111-425: Hindi literature ( Hindi : हिंदी साहित्य, hindī sāhitya) includes literature in the various Hindi languages which have different writing systems . Earliest forms of Hindi literature are attested in poetry of Apabhraṃśa like Awadhi, and Marwari languages. Hindi literature is composed in three broad styles- गद्य (Gadya-prose), पद्य( Padya- poetry) and चंपू (Campū - Prosimetrum .) In terms of historical development, it
222-906: A 3rd weekly- Ucchit Vakta- meaning Right or Best Time. Ucchit Vakta focused on spreading the truth (about the British Raj) and fighting for justice. It became very popular for many years. Mishra underwent a lot of difficulties trying to bring out a critical publication at the time of the British Raj. At times he was the editor, writer and also sold the paper himself. He was an inspiration for many journalists, particularly Bal Mukund Gupta. Dharmvir Bharati Born on 25 December 1926, Dharamvir Bharati graduated in BA (first class) in 1945 and in 1947 completed his MA in Hindi literature (first class) and finally did his PhD from Allahabad University. For some time he
333-508: A Hindi writer. He was a noted satirist and humorist of modern Hindi literature and is known for his simple and direct style., Sri Lal Sukla , Suryakumar Pandey etc. Rahul Sankrityayan , Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan , Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan 'Ajneya' and Baba Nagarjun were some of the great Indian writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the Hindi Travel Literature ( Yatra Vritanta ). Rahul Sankrityayan
444-585: A core vocabulary of native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived words. However, Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more direct tatsama Sanskrit -derived words than Urdu, whereas Urdu is written in the Perso-Arabic script and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords compared to Hindi. Because of this, as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar, a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of
555-643: A dialect of a Bengali . Hoernlé initially treated it as a dialect of Eastern Hindi , but after comparing it with the Gaudian languages, recognised that it shows more similarities with the Bengali language than with Hindi . Grierson recognised it as a distinct language, grouped under ' Bihari ' and published its first grammar in 1881. Chatterji grouped Maithili with the Magadhi Prakrit . Maithili varies greatly in dialects. The name Maithili
666-432: A general interest magazine. Published Bala Bodhini from 1874 – for women and young girls. KVS was acknowledged to be the finest literary journal in any Indian language of that time, and was on par with the best of English journals. Bharatendu kept the journal up until his death 1885. Because of his extraordinary achievements, he is considered the most prolific Hindi journalist. Madan Mohan Malaviya Madan Mohan Malaviya
777-554: A great Military Scholar Kameshvar Jha, a Maithil Brahmin of the Oinwar dynasty . But the disturbed era did not produce any literature in Maithili until Vidyapati Thakur (1360 to 1450), who was an epoch-making poet under the patronage of king Shiva Singh and his queen Lakhima Devi. He produced over 1,000 immortal songs in Maithili on the theme of love of Radha and Krishna and the domestic life of Shiva and Parvati as well as on
888-653: A larger amount are still used in Urdu poetry written in the Devanagari script. Many words borrowed from Persian in turn were loanwords from Arabic (e.g. muśkil "difficult", havā "air", x(a)yāl "thought", kitāb "book"). Hindi also makes extensive use of loan translation ( calqueing ) and occasionally phono-semantic matching of English . Many Hindustani words were derived from Portuguese due to interaction with colonists and missionaries: Maithili language#Literature Maithili ( / ˈ m aɪ t ɪ l i / MY -til-ee , Maithili: [ˈməi̯tʰɪliː] )
999-541: A literary language in the 19th century. Earliest examples could be found as Prēm Sāgar by Lallu Lal , Batiyāl Pachīsī of Sadal Misra, and Rānī Kētakī Kī Kahānī of Insha Allah Khan which were published in Devanagari script during the early 19th century. John Gilchrist was principally known for his study of the Hindustani language , which was adopted as the lingua franca of northern India (including what
1110-536: A medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages. It
1221-643: A mixture of older forms of poetry. These included Verse Patterns like Sortha , Chaupaya (four-liners) etc. This was also the age when Poetry was characterised under the various Rasas . Unlike the Adi Kaal (also called the Vir Gatha Kaal) which was characterised by an overdose of Poetry in the Vir Rasa (Heroic Poetry), the Bhakti Yug marked a much more diverse and vibrant form of poetry which spanned
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#17327833088921332-773: A nasal consonant. Word finally and postvocalically, /ɖʱ/ surfaces as [ɽʱ~rʱ] . Non-initially, both are interchangeable with [ɽ~ɾ] and [ɽʱ~rʱ] respectively. /s/ and /ɦ/ are most common fricatives. They show full phonological opposition. [ɕ] , which is present in tatsama words, is replaced by /s/ most of the times, when independent, and prevocalic [ʂ] is replaced by /kʰ/ , [x] or /s/ . [ɕ] occurs before /tɕ/ and [ʂ] before /ʈ/ . [x] and [f] occurs in Perso-Arabic loanwords, generally replaced by /kʰ/ and /pʰ/ respectively. [x] and [ɸ] also occurs in Sanskrit words ( jihvamuliya and upadhmaniya ), which
1443-410: A part of the process of Sanskritisation , new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary. Usually these neologisms are calques of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi. Some terms such as dūrbhāṣ "telephone", literally "far-speech" and dūrdarśan "television", literally "far-sight" have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in
1554-500: A second language. A Hindi proponent, Indian-born Paramananda Jha , was elected vice-president of Nepal. He took his oath of office in Hindi in July 2008. This created protests in the streets for 5 days; students burnt his effigies, and there was a general strike in 22 districts. Nepal Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that his oath in Hindi was invalid and he was kept "inactive" as vice-president. An "angry" Jha said, "I cannot be compelled to take
1665-584: A standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form. In 1881, Bihar accepted Hindi as its sole official language, replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi. However, in 2014, Urdu was accorded second official language status in the state. After independence, the Government of India instituted the following conventions: On 14 September 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted Hindi written in
1776-526: A trend that continues to date, though now it was employed to bring out social, personal and psychological issues rather than clearly political, though street theatre broke this trend in coming decades in post-independence era, like IPTA-inspired, Naya Theatre of Habib Tanvir did in the 1950s–90s, Jana Natya Manch of Safdar Hashmi did in the 1970s–80s. Post-independence the emerging republic threw up new issues for playwrights to tackle and express, and Hindi playwriting showed greater brevity and symbolism, but it
1887-657: Is a standard register of the Hindustani language; additionally, Indian media are widely viewed in Pakistan. A sizeable population in Afghanistan , especially in Kabul , can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films, songs and actors in the region. Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis (people having roots in north-India but having migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) of Nepal . Apart from this, Hindi
1998-551: Is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in parts of India and Nepal . It is native to the Mithila region , which encompasses parts of the eastern Indian states of Bihar and Jharkhand as well as the Nepal's Koshi and Madhesh Provinces . It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India . It is the second most commonly spoken language of Nepal. It is also one of the fourteen provincial official languages of Nepal . The language
2109-409: Is an official language of Gujarat , along with Gujarati . It acts as an additional official language of West Bengal in blocks and sub-divisions with more than 10% of the population speaking Hindi. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following Union Territories : Delhi , Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu . Although there
2220-550: Is based on the language that was spoken in the Ganges-Yamuna Doab ( Delhi , Meerut and Saharanpur ) called Khariboli ; the vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding region came to replace earlier prestige languages such as Awadhi and Braj . Standard Hindi was developed by supplanting foreign loanwords from the Hindustani language and replacing them with Sanskrit words, though Standard Hindi does continue to possess several Persian loanwords. Modern Hindi became
2331-628: Is borrowed from Sanskrit as tatsam borrowings, especially in technical and academic fields. The formal Hindi standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by neologisms compounding tatsam words, is called Śuddh Hindi (pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi. Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for native speakers. They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in Hindustani, causing difficulties in pronunciation. As
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#17327833088922442-474: Is broadly classified into five prominent forms (genres) based on the date of production. They are: The literature was produced in dialects such as Khariboli , Braj , Bundeli , Awadhi , Kannauji , as well as Marwari and Chhattisgarhi . From the 20th century, works produced in Modern Standard Hindi , a register of Hindustani written in the Devanagari script , are sometimes regarded as
2553-455: Is commonly used to specifically refer the modern literary Hindi language, as opposed to colloquial and regional varieties that are also referred to as Hindi in a wider sense . Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit , through Shauraseni Prakrit and Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa (from Sanskrit apabhraṃśa "corrupt"), which emerged in the 7th century CE. The sound changes that characterised
2664-570: Is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. In 1800, the British East India Company established Fort William College at Calcutta . The college president J. B. Gilchrist hired professors to write books in Hindustani. Some of these books were Prem Sagar by Lallu Lal , Naasiketopaakhyan by Sadal Mishra, Sukhsagar by Sadasukhlal of Delhi and Rani Ketaki ki kahani by Munshi Inshallah Khan. The person who brought realism in
2775-462: Is derived from the word Mithila , an ancient kingdom of which King Janaka was the ruler (see Ramayana ). Maithili is also one of the names of Sita , the wife of King Rama and daughter of King Janaka . Scholars in Mithila used Sanskrit for their literary work and Maithili was the language of the common folk ( Abahattha ). The beginning of Maithili language and literature can be traced back to
2886-458: Is followed by a homorganic stop always. It is the only nasal which does not occur independently. There are four non-syllabic vowels in Maithili- i̯, u̯, e̯, o̯ written in Devanagari as य़, व़, य़ॆ, व़ॊ. Most of the times, these are written without nukta. An example declension: ən, ənɪ̆ ən, ənɪ̆ (Indefinite) ənʰɪ̆ ətəh ãːk ãː ən, ənɪ̆ The difference between adjectives and nouns
2997-642: Is mirror to a hand with bangles, What is Persian to a literate. The emergence of Modern Standard Hindi in the 19th century went along with the Sanskritisation of its vocabulary, leading to a marginalisation of Persian vocabulary in Hindi, which continued after Partition when the Indian government co-opted the policy of Sanskritisation. However, many Persian words (e.g. bas "enough", khud "self") have remained entrenched in Standard Hindi, and
3108-409: Is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi , who played a major role in establishing the modern Hindi language in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of the Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love. He encouraged poetry in Hindi dedicated to nationalism and social reform. Dwivedi became the editor of Saraswati in 1903, the first Hindi monthly magazine of India, which
3219-609: Is no specification of a national language in the constitution, it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India. This is often a source of friction and contentious debate. In 2010, the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. Outside Asia , the Awadhi language (an Eastern Hindi dialect) with influence from Bhojpuri , Bihari languages , Fijian and English
3330-526: Is now present-day Pakistan ) by British colonists and indigenous people. He compiled and authored An English-Hindustani Dictionary , A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language , The Oriental Linguist , and many more. His lexicon of Hindustani was published in the Perso-Arabic script , Nāgarī script , and in Roman transliteration .In the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as
3441-445: Is one of the writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the form of essay-writing. His collections of essays Gandha Madan , Priya neel-kanti , Ras Aakhetak , Vishad Yog , Nishad Bansuri , Parna mukut have enormously enriched the form of essay. A scholar of Indian culture and western literature , he was proud of Indian heritage. His love for natural beauty and Indian folk literatures and preference for agricultural society over
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3552-410: Is peculiar to Maithili. /m/ and /n/ are present in all phonological positions. /ŋ/ occurs only non-initially and is followed by a homorganic stop, which may be deleted if voiced, which leads to the independent presence of /ŋ/ . /ɳ/ occurs non-initially, followed by a homorganic stop, and is independent only in tatsama words, which is often replaced with /n/ . [ɲ] occurs only non-initially and
3663-686: Is predominantly written in Devanagari , but the historical Tirhuta and Kaithi scripts retained some use until today. In 2003, Maithili was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution as a recognised Indian language , which allows it to be used in education, government, and other official contexts in India. The Maithili language is included as an optional paper in the UPSC Exam. In March 2018, Maithili received
3774-479: Is recently taking place in Maithili by way of epenthesis , i.e. backward transposition of final /i/ and /u/ in all sort of words. Thus: Standard Colloquial - Common Pronunciation Maithili has four classes of stops , one class of affricate , which is generally treated as a stop series, related nasals , fricatives and approximant . There are four series of stops- bilabials , coronals , retroflex and velar , along with an affricate series. All of them show
3885-740: Is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the "Hindi Belt" of India. A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like the United States of America , the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates , Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji and Mauritius , where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities. Outside India, Hindi speakers are 8 million in Nepal ; 863,077 in
3996-531: Is spoken in Fiji. It is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji, where it referred to it as "Hindustani"; however, in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji , it is simply called " Fiji Hindi " as the official language. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji. Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77,569 people in Nepal according to the 2011 Nepal census , and further by 1,225,950 people as
4107-515: Is the Bihari Satsai of Bihari , a collection of Dohas (couplets), dealing with Bhakti (devotion), Neeti (Moral policies) and Shringar (love). The first Hindi books, using the Devanagari script or Nāgarī script were one Heera Lal 's treatise on Ain-i-Akbari , called Ain e Akbari ki Bhasha Vachanika, and Rewa Maharaja's treatise on Kabir . Both books came out in 1795. Munshi Lallu Lal 's Hindi translation of Sanskrit Hitopadesha
4218-879: Is the dominant form of Hindi online. In an analysis of YouTube comments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52% of comments were in Romanised Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% in Devanagari Hindi. Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology: Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from Shauraseni Prakrit , in the form of tadbhava words. This process usually involves compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g. Sanskrit tīkṣṇa > Prakrit tikkha > Hindi tīkhā . Much of Standard Hindi's vocabulary
4329-415: Is verse of public statement; its language is functional but aesthetically unappealing. Earnestly concerned with social issues and moral values, it is puritanical poetry in which aesthetic considerations are secondary. Imagination, originality, poetic sensibility and expression are wanting, the metre is restrictive, the idiom clumsy." She adds, however, that the period was important for laying the foundations to
4440-407: Is very minute in Maithili. However, there are marked adjectives there in Maithili. Pronouns in Maithili are declined in similar way to nominals, though in most pronouns the genitive case has a different form. The lower forms below are accusative and postpositional. The plurals are formed periphrastically. अपना ɐpᵊnaː (Inclusive) अपना ɐpᵊnaː (Inclusive) Beginning in the 14th century, the language
4551-570: Is written in the Devanagari script, an abugida . Devanagari consists of 11 vowels and 33 consonants and is written from left to right. Unlike Sanskrit, Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to mark schwa deletion in spoken Standard Hindi. The Government of India uses Hunterian transliteration as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script. Various other systems also exist, such as IAST , ITRANS and ISO 15919 . Romanised Hindi , also called Hinglish ,
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4662-460: The lingua franca of North India . Hindi is considered a Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language , which itself is based primarily on the Khariboli dialect of Delhi and neighbouring areas. It is an official language in nine states and three union territories and an additional official language in three other states. Hindi is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of
4773-492: The 2011 census of India . The term Hindī originally was used to refer to inhabitants of the Indo-Gangetic Plain . It was borrowed from Classical Persian هندی Hindī ( Iranian Persian pronunciation: Hendi ), meaning ' of or belonging to Hind (India) ' (hence, ' Indian ' ). Another name Hindavī ( हिन्दवी ) or Hinduī ( हिन्दुई ) (from Persian هندوی 'of or belonging to
4884-586: The Hindi Belt ), as well as an official language of the Government of India, along with English. In Northeast India a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has developed as a lingua franca for the people living in Haflong , Assam who speak other languages natively. In Arunachal Pradesh , Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively. Hindi is quite easy to understand for many Pakistanis , who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi,
4995-531: The Maithil Brahmin and Karna Kayastha castes. Maithil Mahasabha campaigned for the official recognition of Maithili as a regional language. Calcutta University recognised Maithili in 1917, and other universities followed suit. Babu Bhola Lal Das wrote Maithili Grammar ( Maithili Vyakaran ). He edited a book Gadya Kusumanjali and edited a journal Maithili . In 1965, Maithili was officially accepted by Sahitya Academy , an organisation dedicated to
5106-730: The Persian script. Nevertheless, the Hindvi literature can be considered proto-Hindi literature. Many Dakkhini experts like Sheikh Ashraf or Mulla Vajahi used the word Hindvi to describe this dialect. Others such as Roustami, Nishati etc. preferred to call it Dakkhini. Shah Buharnuddin Janam Bijapuri used to call it Hindi. The first Dakkhini author was Khwaja Bandanawaz Gesudaraz Muhammad Hasan. He wrote three prose works – Mirazul Aashkini, Hidayatnama and Risala Sehwara. His grandson Abdulla Hussaini wrote Nishatul Ishq . The first Dakkhini poet
5217-612: The Ritikavya or Ritismagra Kavya period, the erotic element became predominant in the Hindi literature. This era is called Riti (meaning 'procedure') because it was the age when poetic figures and theory were developed to the fullest. But this emphasis on poetry theory greatly reduced the emotional aspects of poetry—the main characteristic of the Bhakti movement—and the actual content of the poetry became less important. The Saguna School of
5328-561: The Second Battle of Tarain , most literary works belonging to this period were destroyed by the army of Muhammad of Ghor . Very few scriptures and manuscripts from this period are available and their genuineness is also doubted. Some Siddha and Nathpanthi poetical works belonging to this period are also found, but their genuineness is doubted. The Siddhas belonged to the Vajrayana , a later Buddhist sect . Some scholars argue that
5439-855: The United States of America ; 450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji; 250,292 in South Africa; 150,000 in Suriname; 100,000 in Uganda ; 45,800 in the United Kingdom; 20,000 in New Zealand ; 20,000 in Germany ; 26,000 in Trinidad and Tobago; 3,000 in Singapore . Linguistically , Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible. Both Hindi and Urdu share
5550-593: The ' Charyapadas ', a form of Buddhist mystical verses, composed during the period of 700-1300 AD. These padas were written in Sandhya bhasa by several Siddhas who belonged to Vajrayana Buddhism and were scattered throughout the territory of Assam , Bengal , Bihar and Odisha . Several of the Siddhas were from the Mithila region such as Kanhapa, Sarhapa etc. Prominent scholars like Rahul Sankrityanan , Subhadra Jha and Jayakant Mishra provided evidence and proved that
5661-581: The 14th century (around 1327 AD). Jyotirishwar Thakur (1280–1340) wrote a unique work Varnaratnākara in Maithili prose. The Varna Ratnākara is the earliest known prose text, written by Jyotirishwar Thakur in Mithilaksar script , and is the first prose work not only in Maithili but in any modern Indian language. In 1324, Ghyasuddin Tughluq, the emperor of Delhi invaded Mithila, defeated Harisimhadeva , entrusted Mithila to his family priest and
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#17327833088925772-631: The 1950s was Nakenwad , a school deriving its nomenclature from the first letters of the names of its three pioneers – Nalin Vilochan Sharma , Kesari Kumar, and Naresh Mehta all poets of note in their own right. Apart from being poets, Nalin Vilochan and Kesari Kumar were also brilliant critics, with a wide perspective on literary history. Their critical attitude is marked by a synthesis or coordination of various disciplines of human knowledge – philosophy, history, art and culture, all pressed into
5883-504: The 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as Chhayavaad ( shadowism ) and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as Chhayavaadi . Jaishankar Prasad , Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala' , Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant , are the four major Chhayavaadi poets. Poet Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar' was another great poet with some Chayavaadi element in his poetry although he wrote in other genres as well. This period of Neo-romanticism , represents
5994-631: The 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language. Now, it is celebrated as Hindi Day . Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Union. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union have been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English: (1) The official language of
6105-778: The Bhakti Yug split into two schools (Rama bhakti and Krishna bhakti) somewhere in the interregnum of the Bhakti and the Reeti Eras. Although most Reeti works were outwardly related to Krishna Bhakti , their emphasis had changed from total devotion to the supreme being to the Shringar or erotic aspects of Krishna's life—his Leela, his pranks with the Gopis in Braj , and the description of the physical beauty of Krishna and Radha ,(Krishna's Consort). The poetry of Bihari , and Ghananand Das fit this bill. The most well known book from this age
6216-639: The Devanagari script as the official language of the Republic of India replacing the previous usage of Hindustani in the Perso-Arabic script in the British Indian Empire . To this end, several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan-India in favour of Hindi, most notably Beohar Rajendra Simha along with Hazari Prasad Dwivedi , Kaka Kalelkar , Maithili Sharan Gupt and Seth Govind Das who even debated in Parliament on this issue. As such, on
6327-402: The Hindi heartland. Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century, pervading all aspects of life. Even grammatical constructs, namely the izafat , were assimilated into Hindi. The status of Persian language then and thus its influence, is also visible in Hindi proverbs : हाथ कंगन को आरसी क्या, पढ़े लिखे को फ़ारसी क्या। Hāth kaṅgan ko ārsī kyā, Paṛhe likhe ko Fārsī kyā. What
6438-423: The Hindi prose literature was Premchand , who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Before Premchand, the Hindi literature revolved around fairy or magical tales, entertaining stories and religious themes. Premchand's novels have been translated into many other languages. The Dwivedi Yug ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It
6549-580: The Hindu/Indian people') was often used in the past, for example by Amir Khusrau in his poetry. The terms Hindi and Hindu trace back to Old Persian which derived these names from the Sanskrit name Sindhu ( सिन्धु ), referring to the Indus River . The Greek cognates of the same terms are Indus (for the river) and India (for the land of the river). The term Modern Standard Hindi
6660-406: The Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies. Article 344 (2b) stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for
6771-442: The President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union. Article 351 of the Indian constitution states: It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as
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#17327833088926882-545: The Republic of India . Apart from the script and formal vocabulary, standard Hindi is mutually intelligible with standard Urdu , another recognised register of Hindustani, as both Hindi and Urdu share a core vocabulary base derived from Prakrit (a descendant of Sanskrit). Hindi is also spoken, to a lesser extent, in other parts of India (usually in a simplified or pidginised variety such as Bazaar Hindustani or Haflong Hindi ). Outside India, several other languages are recognised officially as "Hindi" but do not refer to
6993-430: The Standard Hindi language described here and instead descend from other nearby languages, such as Awadhi and Bhojpuri . Such languages include Fiji Hindi , which has an official status in Fiji , and Caribbean Hindustani , which is spoken in Suriname , Trinidad and Tobago , and Guyana . Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, Spanish and English. If counted together with
7104-460: The Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. (2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that
7215-444: The adolescence of Hindi Poetry. It is marked by beauty of expression and flow of intense emotion. The four representative poets of this era represent the best in Hindi Poetry. A unique feature of this period is the emotional (and sometimes active) attachment of poets with national freedom struggle, their effort to understand and imbibe the vast spirit of a magnificent ancient culture and their towering genius which grossly overshadowed all
7326-427: The age of machines, his romantic outlook, aesthetic sensibility, his keen eye on contemporary reality and classical style place him very high among contemporary essayists in Hindi . Bharatendu Harishchandra Bharatendu Harishchandra began his career as a journalist at the age of 17. Published Kavi Vachan Sudha (1867) a monthly dedicated to ancient and medieval poetry. Published Harishchandra Magazine in 1873 –
7437-402: The cause and take it further. Hindi Kavita has also made significant contributions to Indian film music. Several famous musical masterpieces have been witnessed. The rhetoric of satire is called Vyangya in Hindi. Vyangya writings includes the essence of sarcasm and humour. Some of the better known writers in this genre are, Harishankar Parsai (Hindi: हरिशंकर परसाई) (22 August 1924 – 1995) was
7548-471: The concept of Nirgun Nirakaar Brahma or the Shapeless Formless One. The Saguna school was represented by mainly Vaishnava poets like Surdas , Tulsidas and others and was a logical extension of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy propounded by the likes of Madhavacharya etc. This school was chiefly Vaishnava in orientation as in seen in the main compositions like Ramacharitamanas , Sur Saravali , Sur Sagar extolling Rama and Krishna . This
7659-593: The courts of the nobles. Lochana (c. 1575 – c. 1660) wrote Rāgatarangni , a significant treatise on the science of music, describing the rāgas, tālas, and lyrics prevalent in Mithila. During the Malla dynasty 's rule Maithili spread far and wide throughout Nepal from the 16th to the 17th century. During this period, at least seventy Maithili dramas were produced. In the drama Harishchandranrityam by Siddhinarayanadeva (1620–57), some characters speak pure colloquial Maithili, while others speak Bengali , Sanskrit or Prakrit . One notable Malla King who patronised Maithili
7770-415: The four way contrast like most of the modern Indo-Aryan languages : Apart from the retroflex series, all the rest four series show full phonological contrast in all positions. The retroflex tenius /ʈ/ and /ʈʰ/ show full contrast in all positions. /ɖ/ and /ɖʱ/ show phonological contrast mainly word-initially. Both are defective phonemes, occurring intervocalically and word finally only if preceded by
7881-409: The language of Charyapada is ancient Maithili or proto Maithili. Apart from Charyapadas, there has been a rich tradition of folk culture, folk songs and which were popular among the common folks of the Mithila region. After the fall of Pala rule, disappearance of Buddhism , establishment of Karnāta kings and patronage of Maithili under Harisimhadeva (1226–1324) of Karnāta dynasty dates back to
7992-689: The language of Siddha poetry is not an earlier form of Hindi, but Magadhi Prakrit . Nathpanthis were yogis who practised the Hatha yoga . Some Jain and Rasau (heroic poets) poetry works are also available from this period. In the Deccan region in South India, Dakkhini or Hindvi was used. It flourished under the Delhi Sultanate and later under the Nizams of Hyderabad . It was written in
8103-539: The last 125 years, there are no academic studies of any of them – of their use in South Africa, their evolution and current decline. Hindi is adopted as the third official court language in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi . As a result of this status, the Indian workforce in UAE can file their complaints to the labour courts in the country in their own mother-tongue. Hindi is the lingua franca of northern India (which contains
8214-559: The late 19th century, Jaishankar Prasad became the next big figure in Hindi playwriting with plays like Skanda Gupta (1928), Chandragupta (1931) and Dhruvswamini (1933). As the Independence struggle was gathering steam playwrights broaching issues of nationalism and subversive ideas against the British, yet to dodge censorship they adapted themes from mythology, history and legend and used them as vehicle for political messages,
8325-492: The literary 'talked abouts' of next seven decades. Other important genres of Adhunik Sahitya (Modernism) are: Prayogvad (Experimentalism) of Ajneya and the Tar Saptak poets, also known as Nayi Kavita (New Poetry) and Nayi Kahani (New Story) of Nirmal Verma and others; followed by Pragativad (Progressivism) of Gajanan Madhav Muktibodh and other authors. Among the numerous schools of poetry which sprang up in
8436-522: The modern Hindi poetry and that it did reflect sensitivity to social issues of the time. However, she also adds that the inelegance is a typical feature of a "young" poetry, as she considers Modern Hindi. Without a poetic tradition in modern Hindi, poets often modeled their forms on Braj, and later on Sanskrit, Urdu, Bengali and English forms, often ill-suited to Hindi. The subjects of the poems tended to be communal rather than personal. Characters were often presented not as individuals but as social types. In
8547-465: The most comprehensive online collections for Hindi poetry are Kavitakosh and Kavita . The most classy content that has created new audiences who were not looking for Hindi poetry or Hindi content is Hindi Kavita. This movement started in 2014 by Manish Gupta has generated an entirely new market and brought many projects to the fore. Many award-winning poets, scholars, journalists and celebrities from film, television and theatre have come forward to support
8658-400: The mutually intelligible Urdu, it is the third most-spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English. According to reports of Ethnologue (2022, 25th edition) Hindi is the third most-spoken language in the world including first and second language speakers. Hindi is the fastest growing language of India , followed by Kashmiri , Meitei , Gujarati and Bengali according to
8769-670: The oath now in Nepali. I might rather take it in English." Hindi is a protected language in South Africa . According to the Constitution of South Africa , the Pan South African Language Board must promote and ensure respect for Hindi along with other languages. According to a doctoral dissertation by Rajend Mesthrie in 1985, although Hindi and other Indian languages have existed in South Africa for
8880-889: The occasion of the Constitution Day , Maithili version of the Indian constitution was launched by the President of India Droupadi Murmu . In India, it is mainly spoken in Darbhanga , Tirhut , Kosi , Purnia , Bhagalpur and Munger divisions of Bihar & in Santhal Pargana division of Jharkhand . In Nepal, Maithili is spoken in Madhesh Province and Koshi Province . Darbhanga , Madhubani , Saharsa , Purnia & Janakpur constitutes important cultural and linguistic centers of Maithili language. In 1870s, Beames considered Maithili
8991-582: The official language of the imperial court during the reign of Shah Jahan . It is recorded that Emperor Aurangzeb spoke in Hindvi . The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement , and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent, which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and songs. Standard Hindi
9102-493: The only basis of modern literature in Hindi (excluding Urdu literature of Hindustani language). Literature of Adi kal ( c. before the 15th century CE ) was developed in the regions of Kannauj , Delhi , Ajmer stretching up to central India. Prithviraj Raso , an epic poem written by Chand Bardai (1149 – c. 1200 ), is considered one of the first works in the Bhraj Bhasha literature. Chand Bardai
9213-463: The other two, and has since remained the dominant script for Maithili. Tirhuta retained some specific uses (on signage in north Bihar as well as in religious texts, genealogical records and letters), and has seen a resurgence of interest in the 21st century. The Tirhuta and Kaithi scripts are both currently included in Unicode. The following sample text is Maithili translation of Article 1 of
9324-426: The place of the English borrowings (ṭeli)fon and ṭīvī . Hindi also features significant Persian influence, standardised from spoken Hindustani . Early borrowings, beginning in the mid-12th century, were specific to Islam (e.g. Muhammad , Islām ) and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic. Later, under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire , Persian became the primary administrative language in
9435-522: The progressive use of Hindi language and impose restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government. In practice, the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government. At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: Bihar , Chhattisgarh , Haryana , Himachal Pradesh , Jharkhand , Madhya Pradesh , Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand . Hindi
9546-517: The promotion of Indian literature . In 2002, Maithili was recognised on the VIII schedule of the Indian Constitution as a major Indian language; Maithili is now one of the twenty-two Scheduled languages of India . The publishing of Maithili books in Mithilakshar script was started by Acharya Ramlochan Saran . The following diphthongs are present: A peculiar type of phonetic change
9657-503: The pseudonym Bhanusimha . Vidyapati influenced the religious literature of Asama , Bengal , Utkala and gave birth to a new Brajabuli / Brajavali language. The earliest reference to Maithili or Tirhutiya is in Amaduzzi's preface to Beligatti's Alphabetum Brammhanicum , published in 1771. This contains a list of Indian languages among which is 'Tourutiana.' Colebrooke's essay on the Sanskrit and Prakrit languages, written in 1801,
9768-502: The same language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu. Hindi is the most commonly used scheduled language in India and is one of the two official languages of the union , the other being English. Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan and is one of 22 scheduled languages of India , also having official status in Uttar Pradesh , Jammu and Kashmir , Delhi , Telangana , Andhra Pradesh and Bihar . Hindi
9879-750: The second official language status in the Indian state of Jharkhand . Gopal Jee Thakur of the Bharatiya Janata Party is the first Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha who speaks in the Maithili language in the Parliament of India . He is currently the MP for Darbhanga . The Nepalese Languages Commission has made Maithili an official Nepalese language used for administration in Koshi province and Madhesh Province . On 26 November 2024, during
9990-430: The service of literary appraisal and analysis. Hindi has a rich legacy of poetry ( Shayari ). There are several genres of Kavita based on Ras, Chhand and Alankar (e.g., Shringar, Karun, Veer, Hāsya , etc.). Hasya Kavita is humorous comic poetry in Hindi. It is particularly famous due to Hindi kavi sammelans . Bal kavita is children's rhymes in Hindi. Many attempts have been made to document Hindi poetry. Some of
10101-431: The subject of suffering of migrant labourers of Morang and their families; besides, he wrote a number of treaties in Sanskrit . His love-songs spread far and wide in no time and enchanted saints , poets and youth . Chaitanya Mahaprabhu saw the divine light of love behind these songs, and soon these songs became themes of Vaisnava sect of Bengal . Rabindranath Tagore , out of curiosity, imitated these songs under
10212-449: The title of 'Yudh Yatra'. As an honest and dedicated reporter, Bharati was unrivaled. After the war, he became editor of 2 more journals- Aalochana and Nikarshak. Hindi Modern Standard Hindi ( आधुनिक मानक हिन्दी , Ādhunik Mānak Hindī ), commonly referred to as Hindi , is the standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in Devanagari script . It is the official language of India alongside English and
10323-471: The transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi are: During the period of Delhi Sultanate in medieval India , which covered most of today's north India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures , the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from Persian , evolving into the present form of Hindustani. Hindi achieved prominence in India after it became
10434-695: The whole gamut of rasas from Shringara rasa (love), Vir Rasa (Heroism). Bhakti poetry had two schools – the Nirguna school (the believers of a formless God or an abstract name) and the Saguna school (the believers of a God with attributes and worshippers of Vishnu's incarnations). Kabir and Guru Nanak belong to the Nirguna school, and their philosophy was greatly influenced by the Advaita Vedanta philosophy of Adi Sankaracharya . They believed in
10545-526: Was Bhupatindra Malla who composed 26 plays in the Maithili language during his lifetime. After the demise of Maheshwar Singh, the ruler of Darbhanga Raj , in 1860, the Raj was taken over by the British Government as regent. The Darbhanga Raj returned to his successor, Maharaj Lakshmishvar Singh , in 1898. The Zamindari Raj had a lackadaisical approach toward Maithili. The use of Maithili language
10656-412: Was Nizami. During the later part of this period and early Bhakti Kala, many saint poets like Ramanand and Gorakhnath became famous. The earliest form of Hindi can also be seen in some of Vidyapati 's Maithili works. The medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and composition of long and epic poems. Awadhi and Braj Bhasha were the dialects in which literature
10767-596: Was a court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan , the famous ruler of Delhi and Ajmer during the invasion of Muhammad of Ghor . Jayachandra , the last ruler of Kannauj gave more patronage to Sanskrit rather than local dialects. Harsha, the author of Naishdhiya Charitra , was his court poet. Jagnayak (sometimes Jagnik), the royal poet in Mahoba , and Nalha, the royal poet in Ajmer , were the other prominent literary figures in this period. However, after Prithviraj Chauhan's defeat in
10878-686: Was a great patriot and his love for his country was seen in all of his writings. He also contributed to Aaj, and helped to found the Hindustan Times in 1933, along with its Hindi counterpart Hindustan. Babu Gulabrai (17 January 1888 – 13 April 1963) (pen name: Gulabrai MA) was one of the greatest literary figures of modern Hindi literature. Durgaprasad Mishra Born in Kashmir, he came to Calcutta and started Bharat Mitra in 1878. In 1879, he began another weekly magazine- Saar Sudhanidhi but it closed down in that same year. On 17 August 1880, he started
10989-612: Was also the age of tremendous integration between the Hindu and the Islamic elements in the Arts with the advent of many Muslim Bhakti poets like Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana who was a minister to Mughal emperor Akbar and was also a great devotee of Krishna. The Nirgun School of Bhakti Poetry was also tremendously secular in nature and its propounders like Kabir and Guru Nanak had a large number of followers irrespective of caste or religion. In
11100-578: Was born in 1861 in Allahabad to a Brahmin family. From 1885 to 1887 was the editor of Indian Opinion. He was a strong supporter of the Congress. He helped launch the newspaper Dainik Hindustan and was its editor from 1887 to 1889. He was a close friend of many eminent Hindi writers like Gopalram Gehmari, Amrutlal Chakravarty and Pandit Pratap Narayan Mishra. Along with Bal Mukund Gupta, he launched an Urdu journal 'Kohinoor' from Lahore. In those days, Gupta
11211-509: Was developed. The main works in Avadhi are Malik Muhammad Jayasi 's Padmavat and Tulsidas 's Ramacharitamanas . The major works in Braj dialect are Tulsidas 's Vinaya Patrika and Surdas 's Sur Sagar . Sadhukaddi was also a language commonly used, especially by Kabir in his poetry and dohas. The Bhakti period also marked a great theoretical development in poetry forms chiefly from
11322-639: Was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351), with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, especially in South India (such as those in Tamil Nadu ) led to the passage of
11433-410: Was established in 1900. He used it to crusade for reforms in the Hindi literature. One of the most prominent poems of the period was Maithili Sharan Gupt 's Bharat-bharati , which evokes the past glory of India. Shridhar Prathak's Bharatgit is another renowned poem of the period. Some scholars have labelled much of the poetry of this period as "versified propaganda". According to Lucy Rosenstein: "It
11544-403: Was not a facile Hindi scholar, but under Malviya's training, Gupta became editor of Bharat Mitra. In 1908, Malviya founded a new revolutionary journal Abhyudaya from Prayag. The renowned writer Purushottam Das Tandon was a frequent contributor to it. After Abhyudaya, Malviya founded a monthly magazine 'Maryada', in 1909 he founded a daily 'Leader' and later on another daily – 'Bharat'. Malviya
11655-532: Was not as prolific as in case with Hindi poetry or fiction. Yet we have playwrights like Jagdish Chandra Mathur ( Konark ) and Upendranath Ashk ( Anjo Didi ), who displayed a steadily evolving understanding of stagecraft. These were followed another generation of pioneers in Hindi playwrighting, Mohan Rakesh , who started with Ashadh Ka Ek Din (1958), Adhe Adhure and Lehron Ke Rajhans , Dharamvir Bharati , who wrote Andha Yug , and other playwrights like Surendra Verma , and Bhisham Sahni . Kuber Nath Rai
11766-610: Was one of the greatest travelled scholars of India, spending forty-five years of his life on travels away from his home. He is known as the ( "Father of Hindi Travel literature " ). Baba Nagarjun was a major Hindi and Maithili poet who has also penned a number of novels, short stories, literary biographies and travelogues, and was known as (" Janakavi- the People's Poet "). The pioneer of Hindi theatre as well as playwrighting, Bhartendu Harishchandra wrote Satya Harishchandra (1875), Bharat Durdasha (1876) and Andher Nagari (1878), in
11877-506: Was principal of Allahabad University. He began his journalist career in Abhyudaya, a journal by Padmakant Malviya. He then joined Sangam, edited by Ilachand Joshi and then became editor of Dharmayug. Thanks to Bharati, this journal became very popular. During the 1971 war, Bharati reported from the frontlines of the battle. He covered all the horrors of the war. His series of reports, the finest in Hindi war journalism, were published under
11988-525: Was published in 1809. Lala Srinivas Das published a novel in Hindi Pariksha guru in the Nāgarī script in 1886. Shardha Ram Phillauri wrote a Hindi novel Bhagyawati which was published in 1888. Chandrakanta , written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi. The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand , who
12099-405: Was revived through personal efforts of MM Parameshvar Mishra, Chanda Jha, Munshi Raghunandan Das and others. Publication of Maithil Hita Sadhana (1905), Mithila Moda (1906), and Mithila Mihir (1908) further encouraged writers. The first social organisation, Maithil Mahasabha, was established in 1910 for the development of Mithila and Maithili. It blocked its membership for people outside of
12210-416: Was the first to describe Maithili as a distinct dialect. Many devotional songs were written by Vaisnava saints, including in the mid-17th century, Vidyapati and Govindadas. Mapati Upadhyaya wrote a drama titled Pārijātaharaṇa in Maithili. Professional troupes, mostly from dalit classes known as Kirtanias , the singers of bhajan or devotional songs, started to perform this drama in public gatherings and
12321-600: Was written in the Tirhuta script (also known as Mithilakshara or Maithili), which is related to the Bengali-Assamese script . By the early 20th century, this script was largely associated with the Mithila Brahmans, with most others using Kaithi , and Devanagari spreading under the influence of the scholars at Banaras . Throughout the course of the century, Devanagari grew in use eventually replacing
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