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82-470: The text was written in the 830s on two spare leaves on the outside of a religious codex in the monastery of Fulda . The two scribes were copying from an unknown older original, which itself must ultimately have derived from oral tradition. The story of Hildebrand and Hadubrand almost certainly goes back to 7th- or 8th-century Lombardy and is set against the background of the historical conflict between Theodoric and Odoacer in 5th-century Italy, which became

164-417: A hapax legomenon ( / ˈ h æ p ə k s l ɪ ˈ ɡ ɒ m ɪ n ɒ n / also / ˈ h æ p æ k s / or / ˈ h eɪ p æ k s / ; pl. hapax legomena ; sometimes abbreviated to hapax , plural hapaxes ) is a word or an expression that occurs only once within a context: either in the written record of an entire language , in the works of an author, or in a single text. The term

246-421: A body of text, not to either its origin or its prevalence in speech. It thus differs from a nonce word , which may never be recorded, may find currency and may be widely recorded, or may appear several times in the work which coins it, and so on. Hapax legomena in ancient texts are usually difficult to decipher, since it is easier to infer meaning from multiple contexts than from just one. For example, many of

328-659: A bunker in Bad Wildungen , south-west of the city, just in time to escape the devastating air-raids the following October, which destroyed the whole of the city centre. After the capture of Bad Wildungen by units of the US Third Army in March 1945, the bunker was looted and the codex went missing. An official investigation by the US Military Government failed to discover its fate. In November 1945 it

410-457: A challenge to Hildebrand's story of exile — and placed elsewhere. The most widely accepted placing is after l. 57, after Hildebrand has challenged Hadubrand to take an old man's armour. This has the advantage that it seems to account for the extraneous quad Hiltibrant in ll. 49 and 58, which would normally be expected to introduce a new speaker and seem redundant (as well as hypermetrical) in the manuscript version. Alternatively, De Boor would place

492-554: A considerable range of errors and misconceptions (Hildebrand and Hadubrand are seen as cousins, for example, who meet on the way to battle). Also, he did not recognize the text as verse, and its historical significance consequently remained unappreciated. Both the fact and the historical significance of the alliterative verse form were first recognized by the Brothers Grimm in their 1812 edition, which also showed improved transcription and understanding compared to Eckhart's, This

574-401: A dean of the monastic school would functionally replace the abbot concerning scholastic management, once more granting it relative independence concerning ecclesiastical functions of Fulda. However, the monastery and surrounding city would never regain its status as a great cultural center it once held during the early medieval years. The monastery was dissolved in 1802. The spiritual principality

656-444: A good lord at home and that you were never exiled under this regime"). In these lines, as it stands, Hildebrand comments on Hadubrand's armour and contrasts his son's secure existence with his own exile. Such a measured observation perhaps seems out of keeping with the confrontational tone of the surrounding conversation. Many have suggested, therefore, that the lines should more correctly be given to Hadubrand — from his mouth they become

738-436: A house founded by Anglo-Saxon missionaries . The manuscript pages now show a number of patches of discoloration. These are the results of attempts by earlier scholars to improve the legibility of the text with chemical agents. The manuscript's combination of Bavarian dialect and Anglo-Saxon palaeographic features make Fulda the only monastery where it could have been written. With its missionary links to North Germany, Fulda

820-419: A longer story. The Hildebrandslied text is the work of two scribes, of whom the second wrote only seven and a half lines (11 lines of verse) at the beginning of the second leaf. The scribes are not the same as those of the body of the codex. The hands are mainly Carolingian minuscule . However, a number of features, including the wynn -rune (ƿ) used for w suggest Old English influence, not surprising in

902-579: A major subject for Germanic heroic legend . The fundamental story of the father and son who fail to recognize each other on the battlefield is much older and is found in a number of Indo-European traditions . The manuscript itself has had an eventful history: twice looted in war but eventually returned to its rightful owner, twice moved to safety shortly before devastating air-raids, repeatedly treated with chemicals by 19th-century scholars, once almost given to Hitler, and torn apart and partly defaced by dishonest book dealers. It now resides, on public display, in

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984-458: A malformed line. Earlier scholars envisaged an Old Saxon original, but an Old High German original is now universally accepted. The errors in the Old Saxon features suggest that the scribe responsible for the dialect mixture was not thoroughly familiar with the dialect. Forms such as heittu (l.17) and huitte (l.66) (Modern German heißen and weiß ) are mistakes for Old Saxon spellings with

1066-407: A ruse to get him off guard and belligerently refuses the offer, accusing Hildebrand of deception, and perhaps implying cowardice. Hildebrand accepts his fate and sees that he cannot honourably refuse battle: he has no choice but to kill his own son or be killed by him. They start to fight, and the text concludes with their shields smashed. But the poem breaks off in the middle of a line, not revealing

1148-517: A secure vault in the Murhard Library in Kassel . The text is highly problematic: as a unique example of its genre, with many words not found in other German texts, its interpretation remains controversial. Difficulties in reading some of the individual letters and identifying errors made by the scribes mean that a definitive edition of the poem is impossible. One of the most puzzling features

1230-599: A single ⟨t⟩ . They suggest a scribe who does not realise that Old High German zz , resulting from the High German consonant shift , corresponds to t in Old Saxon in these words, not tt , that is, a scribe who has limited first-hand knowledge of Old Saxon. The origin of the Dietrich legend in Northern Italy also suggests a southern origin is more likely. The East Franconian dialect of Fulda

1312-465: A type of hapax legomenon . For example, the Classic of Poetry ( c.  1000 BC ) uses the character 篪 exactly once in the verse 「伯氏吹塤, 仲氏吹篪」 , and it was only through the discovery of a description by Guo Pu (276–324 AD) that the character could be associated with a specific type of ancient flute. It is fairly common for authors to "coin" new words to convey a particular meaning or for

1394-404: A wide range of measures to look for patterns rather than relying upon single measurements. In the fields of computational linguistics and natural language processing (NLP), esp. corpus linguistics and machine-learned NLP, it is common to disregard hapax legomena (and sometimes other infrequent words), as they are likely to have little value for computational techniques. This disregard has

1476-507: A wife and small child. He believes his father to be dead. Hildebrand responds by saying that Hadubrand will never fight such a close kinsman (an indirect way of asserting his paternity) and offers gold arm-rings he had received as a gift from the Lord of the Huns (the audience would have recognized this as a reference to Attila , whom according to legend Theodoric served). Hadubrand takes this as

1558-476: Is also the most likely origin for the earlier version of the poem in which Old Saxon features were first introduced. In around 1550 the codex was listed in the monastery's library catalogue. In 1632, during the Thirty Years War , the monastery was plundered and destroyed by Hessian troops. While most of the library's manuscripts were lost, the codex was among a number of stolen items later returned to

1640-429: Is generally regarded as the first scholarly edition and there have been many since. Wilhelm Grimm went on to publish the first facsimile of the manuscript in 1830, by which time he had recognized the two different hands and the oral origin of the poem. He had also become the first to use reagents in an attempt to clarify the text. The first photographic facsimile was published by Sievers in 1872. This clearly shows

1722-548: Is not always straightforward. Since the manuscript gives no indication of the verse form, line divisions are the judgments of modern editors. Finally, the mixture of language features, mostly High German ( Upper German ) but with some highly characteristic Low German forms, means that the text could never have reflected the spoken language of an individual speaker and never been meant for performance. Frederick Norman concludes, "The poem presents puzzles alike to palaeographers, linguists and literary historians." The manuscript of

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1804-583: Is sometimes incorrectly used to describe a word that occurs in just one of an author's works but more than once in that particular work. Hapax legomenon is a transliteration of Greek ἅπαξ λεγόμενον , meaning "said once". The related terms dis legomenon , tris legomenon , and tetrakis legomenon respectively ( / ˈ d ɪ s / , / ˈ t r ɪ s / , / ˈ t ɛ t r ə k ɪ s / ) refer to double, triple, or quadruple occurrences, but are far less commonly used. Hapax legomena are quite common, as predicted by Zipf's law , which states that

1886-448: Is the dialect, which shows a mixture of High German and Low German spellings which cannot represent any actually spoken dialect. In spite of the many uncertainties over the text and continuing debate on the interpretation, the poem is widely regarded as the first masterpiece of German literature. There can surely be no poem in world literature the exposition and development of which are terser and more compelling. The opening lines of

1968-578: The Codex Fuldensis which has the reputation of serving as the cradle of Old High German literature. It was probably here that an Italian book-hunter in 1417 discovered the last surviving manuscript of Lucretius's De Rerum Natura , which then became enormously influential in humanist circles. Its abundant records are conserved in the state archives at Marburg . As of 2013 the Fulda manuscripts have become widely dispersed; some have found their way to

2050-475: The Deotrichhe in l.26b. Other obvious copying errors include mih for mir (l.13) and fatereres for fateres (l.24). It seems also that the scribes were not entirely familiar with the script used in their source. The inconsistencies in the use and form of the wynn -rune, for example — sometimes with and sometimes without an acute stroke above the letter, once corrected from the letter p — suggest this

2132-465: The Hebrew Bible , only about 400 are not obviously related to other attested word forms. A final difficulty with the use of hapax legomena for authorship determination is that there is considerable variation among works known to be by a single author, and disparate authors often show similar values. In other words, hapax legomena are not a reliable indicator. Authorship studies now usually use

2214-719: The Hildebrandslied is now in the Murhardsche Bibliothek in Kassel (signature 2° Ms. theol. 54). The codex consists of 76 folios containing two books of the Vulgate Old Testament (the Book of Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus ) and the homilies of Origen . It was written in the 820s in Anglo-Saxon minuscule and Carolingian minuscule hands. The text of the Hildebrandslied was added in

2296-469: The Hildebrandslied is the earliest poetic text and the only heroic lay in German, and is the oldest heroic lay in any Germanic language, it is difficult to establish whether such words enjoyed broader currency in the 9th century or belonged to a (possibly archaic) poetic language. The text's punctuation is limited: the only mark used is a sporadic punctus (•), and identifying clause and sentence boundaries

2378-605: The Landgraves of Hesse-Kassel and placed in the Court Library. In the aftermath of the political crisis of 1831, under the terms of Hesse's new constitution the library passed from the private possession of the landgraves to public ownership and became the Kassel State Library ( Landesbibliothek ). In 1937 there was a proposal to make a gift of the manuscript to Adolf Hitler , but this was thwarted by

2460-549: The Prince-Bishopric of Fulda ( Fürstbistum Fulda ), was a Benedictine abbey and ecclesiastical principality centered on Fulda , in the present-day German state of Hesse . The monastery was founded in 744 by Saint Sturm , a disciple of Saint Boniface . After Boniface was buried at Fulda, it became a prominent center of learning and culture in Germany, and a site of religious significance and pilgrimage through

2542-539: The Vatican Library . A notable work that the monks of Fulda produced was the "Annales necrologici", a list of all the deceased members of the abbey following the death of Saint Sturm in 744. The monks would offer prayer for the dead listed in the Annales to ensure their eternal salvation. While at first this record only contained the names of those at Fulda, as the power and prominence of Fulda grew, so too did

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2624-405: The 14th century, and Count Johann con Ziegenhain would lead an insurrection, alongside other citizens of Fulda, against Prince-Abbot Heinrich VI, 55th abbot of the monastery. The combination of responsibilities to the empire and corruption of traditional monastic ideals, so highly valued by Boniface and the early abbots, placed great strain on the monastery and its school. In the later Middle Ages,

2706-401: The 830s on the two blank outside leaves of the codex (1 and 76). The poem breaks off in the midst of the battle and there has been speculation that the text originally continued on a third sheet (now lost) or on the endpaper of the (subsequently replaced) back cover. However, it is also possible that the text was being copied from an incomplete original or represented a well-known episode from

2788-601: The 8th and 9th centuries. The Annals of Fulda , one of the most important sources for the history of the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century, were written there. In 1221 the abbey was granted an imperial estate to rule and the abbots were thereafter princes of the Holy Roman Empire . In 1356, Emperor Charles IV bestowed the title "Archchancellor of the Empress" ( Erzkanzler der Kaiserin ) on

2870-499: The Fulda River, and shortly after obtained rights to the land. The foundation of the monastery dates to March 12, 744. Sturm travelled to notable monasteries of Italy, such as that of Monte Cassino , for inspiration in creating a monastery of such grand size and splendor. Boniface was proud of Fulda, and he would obtain autonomy for the monastery from the bishops of the area by appealing to Pope Zachary for placement directly under

2952-521: The Fulda monastery would become a major focus of the monks under Sturm's successor, Abbot Baugulf , at the turn of the century. It contained an inner school for Christian studies, and an outer school for secular, including pupils who were not necessarily members of the monastery. During Boniface's lifetime he had sent the teachers of Fulda to apprentice under notable scholars in Franconia, Bavaria, and Thuringia, who would return with knowledge and texts of

3034-539: The Holy See in 751. Boniface would be entombed at Fulda following his martyrdom in 754 in Frisia, as per his request, creating a destination for pilgrimage in Germany and increasing its holy significance. Saint Sturm would be named the first abbot of the newly established monastery, and would lead Fulda through a period of rapid growth. The monks of Fulda practiced many specialized trades, and much production took place in

3116-713: The Pastoral Epistles, all of these variables are quite different from those in the rest of the Pauline corpus, and hapax legomena are no longer widely accepted as strong indicators of authorship; those who reject Pauline authorship of the Pastorals rely on other arguments. There are also subjective questions over whether two forms amount to "the same word": dog vs. dogs, clue vs. clueless, sign vs. signature; many other gray cases also arise. The Jewish Encyclopedia points out that, although there are 1,500 hapaxes in

3198-824: The Rosenbachs must have known it was looted, it was sold to the Californian bibliophile Carrie Estelle Doheny and placed in the Edward Laurence Doheny Memorial Library in Camarillo . In 1953 the codex was traced to this location, and in 1955 it was returned to Kassel. However, it was only in 1972 that the missing first folio (and the Kassel Willehalm ) was rediscovered in the Rosenbach Museum and reunited with

3280-532: The abbots would also serve as Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, given this rank by Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, and resulted in increased secular as well as monastic obligations. The increased importance of Fulda resulted in much patronage and wealth; as a result, the wealthy and noble would eventually make up the majority of the abbey's population. The wealthy monks used their positions for their own means, going as far as to attempt to turn monastic lands into their own private property. This caused great unrest by

3362-607: The added benefit of significantly reducing the memory use of an application, since, by Zipf's law , many words are hapax legomena. The following are some examples of hapax legomena in languages or corpora . In the Qurʾān : Classical Chinese and Japanese literature contains many Chinese characters that feature only once in the corpus, and their meaning and pronunciation has often been lost. Known in Japanese as kogo ( 孤語 ) , literally "lonely characters", these can be considered

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3444-423: The alliteration and seems to be a hypermetrical scribal addition to clarify the dialogue. In addition to errors and inconsistencies, there are other features of the text which make it hard to interpret. Some words are hapax legomena (unique to the text), even if they sometimes have cognates in other Germanic languages. Examples include urhetto ("challenger"), billi ("battle axe") and gudhamo ("armour"). Since

3526-530: The codex. The manuscript is now on permanent display in the Murhard Library. Attention was first drawn to the codex and the Hildebrandslied by Johann Georg von Eckhart , who published the first edition of the poem in 1729. This included a hand-drawn facsimile of the start of the text, with a full transcription, a Latin translation and detailed glosses of the vocabulary. His translation shows

3608-416: The conclusion of the Hildebrandslied is missing, the consensus is that the evidence of the analogues supports the death of Hadubrand as the outcome of the combat. Even though some of the later medieval versions end in reconciliation, this can be seen as a concession to the more sentimental tastes of a later period. The heroic ethos of an earlier period would leave Hildebrand no choice but to kill his son after

3690-509: The damage caused by the reagents used by Grimm and his successors. One of the most puzzling features of the Hildebrandslied is its language, which is a mixture of Old High German (with some specifically Bavarian features ) and Old Saxon . For example, the first person pronoun appears both in the Old Saxon form ik and the Old High German ih . The reason for the language mixture is unknown, but it seems certain it cannot have been

3772-593: The dialect as homogeneous, interpreting it as representative of an archaic poetic idiom. Legendary material about Hildebrand survived in Germany into the 17th century and also spread to Scandinavia, though the forms of names vary. A number of analogues either portray or refer to Hildebrand's combat with his son: Liggr þar inn svási || sonr at höfði eptir, erfingi, || er ek eiga gat; óviljandi || aldrs synjaðak. There are three legends in other Indo-European traditions about an old hero who must fight his son and kills him after distrusting his claims of kinship: While

3854-557: The dishonourable act of the treacherous stroke. There is some evidence that this original version of the story survived into the 13th century in Germany: the Minnesänger Der Marner refers to a poem about the death of young Alebrand. The poet of the Hildebrandslied has to explain how father and son could fail to know each other. To do so, he has set the encounter against the background of the Dietrich legend based on

3936-463: The fourth Abbot of Fulda. Under Abbot Eigil's leadership, construction of the new church continued at a more moderate pace. He sought to stylize the church after St. Peter's in Rome, adding a notable western transept in the same fashion. The transept was a new architectural style, and in mimicking it, Fulda demonstrated their support to the papacy through tribute. This unique architectural tie, as well as

4018-482: The frequency of any word in a corpus is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table. For large corpora, about 40% to 60% of the words are hapax legomena , and another 10% to 15% are dis legomena . Thus, in the Brown Corpus of American English, about half of the 50,000 distinct words are hapax legomena within that corpus. Hapax legomenon refers to the appearance of a word or an expression in

4100-458: The growing intellectual importance of Fulda, would create strong ties with the Roman papacy. Coupled with the tomb of Saint Boniface, Fulda would attract much religious pilgrimage and worship, a site of great significance. In 822, Rabanus Maurus became the fifth abbot of Fulda. He was previously educated at the monastery, and was very academically inclined, becoming both a teacher and head-master at

4182-535: The growing secular responsibilities of the monastery. As the school grew and the communities around Fulda expanded, the monastery was feeling the strain of balancing ecclesiastical obligations with its newfound secular prominence. The monks were successful in their grievances against Ratgar, and Louis the Pious sympathized with them. Agreeing that Ratgar's plans were too ambitions for Fulda, and his punishments too extensive, he exiled Ratgar from Fulda in 817, and Eigil became

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4264-557: The last three totals (for the Pastoral Epistles) are not out of line with the others. To take account of the varying length of the epistles, Workman also calculated the average number of hapax legomena per page of the Greek text , which ranged from 3.6 to 13, as summarized in the diagram on the right. Although the Pastoral Epistles have more hapax legomena per page, Workman found the differences to be moderate in comparison to

4346-685: The library's director, Wilhelm Hopf. At the start of the Second World War , the manuscript, along with 19 others, was moved from the State Library to the underground vault of a local bank. This meant that it was not harmed in the Allied bombing raid in September 1941 , which destroyed almost all the library's holdings. In August 1943 the codex (along with the Kassel Willehalm codex) was moved for safe keeping out of Kassel completely to

4428-612: The life of Theodoric the Great , an important subject in Germanic heroic legend . Historically, Theodoric invaded Italy in 489, defeated and killed the ruling King of Italy, Odoacer, to establish his own Ostrogothic Kingdom . Theodoric ruled from 493 to 526, but the kingdom was destroyed by the Eastern Emperor Justinian I in 553, and thereafter the invading Lombards seized control of Northern Italy . By this time

4510-483: The lines earlier, before l.33, where Hildebrand offers an arm-ring. However, more recently the trend has been to accept the placing of these lines and see the task as making sense of the text as it stands. In spite of the text's use of spare space in an existing manuscript, there is evidence that it was prepared with some care: the two sheets were ruled with lines for the script, and in a number of places letters have been erased and corrected. Nonetheless, some features of

4592-438: The lives of the deceased, specifically those who were members of the Fulda monastery, in what was known as the "Annales Necrologici". They would sing psalms for their dead to ensure their eternal salvation. Under Ratgar, the focus of the monastery had shifted to that of construction and arbitrary regulation; monks were being exiled for questionable reasons, or punished in seemingly unjust ways. Another matter of concern included who

4674-659: The looting of Fulda by the Hessians during the Thirty Years' War . Succeeding abbots would carry the monastery down the same path, with Fulda retaining a place of prominence in the German territories. With the decline of the Carolingian rule, Fulda lost its security and would rely increasingly on patronage from independent sources. The abbot of Fulda would hold the position of primate over all Benedictine monasteries in Germany for several centuries. From 1221 and onwards,

4756-454: The monastery. Production of manuscripts increased the size of the library of Fulda, while skilled craftsmen produced many goods that would make monastery a financially wealthy establishment. As Fulda grew, members of the monastery would move from the main building and establish villages in the outlying territories to connect with non-monastery members. They would establish themselves based on trade and agriculture, while still remaining connected to

4838-514: The monastery. Together, the monks of Fulda would create a substantial library, financially stable production, and an effective centre for education. In 774, Carloman placed Fulda under his direct control to ensure its continued success. Fulda was becoming an important cultural center to the Carolingian Empire, and Carloman hoped to ensure the continued salvation of his population through the religious activity of Fulda. The school at

4920-423: The monks, Ratgar was overzealous, exiling monks opposed to the excessive attention being given to the new church, and punishing those attempting to flee the epidemic that was spreading amongst the population. This prompted a discussion in Fulda as to how the monastery was to be properly run, and the nature of the responsibilities of the monks. Until this point, a focus of the monks had been remembering and recording

5002-883: The outcome. The text consists of 68 lines of alliterative verse, though written continuously with no consistent indication of the verse form. It breaks off in mid-line, leaving the poem unfinished at the end of the second page. However, it does not seem likely that much more than a dozen lines are missing. The poem starts: Ik gihorta ðat seggen ðat sih urhettun   ænon muotin Hiltibrant enti Haðubrant   untar heriun tuem sunufatarungo   iro saro rihtun garutun se iro guðhamun   gurtun sih iro suert ana helidos ubar hringa   do sie to dero hiltiu ritun I heard tell That warriors met   in single combat Hildebrand and Hadubrand   between two armies son and father   prepared their armour made ready their battle garments   girded on their swords

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5084-419: The poem set the scene: two warriors meet on a battlefield, probably as the champions of their two armies. As the older man, Hildebrand opens by asking the identity and genealogy of his opponent. Hadubrand reveals that he did not know his father but the elders told him his father was Hildebrand, who fled eastwards in the service of Dietrich (Theodoric) to escape the wrath of Otacher ( Odoacer ), leaving behind

5166-481: The prince-abbot. The growth in population around Fulda would result in its elevation to a prince-bishopric in the second half of the 18th century. Although the abbey was dissolved in 1802 and its principality was secularized in 1803, the diocese of Fulda continues to exist. In the mid-8th century, Saint Boniface commissioned Saint Sturm to establish a larger church than any other founded by Boniface. In January 744, Saint Sturm selected an unpopulated plot along

5248-583: The remaining undeciphered Mayan glyphs are hapax legomena , and Biblical (particularly Hebrew ; see § Hebrew ) hapax legomena sometimes pose problems in translation. Hapax legomena also pose challenges in natural language processing . Some scholars consider Hapax legomena useful in determining the authorship of written works. P. N. Harrison , in The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles (1921) made hapax legomena popular among Bible scholars , when he argued that there are considerably more of them in

5330-515: The sake of entertainment, without any suggestion that they are "proper" words. For example, P.G. Wodehouse and Lewis Carroll frequently coined novel words. Indexy , below, appears to be an example of this. According to classical scholar Clyde Pharr , "the Iliad has 1097 hapax legomena , while the Odyssey has 868". Others have defined the term differently, however, and count as few as 303 in

5412-449: The school before becoming abbot. Understanding the importance of education, the school became the main focus of Fulda under his leadership, and he would lead Fulda to the height of its importance and success. He established separate departments for the school, including those for sciences, theological studies, and the arts. Rabanus made an effort to collect various additional holy relics and manuscripts of historical significance to Fulda and

5494-456: The sciences, literature, and theology. In 787 Charlemagne praised Fulda as a model school for others, leading by example in educating the public in secular and ecclesiastical matters. Around the year 807, an epidemic claimed much of Fulda's population. During this time, the third abbot of Fulda, Ratgar, was carrying out construction on a new church started by Baugulf . According to the "Supplex Libellus", an account of Fulda's history written by

5576-491: The scope of who was to be included in the Annales. Patrons, citizens, and nobles of the area would all come to be recorded in this piece of Fulda and its concept of community. The documenting of dates of passing, beginning with Sturm, created a sense of continuity and a reference for the passage of time for the monks of Fulda. 50°33′14″N 9°40′18″E  /  50.554°N 9.67175°E  / 50.554; 9.67175 Hapax legomenon In corpus linguistics ,

5658-547: The source. In several places, the absence of alliteration linking the two halves of a line suggests missing text, so ll.10a and 11b, which follow each other in the manuscript ( fıreo ın folche • eddo welıhhes cnuosles du sis , "who his father was in the host • or what family you belong to")), do not make a well-formed alliterating line and in addition display an abrupt transition between third-person narrative and second-person direct speech. The phrase quad hiltibrant ("said Hildebrand") in lines 49 and 58 (possibly line 30 also) breaks

5740-479: The story of Theodoric's conflict with Odoacer had been recast, contrary to historical fact, as a tale of Theodoric's return from exile, thus justifying his war on Odoacer as an act of revenge rather than an unprovoked attack. Fulda monastery The Abbey of Fulda ( German : Kloster Fulda ; Latin : Abbatia Fuldensis ), from 1221 the Princely Abbey of Fulda ( Fürstabtei Fulda ) and from 1752

5822-465: The surrounding the areas to fortify their prominence in the Frankish Empire. With each relic, the significance of Fulda grew, and more gifts and power were bestowed upon the abbey. Power was, however, not Rabanus's only intent; the increased holiness of the lands would also serve to bring his monks and pilgrims closer to God. The collection accumulated under Rabanus would largely be lost during

5904-461: The text are hard to interpret as anything other than uncorrected errors. Some of these are self-evident copying errors, due either to misreading of the source or the scribe losing his place. An example of the latter is the repetition of darba gistuotun in l. 26b, which is hypermetrical and gives no sense – the copyist's eye must have been drawn to the Detrihhe darba gistuontun of l.23 instead of to

5986-457: The three Pastoral Epistles than in other Pauline Epistles . He argued that the number of hapax legomena in a putative author's corpus indicates his or her vocabulary and is characteristic of the author as an individual. Harrison's theory has faded in significance due to a number of problems raised by other scholars. For example, in 1896, W. P. Workman found the following numbers of hapax legomena in each Pauline Epistle : At first glance,

6068-405: The variation among other Epistles. This was reinforced when Workman looked at several plays by Shakespeare , which showed similar variations (from 3.4 to 10.4 per page of Irving's one-volume edition), as summarized in the second diagram on the right. Apart from author identity, there are several other factors that can explain the number of hapax legomena in a work: In the particular case of

6150-417: The warriors, over their ring mail   when they rode to battle. The basic structure of the poem comprises a long passage of dialogue, framed by introductory and closing narration. A more detailed analysis is offered by McLintock: While this structure accurately represents the surviving manuscript text, many scholars have taken issue with the position of ll. 46–48 ("I can see from your armour that you have

6232-409: The work of the last scribes and was already present in the original which they copied. The Old Saxon features predominate in the opening part of the poem and show a number of errors, which argue against an Old Saxon original. The alliteration of riche and reccheo in line 48 is often regarded as conclusive: the equivalent Old Saxon forms, rīke and wrekkio , do not alliterate and would have given

6314-495: Was High German , but the monastery was a centre of missionary activity to Northern Germany. It is therefore not unreasonable to assume there was some knowledge of Old Saxon there, and perhaps even some Old Saxon speakers. However, the motivation for attempting a translation into Old Saxon remains inscrutable, and attempts to link it with Fulda's missionary activity among the Saxons remain speculative. An alternative explanation treats

6396-416: Was a feature of the source which was not a normal part of their scribal repertoire. While these issues are almost certainly the responsibility of the Fulda scribes, in other cases an apparent error or inconsistency might already have been present in their source. The variant spellings of the names Hiltibrant/Hiltibraht , Hadubrant/Hadubraht , Theotrihhe/Detriche/Deotrichhe . were almost certainly present in

6478-401: Was permitted into the inner monastery; Ratgar was at the time hosting a criminal in the living quarters. The concept of private and public property was also in contention. With the land of Fulda expanding, the monks desired all property to be public rather than create a contention for private land, while Ratgar opposed this perspective. The "Supplex Libellus" also attempted to address the issue of

6560-756: Was secularized in 1803 after the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss , but the episcopal see continued. The secular territory of Fulda was joined the Principality of Orange-Nassau along with several other mediatized lands to form the Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda . Prince William Frederick refused to join the Confederation of the Rhine and, following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in August 1806, fled to Berlin. Fulda

6642-607: Was sold by US army officer Bud Berman to the Rosenbach Company , rare book dealers in Philadelphia . At some point the first folio, with the first page of the Hildebrandslied, was removed (presumably in order to disguise the origin of the codex, since that sheet carried the library's stamp). In 1950, even though the Pierpont Morgan Library had raised questions about the provenance of the codex and

6724-702: Was taken over by the French . In 1810 it was given to the Grand Duchy of Frankfurt , but was occupied by Austria from 1813 and by Prussia from 1815. the Congress of Vienna resurrected it as the Grand Duchy of Fulda and gave it to the Electorate of Hesse in 1815. The library held approximately 2000 manuscripts. It preserved works such as Tacitus ' Annales , Ammianus Marcellinus ' Res gestae , and

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