration around 150 years later. From 1721, there were regular national surveys of the population until the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate. In addition, regional surveys, as well as religious records initially compiled to eradicate Christianity, also provide valuable demographic data. The Tokugawa era brought peace, and that brought prosperity to a nation of 31 million, 80% of them rice farmers. Rice production increased steadily, but population remained stable. Rice paddies grew from 1.6 million chō in 1600 to 3 million by 1720. Improved technology helped farmers control

5891-472: The Mongolian word solgoi "left, east"; (7) It comes from the name of the medieval kingdom of Goryeo (via * Hoɾyo > * Solo(n)- ). The authors of this paper have ended up supporting the sixth hypothesis, i.e. that Mongolian Solongos "Korea, Koreans" ultimately should be cognate with Mongolian soluγai > solγoi "left, wrong side of the body, left-handed, enemy to the east (from the perspective of

6028-634: The Mongols)"." Silla was also referred to as Gyerim ( 계림 ; 鷄林 ), literally "rooster forest", a name that has its origins in the forest near the Silla capital. Legend has it that the state's founder was born in the same forest, hatched from the egg of a cockatrice ( 계룡 ; 雞龍 ; gyeryong ; lit.  rooster-dragon). During the Proto–Three Kingdoms period, central and southern Korea consisted of three confederacies called

6165-578: The Old Korean names of 居西干 Geoseogan (1st century BCE), 次次雄 Chachaung (1st century CE), 泥師今 Isageum (Old Korean: *nisokum) and 麻立干 Maripkan (5th-6th century) instead. It began as a chiefdom in the Jinhan confederacy, part of the Samhan , and after consolidating its power in the immediate area, conquered the Gaya confederacy. Eventually allying with Sui China and then Tang China , it conquered

6302-521: The Old Shinji Bay, located at the place of modern lake Shinji and Izumo Plain. Later the sea level receded again. In addition, sediments from Hii and other rivers accumulated in the bay, cutting it off the sea. The final step in this change may have happened as a result of an eruption of Mount Sanbe about 1600 BC and the obstruction of the bay by pyroclastic flow that connected it again to Honshu. Afterwards rivers Hii and Kando discharged into

6439-537: The Sada-gawa channel was constructed and linked lake Shinji directly to the sea. However, their outflow was not enough for flood control. In 1832 Hii was linked to lake Shinji by the Shin River, which was constructed to the south of its former course, but accumulation of sediment led to its closure in 1939. In the 20th and 21st centuries devastating floods occurred in years 1943, 1945, 1972, 2003 and 2006. In 2003

6576-504: The Sakai channel into Miho-wan bay of Sea of Japan . The part of the river that connects two lakes and crosses Matsue city is called Ohashi River  [ ja ] (大橋川). The Hii river is 153 km long and the catchment area is 2540 km; the population of the catchment is about 500.000. It is 19th longest river in Japan, and 29th largest by its catchment area. It is designated as

6713-591: The Siljikgok and Apdok, which were frightened by Silla, also surrendered. Six years later, it entered the inland area and attacked and merged Dabulguk , Bijigukuk, and Chopalguk. During the Naehae of Silla period (196–230), the Eight Port Kingdoms War (浦上八國 亂) broke out to determine hegemony in the southern part of the peninsula. In 209, when the "eight upper countries (of the estuary)" (浦上八國) in

6850-512: The Silla king is descended from Xiongnu. Nonetheless, this hypothesis in respect to the origins of Silla royalty are not accepted in mainstream academia, but rather stand as a minor opinion. Considering the situation of the era when the Monument of King Munmu was created, it is presumed to be propaganda created for friendship with China and northerners and the legitimacy of the dynasty. Nihon Shoki and Kojiki also mentions Silla as

6987-403: The Silla kingship was fixed in the house of Wonseong of Silla (785–798), though the office itself was continually contested among various branches of the Kim lineage. Nevertheless, the middle period of Silla witnessed the state at its zenith, the brief consolidation of royal power, and the attempt to institute a Chinese style bureaucratic system. The final century and a half of the Silla state

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7124-467: The Silla monarchy stressed Buddhism, and the Silla monarch's role as a "Buddha-king". Another salient factor in post-unification politics were the increasing tensions between the Korean monarchy and aristocracy. The early Silla military was built around a small number of Silla royal guards designed to protect royalty and nobility and in times of war served as the primary military force if needed. Due to

7261-520: The Silla–Tang alliance conquered Goguryeo to its north after the Goguryeo–Tang War . Silla then fought against the Tang dynasty for nearly a decade to expel Chinese forces on the peninsula intent on creating Tang colonies there to finally establish a unified kingdom as far north as modern Pyongyang. The northern region of the defunct Goguryeo state later reemerged as Balhae . Silla's middle period

7398-624: The South Korean government. Since the tombs were harder to break into than those of Baekje, a larger number of objects has been preserved. Notable amongst these are Silla's elaborate gold crowns and jewelry. The massive Bronze Bell of King Seongdeok the Great of Silla is known to produce a distinctive sound. Cheomseongdae near Gyeongju is the oldest extant astronomical observatory in East Asia but some disagree on its exact functions. It

7535-766: The Taisha Bay Since then the Kando river is regarded as a part of Hii river system. The channel, completed in 2013, received the 2014 Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Award. Additional elements of the flood control system are the Obara dam on Hii river and the Shitsumi dam on Kando river, as well as renovation of the Ohashi river. In the Middle Ages the river comprised an important transport corridor, through which rice and iron were shipped downstream. Typically

7672-432: The Tokugawa period, the social order, based on inherited position rather than personal merits, was rigid and highly formalized. At the top were the emperor and court nobles ( kuge ), together with the shōgun and daimyo . Older scholars believed that there were Shi-nō-kō-shō ( 士農工商 , four classes ) of "samurai, peasants ( hyakushō ), craftsmen, and merchants ( chōnin )" under the daimyo, with 80% of peasants under

7809-673: The Western knights or chevaliers). Originally a social group, due to the continuous military rivalry between the Three Kingdoms of Korea , they eventually transformed from a group of elite male aristocratic youth into soldiers and military leaders. Hwarang were key in the fall of Goguryeo (which resulted in the unification of the Korean Peninsula under Unified Silla ) and the Silla–Tang Wars , which expelled Tang forces in

7946-496: The all-important flow of irrigation to their paddies. The daimyo operated several hundred castle towns, which became loci of domestic trade. Large-scale rice markets developed, centered on Edo and Ōsaka. In the cities and towns, guilds of merchants and artisans met the growing demand for goods and services. The merchants, while low in status, prospered, especially those with official patronage. Merchants invented credit instruments to transfer money, currency came into common use, and

8083-480: The all-important flow of water to their paddies. The daimyos operated several hundred castle towns, which became loci of domestic trade. The system of sankin kōtai meant that daimyos and their families often resided in Edo or travelled back to their domains, giving demand to an enormous consumer market in Edo and trade throughout the country. Samurai and daimyos, after prolonged peace, were accustomed to more elaborate lifestyles. To keep up with growing expenditures,

8220-451: The amount of sediment. The accumulation of sediment in the riverbed increased the flood hazard, causing the locals to construct consequently elevated river banks. As a result today the river flows higher than the surrounding land, at some points the riverbed is elevated 3–4 m above the nearby plain. It is an example of a raised-bed river ( 天上川 , tenjougawa ) , which are common in Japan. The accumulation of sediment in lake Shinji stopped

8357-492: The ancestor of Gyeongju Kim , was adopted by Talhae of Silla. The territory outside the capital was greatly conquered during the period of Pasa of Silla (80–112). As soon as he ascended the throne, he ordered officials to encourage agriculture, silkworm farming and train soldiers. There was a territorial dispute between the Eumjipbeol and Siljikgok , and the two countries first asked Pasa of Silla to mediate, Pasa of Silla

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8494-403: The architect of Silla's unification of the peninsula. Hyegong's demise was a bloody one, the culmination of an extended civil war involving most of the kingdom's high–ranking noble families. With Hyegong's death, during the remaining years of Silla, the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead as powerful aristocratic families became increasingly independent of central control. Thereafter

8631-400: The beggars, entertainers, and prostitutes. The word eta literally translates to "filthy" and hinin to "non-humans", a thorough reflection of the attitude held by other classes that the eta and hinin were not even people. Hinin were only allowed inside a special quarter of the city. Other persecution of the hinin included disallowing them from wearing robes longer than knee-length and

8768-876: The biggest of waves' amongst the Chinese and Japanese according to the Shoku Nihon Koki . During the Silla-Tang War, the Silla navy under the command of general Sideuk defeated the Tang Navy 22 times out of 23 engagements in Gibeolpo, today's Seocheon County . Jang Bogo, a prominent maritime figure of Silla, was also famous for his navy based on the Cheonghaejin Garrison. A significant number of Silla tombs can still be found in Gyeongju,

8905-404: The capital of Silla. Silla tombs consist of a stone chamber surrounded by a soil mound. The historic area around Gyeongju was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2000. Much of it is also protected as part of Gyeongju National Park . Additionally, two villages near Gyeongju named Hahoe and Yangdong Folk Village were submitted for UNESCO heritages in 2008 or later by related cities and

9042-515: The chief counselor Mizuno Tadakuni. He raised taxes, denounced luxuries and tried to impede the growth of business; he failed and it appeared to many that the continued existence of the entire Tokugawa system was in jeopardy. Rice was the base of the economy. About 80% of the people were rice farmers. Rice production increased steadily, but population remained stable, so prosperity increased. Rice paddies grew from 1.6 million chō in 1600 to 3 million by 1720. Improved technology helped farmers control

9179-816: The cities and towns, guilds of merchants and artisans met the growing demand for goods and services. The merchants benefited enormously, especially those with official patronage. However, the Neo-Confucian ideology of the shogunate focused the virtues of frugality and hard work; it had a rigid class system, which emphasized agriculture and despised commerce and merchants. A century after the Shogunate's establishment, problems began to emerge. The samurai, forbidden to engage in farming or business but allowed to borrow money, borrowed too much, some taking up side jobs as bodyguards for merchants, debt collectors, or artisans. The bakufu and daimyos raised taxes on farmers, but did not tax business, so they too fell into debt, with some merchants specializing in loaning to daimyos. Yet it

9316-414: The city of their feudal lord and become a paid retainer. Only a few land samurai remained in the border provinces of the north, or as direct vassals of the shōgun , the 5,000 so-called hatamoto . The daimyo were put under tight control of the shogunate. Their families had to reside in Edo; the daimyo themselves had to reside in Edo for one year and in their province ( han ) for the next. This system

9453-400: The clouds rising, is a land like a pile of narrow cloth. First the land was made small. Therefore, it ought to be sewn larger". Using a hoe he pulled pieces of land from Shiragi (eastern Silla ), Saki Country and other areas and connected them to Izumo to form the Shimane peninsula. The land pulled from Shiragi became Kidzuki Cape, beside which Izumo Taisha shrine is located. Its original name

9590-475: The commercialization of the economy grew rapidly, bringing more and more remote villages into the national economy. Rich farmers appeared who switched from rice to high-profit commercial crops and engaged in local money-lending, trade, and small-scale manufacturing. Wealthy merchants were often forced to "lend" money to the shogunate or daimyos (often never returned). They often had to hide their wealth, and some sought higher social status by using money to marry into

9727-399: The dams built since the 1960s reduced the volume of sediment transported by the river. Since the 1980s till 2010s there was an improvement in the BOD values of Hii water. Since 2003 it did not exceed the required value of 1 mg/L (except one instance in 2015). From 1980s until the early 2000s the total nitrogen concentration has risen while phosphorus concentration decreased. Since

9864-521: The early 20th century continues to the Sea of Japan. Hii river frequently caused floods in its catchment. On the other hand, it was and currently is an important source of drinking and irrigation water. During the Edo period the upper Hii catchment was the largest iron-producing region in Japan. Nowadays the river is dammed for the production of hydropower. The largest dams are Obara and Hinobori. The river's source

10001-515: The early 21st century efforts have been undertaken for restoration of wetlands along the river, since these are important for the local ecosystem. The first reports of floods along Hii river are from Yoro period (717-723 AD). According to later reports, significant flooding occurred about every 4 years, frequently following typhoons. As an attempt to solve the problem, in 1689 the Tenjin-gawa channel connected lakes Shinji and Nakaumi, and in 1787

10138-605: The end of the Christian movement. During the Shimabara Rebellion an estimated 37,000 people (mostly Christians) were massacred. In 50 years, the Tokugawa shoguns reduced the amount of Christians to near zero in Japan. Some Christians survived by going underground, the so-called Kakure Kirishitan . Soon thereafter, the Portuguese were permanently expelled. Members of the Portuguese diplomatic mission were executed. All Japanese subjects were ordered to register at

10275-665: The etymology of the Mongolian word Solongos "Korea, Koreans," the following seven etymological hypotheses regarding the origin of Solongos have been enumerated: (1) It comes from the Mongolian word solongo meaning "rainbow"; (2) It comes from the Mongolian word solongo meaning " weasel "; (3) It comes from the Mongolian/Manchurian ethnonym Solon ; (4) It comes from the name of the ancient kingdom of Silla; (5) It comes from Jurchen * Solgo(r) ~ Solho which in turn stems from Old Korean 수릿골 suɾiskol > 솔골 solkol " Goguryeo "; (later) Korea, Korean"; (6) It comes from

10412-606: The fifth year of the Keichō era) gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyo houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, and redistributed the spoils of war to his family and allies. Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyo , but his assumption of the title of shōgun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his power base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada (1579–1632) as shōgun and himself as retired shōgun in 1605. The Toyotomi were still

10549-410: The flood caused the death of 3, 1460 homes were flooded. The catastrophic 1972 flood resulted in death of 12 and damaged 24953 homes. Over 70 km was flooded and the area remained submerged for over a week. In the 1990s works commenced on a vast flood control system, including the construction of a discharge channel connecting Hii and Kando rivers. It diverts the excess water through Kando river into

10686-515: The formal name having been Hanyang or Hanseong. The name of the Silla capital changed into its Late Middle Korean form Syeobeul ( 셔블 ), meaning "royal capital city," which changed to Syeoul ( 셔울 ) soon after, and finally resulted in Seoul ( 서울 ) in the Modern Korean language. The name of either Silla or its capital Seorabeol was widely used throughout Northeast Asia as the ethnonym for

10823-502: The founder Bak Hyeokgeose continued. In 377, Silla sent emissaries to China and established relations with Goguryeo . Facing pressure from Baekje in the west and Japan in the south, in the later part of the 4th century, Silla allied with Goguryeo . However, after King Gwanggaeto's unification campaign , Silla lost its status as a sovereign country becoming a vassal of Goguryeo. When Goguryeo began to expand its territory southward, moving its capital to Pyongyang in 427, Nulji of Silla

10960-529: The fourth king of Silla. One day, he found a low peak next to Mt. Toham (吐含山) and packed it with his own house, and he buried charcoal next to the house of a Japonic official named Hogong (瓠公), who lived there, and deceived him that his ancestors were blacksmiths, but the Hogong family took their home. Hogong was tricked into handing over his house and property to the Seoktalhae. During this period, Kim Al-chi ,

11097-440: The frequency of conflicts between Baekje and Goguryeo as well as Yamato Japan, Silla created six local garrisons one for each district. The royal guards eventually morphed into "sworn banner" or Sodang units. In 625 another group of Sodang was created. Garrison soldiers were responsible for local defense and also served as a police force. A number of Silla's greatest generals and military leaders were Hwarang (equivalent to

11234-423: The goods were shipped using the takasebune boats up to Shoubara (on lake Shinji), where they could be loaded on larger sailing ships. An additional route was created in the late 17th century with the construction of a canal between Kurihara and Taisha Bay. It that case the goods were shipped to Uryu port at the west end of Shimane peninsula. 70% of rice paddies in Hii catchment are irrigated used its water. Most of

11371-455: The hierarchy was the fudai , or "house daimyo ", rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century, 145 fudai controlled much smaller han , the greatest assessed at 250,000 koku . Members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the third group, the tozama (outside vassals), former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on

11508-537: The kingdom of "Saro (pronounced [si.raʔ] at the time)" which later became the kingdom of Silla. In various inscriptions on archaeological founding such as personal gravestones and monuments, it is recorded that Silla royals considered themselves having Xiongnu ancestry through the Xiongnu prince Kim Il-je, also known as Jin Midi in Chinese sources. According to several historians, it is possible that this unknown tribe

11645-402: The late 8th century, however, these royal initiatives had failed to check the power of the entrenched aristocracy. The mid to late 8th century saw renewed revolts led by branches of the Kim clan which effectively limited royal authority. Most prominent of these was a revolt led by Kim Daegong that persisted for three years. One key evidence of the erosion of kingly authority was the rescinding of

11782-474: The lighter earth was pulled away leaving concentrated iron ore (up to 80%) that was collected. In the late Edo era about 80% of iron in Japan was produced in Izumo region. The total amount of sediment resulting from this process that was discharged into the river up to 1950s is estimated at 200,000,000 m³. Moreover, the felling of trees needed for the furnaces operation led to deforestation and erosion and increased

11919-660: The meaning of "great, leader", which was previously used by the princes of southern Korea, and is sometimes also speculated to have an external relationship with the Mongolic/Turkic title of Khan . In the 7th century, Silla allied itself with the Chinese Tang dynasty . In 660, under Muyeol of Silla (654–661), the Silla–Tang alliance subjugated Baekje after the Baekje–Tang War . In 668, under King Munmu of Silla (King Muyeol's successor) and General Kim Yu-sin ,

12056-421: The most important cities, and a land assessment system reaping great revenues. The feudal hierarchy was completed by the various classes of daimyo . Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan , or "related houses". There were twenty-three daimyo on the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu. The second class of

12193-629: The national law. Although the daimyo were not taxed per se, they were regularly levied for contributions to military and logistical support and for public works such as projects as castles, roads, bridges, and palaces. The various regulations and levies not only strengthened the Tokugawa but also depleted the wealth of the daimyo , thus weakening their threat to the central administration. The han , once military-centered domains, became mere local administrative units. The daimyo had full administrative control over their territory and their complex systems of retainers, bureaucrats , and commoners. Loyalty

12330-513: The office land system and the re-institution of the former tax village system as salary land for aristocratic officialdom in 757. In Jinjin and Silla, the king was referred to as Gan, and during the Unified Silla Period, the title "Gan" was also used as Chungji Jagan and Agan. The middle period of Silla came to an end with the assassination of Hyegong of Silla in 780, terminating the kingly line of succession of Muyeol of Silla ,

12467-409: The official class. By the mid-17th century, neo-Confucianism was Japan's dominant legal philosophy and contributed directly to the development of the kokugaku (national learning) school of thought. Advanced studies and growing applications of neo-Confucianism contributed to the transition of the social and political order from feudal norms to class- and large-group-oriented practices. The rule of

12604-596: The other two Korean kingdoms. Silla is known to have operated crossbows called the Cheonbono ( 천보노 ) that was said to have had a range of one thousand steps and a special pike unit called the Jangchang-Dang ( 장창당 ) to counter enemy cavalry. In particular, Silla's crossbows were prized by Tang China due to its excellent functions and durability. Silla would later employ special crossbow units against its Korean counterparts such as Goguryeo and Baekje , as well as

12741-457: The other two kingdoms, Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668. Thereafter, Unified Silla occupied most of the Korean Peninsula , while the northern part re-emerged as Balhae , a successor-state of Goguryeo . After nearly 1,000 years of rule, Silla fragmented into the brief Later Three Kingdoms of Silla, Later Baekje , and Taebong , handing over power to Goryeo in 935. Until the official adoption of Hanja names for its administration, Silla

12878-415: The outflow into lake Nakaumi, transforming the former into a freshwater lake. In order to both prevent flooding and expand the agricultural land, in the 17th - 19th centuries the river was artificially diverted every 40–60 years; that was called the kawa-tagae ( 川違え ) technique. The greatest change came in 1924 with the dredging of Ohashi River that connected again the lakes Shinji and Nakaumi. In addition,

13015-421: The paddies are located in the east of Izumo plain. The river is used to supply drinking water to Matsue and Izumo cities. The Obara and Hinobori dams are located on the river. They are the main obstacles for fish migration on Hii. The Obara dam impounds the 60 million m large Sakura-Orochi lake that is used for drinking water supply, irrigation, flood control and recreation. In total there 14 hydropower plants on

13152-498: The peasants lived in rural areas. Samurai, craftsmen and merchants lived in the cities that were built around daimyo castles , each restricted to their own quarter. Edo society had an elaborate social structure, in which every family knew its place and level of prestige. At the top were the Emperor and the court nobility, invincible in prestige but weak in power. Next came the shōgun, daimyo and layers of feudal lords whose rank

13289-535: The people of Silla, appearing as Shiragi in Japanese and as Solgo or Solho in the language of the medieval Jurchens and their later descendants, the Manchus , respectively. Koreans are still known as Солонгос ( Solongos ) in Mongolian, which is according to popular folk etymology is believed to be derived from the Mongolian word for " rainbow " ( солонго solongo ). In a paper published in 2023 regarding

13426-466: The people or Confucian man was gradually replaced by the rule of law . New laws were developed, and new administrative devices were instituted. A new theory of government and a new vision of society emerged as a means of justifying more comprehensive governance by the bakufu. Silla Silla ( Korean pronunciation: [ɕiɭ.ɭa] ; Old Korean : 徐羅伐 , Yale : Syerapel, RR : Seorabeol ; IPA : Korean pronunciation: [sʌɾabʌɭ] )

13563-420: The peripheries of the archipelago and collectively controlled nearly ten million koku of productive land. Because the tozama were the least trusted of the daimyo , they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions. The Tokugawa shogunate not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, but also had unprecedented power over

13700-411: The place of modern lake Shinji and Izumo Plain. About 9000 BC the sea level began to rise and seawater intruded into the low-lying areas in the east and the west ends, between the hilly peninsula and Chūgoku Mountains . During the temperature peak of the warm Atlantic period (early Jomon ) the sea probably separated the peninsula almost entirely from the mainland. At that point the Hii river flowed into

13837-550: The place where the Japanese god, Susanoo first descended from the heavens after his banishment in a place called "Soshimori" ( 曽尸茂梨 ). Up until the liberation of Korea in 1945, Meiji era Japanese historians claimed that Susanoo had ruled over Silla and that the Koreans were the descendants of him, thus finding justification and legitimizing the Japanese occupation of Korea through the use of Nissen dōsoron . According to

13974-463: The reign of King Muyeol this aristocracy had been divided into "sacred bone" and "true bone" aristocrats, with the former differentiated by their eligibility to attain the kingship. This duality had ended when Queen Jindeok, the last ruler from the "sacred bone" class, died in 654. The numbers of "sacred bone" aristocrats had been decreasing for generations, as the title was only conferred to those whose parents were both "sacred bones", whereas children of

14111-485: The rise of kokugaku , and the Igakukan ( 医学間 , "Institute of medicine") , focusing on Chinese medicine. One estimate of literacy in Edo suggest that up to a fifth of males could read, along with a sixth of women. Another estimate states that 40% of men and 10% of women by the end of the Edo period were literate. According to another estimate, around 1800, almost 100% of the samurai class and about 50% to 60% of

14248-451: The river changed its course and it has discharged since then into lake Shinji. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the mountains in the upper Hii basin became the most important source of iron production from ironsand in the tatara furnaces. For this process a technique called kanna-nagashi  [ ja ] ( 鉄穴流し ) was used: channels were built on the slopes, then filled with weathered granite earth. When they were washed with water

14385-439: The samurai class. There is some evidence that as merchants gained greater political influence in the late Edo period, the rigid class division between samurai and merchants began to break down. A few domains, notably Chōshū and Satsuma, used innovative methods to restore their finances, but most sunk further into debt. The financial crisis provoked a reactionary solution near the end of the "Tempo era" (1830–1843) promulgated by

14522-459: The samurai undermined their loyalties to the system, and the empty treasury threatened the whole system of government. One solution was reactionary—cutting samurai salaries and prohibiting spending for luxuries. Other solutions were modernizing, with the goal of increasing agrarian productivity. The eighth Tokugawa shogun, Yoshimune (in office 1716–1745) had considerable success, though much of his work had to be done again between 1787 and 1793 by

14659-571: The semi-mythological figure of Hyeokgeose of Silla (Old Korean: *pulkunae, "light of the world"), of the Park clan . The country was first ruled intermittently by the Miryang Park clan for 232 years and the Wolseong Seok clan for 172 years and beginning with the reign of Michu Isageum the Gyeongju Kim clan for 586 years. Park, Seok and Kim have no contemporary attestations and went by

14796-447: The shogun's chief councilor Matsudaira Sadanobu (1759–1829). Other shoguns debased the coinage to pay debts, which caused inflation. Overall, while commerce (domestic and international) was vibrant and sophisticated financial services had developed in the Edo period, the shogunate remained ideologically focused on honest agricultural work as the basis of society and never sought to develop a mercantile or capitalistic country. By 1800,

14933-544: The shogunate set up several schools under its direct patronage, the most important being the neo-Confucian Shōheikō ( 昌平黌 ) acting as a de facto elite school for its bureaucracy but also creating a network of alumni from the whole country. Besides Shoheikō, other important directly run schools at the end of the shogunate included the Wagakukōdansho ( 和学講談所 , "Institute of Lectures of Japanese classics") , specialized in Japanese domestic history and literature, influencing

15070-639: The shogunate was officially established by Tokugawa Ieyasu . The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration and the Boshin War , which restored imperial rule to Japan . A revolution took place from the time of the Kamakura shogunate , which existed with the Tennō 's court, to the Tokugawa , when the samurai became the unchallenged rulers in what historian Edwin O. Reischauer called

15207-407: The southeastern part of the capital, and the war ended when the Silla king came out to fight against it, and the soldiers of the three kingdoms were defeated. By the 2nd century, Silla existed as its own distinct political entity in the southeastern area of the Korean peninsula . It expanded its influence over the neighboring Jinhan chiefdoms, but throughout the 3rd century was probably no more than

15344-408: The strengthening credit market encouraged entrepreneurship. The daimyo collected the taxes from the peasants in the form of rice. Taxes were high, often at around 40%-50% of the harvest. The rice was sold at the fudasashi market in Edo. To raise money, the daimyo used forward contracts to sell rice that was not even harvested yet. These contracts were similar to modern futures trading . It

15481-570: The strongest constituent in the Jinhan confederacy. To the west, Baekje had centralized into a kingdom by about 250 CE, overtaking the Mahan confederacy . To the southwest, Byeonhan was being replaced by the Gaya confederacy . In northern Korea, Goguryeo , founded around 50 CE, destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313 CE and had grown into the largest regional power. Naemul of Silla (356–402) of

15618-406: The throne or declarations of war. The Hwabaek was headed by a person ( Sangdaedeung ) chosen from the "sacred bone" rank. One of the key decisions of this royal council was the adoption of Buddhism as state religion. Following unification Silla began to rely more upon Chinese models of bureaucracy to administer its greatly expanded territory. This was a marked change from pre-unification days when

15755-575: The title of Danzaemon ( ja:弾左衛門 ) and had the authority to issue orders to eta and hinin throughout the country, as well as jurisdiction within the eta and hinin . In the 19th century the umbrella term burakumin was coined to name the eta and hinin because both classes were forced to live in separate village neighborhoods. The eta , hinin and burakumin classes were officially abolished in 1871. However, their cultural and societal impact, including some forms of discrimination, continues into modern times. The Edo period passed on

15892-457: The total population. After a long period of inner conflict, the first goal of the newly established Tokugawa government was to pacify the country. It created a balance of power that remained (fairly) stable for the next 250 years, influenced by Confucian principles of social order . Most samurai lost their direct possession of the land: the daimyo took over their land. The samurai had a choice: give up their sword and become peasants, or move to

16029-491: The wearing of hats. Sometimes eta villages were not even printed on official maps. A sub-class of hinin who were born into their social class had no option of mobility to a different social class whereas the other class of hinin who had lost their previous class status could be reinstated in Japanese society. On the other hand, in practice, both eta and hinin were recognized as owners of fields, some with very large incomes ( koku ) and some economic power. Their chief held

16166-516: The works of Zhu Xi .When the clergy of Shinto religion were alive, samurai, Buddhist monks were also there. Beyond kanji (Chinese characters), the Confucian classics, calligraphy, basic arithmetics, and etiquette, the samurai also learned various martial arts and military skills in schools. The chōnin (urban merchants and artisans) patronized neighborhood schools called terakoya (寺子屋, "temple schools"). Despite being located in temples,

16303-428: Was Kidzuki-oyashiro and it was dedicated to Yatsukamizu-omitsuno. In another local myth the fight of Susanoo against Yamata no Orochi serpent may represent the flood control efforts of people living along Hii. Till the mid-18th century, after reaching Izumo plain, the Hii turned west and discharged into Taisha Bay of the Sea of Japan. The sediments accumulated in the plain and after large floods in years 1635 and 1639

16440-452: Was a Korean kingdom that existed between 57 BCE – 935 CE and was located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula . Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo , formed the Three Kingdoms of Korea . Silla had the lowest population of the three, approximately 850,000 people (170,000 households), significantly smaller than those of Baekje (3,800,000 people) and Goguryeo (3,500,000 people). Its foundation can be traced back to

16577-503: Was built during the reign of Queen Seondeok (632–647). It was from Silla that Korea's oldest extant genre of poems, known as hyangga , developed and were recorded. Additionally, among the three kingdoms, Silla has the best preserved ancient Korean literature written in Classical Chinese , which includes the hanshi poetry of Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn , as well as the travelogue of Buddhist monk Hyecho . Muslim traders brought

16714-413: Was called sankin-kōtai . Lower orders divided into two main segments—the peasants—80% of the population—whose high prestige as producers was undercut by their burden as the chief source of taxes. They were illiterate and lived in villages controlled by appointed officials who kept the peace and collected taxes. The family was the smallest legal entity, and the maintenance of family status and privileges

16851-411: Was during the Edo period that Japan developed an advanced forest management policy. Increased demand for timber resources for construction, shipbuilding and fuel had led to widespread deforestation, which resulted in forest fires, floods and soil erosion. In response the shōgun , beginning around 1666, instituted a policy to reduce logging and increase the planting of trees. The policy mandated that only

16988-612: Was exacted from religious foundations, already greatly weakened by Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, through a variety of control mechanisms. Like Hideyoshi, Ieyasu encouraged foreign trade but also was suspicious of outsiders. He wanted to make Edo a major port, but once he learned that the Europeans favoured ports in Kyūshū and that China had rejected his plans for official trade, he moved to control existing trade and allowed only certain ports to handle specific kinds of commodities. The beginning of

17125-470: Was forced to ally with Baekje. By the time of Beopheung of Silla (514–540), Silla was a full-fledged kingdom, with Buddhism as state religion, and its own Korean era name . Silla absorbed the Gaya confederacy during the Gaya–Silla Wars , annexing Geumgwan Gaya in 532 and conquering Daegaya in 562, thereby expanding its borders to the Nakdong River basin. Jinheung of Silla (540–576) established

17262-492: Was handed over to King Suro of Gimhae , who was the local leader at the time. King Suro instead resolved the territorial issue and ruled in favor of Eumjipbeol. However, King Suro sent an assassin to kill the head of the six Silla divisions, who hid in the Eumjipbeol while the assassin was escaping, and King Tachugan (陀鄒干) protected the assassin. In response, Pasa of Silla invaded Eumjipbeol in 102 and Tachugan surrendered, and

17399-571: Was inconceivable to systematically tax commerce, as it would make money off "parasitic" activities, raise the prestige of merchants, and lower the status of government. As they paid no regular taxes, the forced financial contributions to the daimyos were seen by some merchants as a cost of doing business. The wealth of merchants gave them a degree of prestige and even power over the daimyos. By 1750, rising taxes incited peasant unrest and even revolt. The nation had to deal somehow with samurai impoverishment and treasury deficits. The financial troubles of

17536-529: Was indicated by their closeness to the Tokugawa. They had power. The daimyo comprised about 250 local lords of local "han" with annual outputs of 50,000 or more bushels of rice. The upper strata was much given to elaborate and expensive rituals, including elegant architecture, landscaped gardens, Noh drama, patronage of the arts, and the tea ceremony. Then came the 400,000 warriors, called "samurai", in numerous grades and degrees. A few upper samurai were eligible for high office; most were foot soldiers. Since there

17673-434: Was made an imperial consort in 1619. A code of laws was established to regulate the daimyo houses. The code encompassed private conduct, marriage, dress, types of weapons, and numbers of troops allowed; required feudal lords to reside in Edo every other year (the sankin-kōtai system); prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships; restricted castles to one per domain ( han ) and stipulated that bakufu regulations were

17810-452: Was of great importance at all levels of society. The individual had no separate legal rights. The 1711 Gotōke reijō was compiled from over 600 statutes promulgated between 1597 and 1696. Outside the four classes were the so-called eta and hinin , those whose professions broke the taboos of Buddhism . Eta were butchers, tanners and undertakers. Hinin served as town guards, street cleaners, and executioners. Other outsiders included

17947-585: Was one of nearly constant upheaval and civil war as the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead and powerful aristocratic families rose to actual dominance outside the capital and royal court. The tail end of this period, called the Later Three Kingdoms period, briefly saw the emergence of the kingdoms of Later Baekje and Taebong , which were really composed of military forces capitalizing on their respective region's historical background, and Silla's submission to Goryeo . From at least

18084-438: Was originally of Koreanic origin in the Korean peninsula and joined the Xiongnu confederation. Later the tribe's ruling family returned to Korea from Liaodong peninsula where they thrive, and after coming back to the peninsula they got married into the royal family of Silla. There are also some Korean researchers that point out that the grave goods of Silla and of the eastern Xiongnu are alike, and some researchers insist that

18221-491: Was recorded using the Hundok reading of Hanja to phonetically approximate its native Korean name, including 斯盧 ( 사로 ; Saro ), 斯羅 ( 사라 ; Sara ), 徐那 (伐) ( 서나[벌] ; Seona[beol] ), 徐耶 (伐) ( 서야[벌] ; Seoya[beol] ), 徐羅 (伐) ( 서라[벌] ; Seora[beol] ), and 徐伐 ( 서벌 ; Seobeol ). In 504, Jijeung of Silla standardized the characters into 新羅 ( 신라 ), which in Modern Korean

18358-444: Was the center for the supply of food and essential urban consumer goods. Around the year 1700, Japan was perhaps the most urbanized country in the world, at a rate of around 10–12%. Half of that figure would be samurai, while the other half, consisting of merchants and artisans, would be known as chōnin . In the first part of the Edo period, Japan experienced rapid demographic growth, before leveling off at around 30 million. Between

18495-410: Was the major intellectual development of the Tokugawa period. Confucian studies had long been kept active in Japan by Buddhist clerics, but during the Tokugawa period, Confucianism emerged from Buddhist religious control. This system of thought increased attention to a secular view of man and society. The ethical humanism , rationalism , and historical perspective of neo-Confucian doctrine appealed to

18632-533: Was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional daimyo . Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period , the Edo period was characterized by economic growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies, a stable population, overall peace, and popular enjoyment of arts and culture , colloquially referred to as Ōedo ( 大江戸 , Oo-Edo , "Great Edo") . The period derives its name from Edo (now Tokyo ), where on March 24, 1603,

18769-443: Was very little fighting, they became civil servants paid by the daimyo, with minor duties. The samurai were affiliated with senior lords in a well-established chain of command. The shogun had 17,000 samurai retainers; the daimyo each had hundreds. Most lived in modest homes near their lord's headquarters, and lived off of hereditary rights and stipends. Together these high status groups comprised Japan's ruling class making up about 6% of

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