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76-510: The Huali Dafa is well known for its low cost and reliability. Because of its tall shape with a rounded top it is commonly nicknamed the " bread car" in China. Production of the Huali Dafa was discontinued some time ago, but hundreds of thousands remain on the roads of China. By far, its most common color is maroon , followed by silver. The Huali Dafa was used as a taxicab in the 1980s until it

152-518: A 14,500-year-old Natufian site in Jordan's northeastern desert. Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age and the spread of agriculture, grains became the mainstay of making bread. Yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains , so any dough left to rest leavens naturally. An early leavened bread was baked as early as 6000 BC in southern Mesopotamia, cradle of

228-453: A certain amount of applied force. Because air pockets within this gluten network result from carbon dioxide production during leavening, bread can be defined as a foam, or a gas-in-solid solution. Acrylamide , like in other starchy foods that have been heated higher than 120 °C (248 °F), has been found in recent years to occur in bread. Acrylamide is neurotoxic , has adverse effects on male reproduction and developmental toxicity and

304-734: A class Equisetopsida ( Embryophyta ) encompassing all land plants. This is referred to as Equisetopsida sensu lato to distinguish it from the narrower use to refer to horsetails alone, Equisetopsida sensu stricto . They placed the lycopods into subclass Lycopodiidae and the ferns, keeping the term monilophytes, into five subclasses, Equisetidae, Ophioglossidae, Psilotidae, Marattiidae and Polypodiidae, by dividing Smith's Psilotopsida into its two orders and elevating them to subclass (Ophioglossidae and Psilotidae). Christenhusz et al. (2011) followed this use of subclasses but recombined Smith's Psilotopsida as Ophioglossidae, giving four subclasses of ferns again. Christenhusz and Chase (2014) developed

380-408: A coarser bread crumb. Dough recipes commonly call for 500 grams (about 1.1 pounds) of flour, which yields a single loaf of bread or two baguettes . Calcium propionate is commonly added by commercial bakeries to retard the growth of molds. Flour is grain ground into a powder. Flour provides the primary structure, starch and protein to the final baked bread. The protein content of the flour

456-634: A few species (e.g., Cyathea brownii on Norfolk Island and Cyathea medullaris in New Zealand ). Roots are underground non-photosynthetic structures that take up water and nutrients from soil . They are always fibrous and are structurally very similar to the roots of seed plants. As in all vascular plants , the sporophyte is the dominant phase or generation in the life cycle . The gametophytes of ferns, however, are very different from those of seed plants. They are free-living and resemble liverworts , whereas those of seed plants develop within

532-406: A loose-textured mixture composed of roughly equal amounts of flour and water (by weight); " biga ", a stiff mixture with a higher proportion of flour; and "pâte fermentée", which is a portion of dough reserved from a previous batch. Sourdough is a type of bread produced by a long fermentation of dough using naturally occurring yeasts and lactobacilli . It usually has a mildly sour taste because of

608-487: A new classification of ferns and lycopods. They used the term Polypodiophyta for the ferns, subdivided like Smith et al. into four groups (shown with equivalents in the Smith system), with 21 families, approximately 212 genera and 10,535 species; This was a considerable reduction in the number of families from the 37 in the system of Smith et al., since the approach was more that of lumping rather than splitting. For instance

684-462: A protective coating called an indusium . The arrangement of the sporangia is important in classification. In monomorphic ferns, the fertile and sterile leaves look morphologically the same, and both are able to photosynthesize. In hemidimorphic ferns, just a portion of the fertile leaf is different from the sterile leaves. In dimorphic (holomorphic) ferns, the two types of leaves are morphologically distinct . The fertile leaves are much narrower than

760-430: A short-lived structure anchored to the ground by rhizoids called gametophyte which produce gametes. When a mature fertile frond bears sori, and spores are released, the spores will settle on the soil and send out rhizoids , while it develops into a prothallus . The prothallus bears spherical antheridia ( s.g. antheridium ) which produce antherozoids (male gametophytes) and archegonia ( s.g. archegonium ) which release

836-812: A significant input to the nitrogen nutrition of rice paddies . They also play certain roles in folklore. Extant ferns are herbaceous perennials and most lack woody growth. When woody growth is present, it is found in the stem. Their foliage may be deciduous or evergreen , and some are semi-evergreen depending on the climate. Like the sporophytes of seed plants, those of ferns consist of stems, leaves and roots. Ferns differ from spermatophytes in that they reproduce by spores rather than having flowers and producing seeds. However, they also differ from spore-producing bryophytes in that, like seed plants, they are polysporangiophytes , their sporophytes branching and producing many sporangia. Also unlike bryophytes, fern sporophytes are free-living and only briefly dependent on

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912-568: A single oosphere . The antherozoid swims up the archegonium and fertilize the oosphere, resulting in a zygote, which will grow into a separate sporophyte, while the gametophyte shortly persists as a free-living plant. Carl Linnaeus (1753) originally recognized 15 genera of ferns and fern allies, classifying them in class Cryptogamia in two groups, Filices (e.g. Polypodium ) and Musci (mosses). By 1806 this had increased to 38 genera, and has progressively increased since ( see Schuettpelz et al (2018) ). Ferns were traditionally classified in

988-412: A special taste or texture. At one time, all yeast-leavened breads were sourdoughs. Recently there has been a revival of sourdough bread in artisan bakeries. Traditionally, peasant families throughout Europe baked on a fixed schedule, perhaps once a week. The starter was saved from the previous week's dough. The starter was mixed with the new ingredients, the dough was left to rise, and then a piece of it

1064-571: Is carcinogenic . A study has found that more than 99 percent of the acrylamide in bread is found in the crust. A study by the University of Hohenheim found that industrially produced bread typically has a high proportion of FODMAP carbohydrates due to a short rising time (often only one hour). The high proportion of FODMAP carbohydrates in such bread then causes flatulence . This is particularly problematic in intestinal diseases such as irritable bowel syndrome . While in traditional bread making

1140-500: Is polyphyletic , the term fern allies should be abandoned, except in a historical context. More recent genetic studies demonstrated that the Lycopodiophyta are more distantly related to other vascular plants , having radiated evolutionarily at the base of the vascular plant clade , while both the whisk ferns and horsetails are as closely related to leptosporangiate ferns as the ophioglossoid ferns and Marattiaceae . In fact,

1216-466: Is a good source of carbohydrates and micronutrients such as magnesium, iron, selenium, and B vitamins. Whole grain bread is a good source of dietary fiber and all breads are a common source of protein in the diet, though not a rich one. Bread crust is formed from surface dough during the cooking process. It is hardened and browned through the Maillard reaction using the sugars and amino acids due to

1292-578: Is intermediate between the eusporangiate ferns and the leptosporangiate ferns. Rai and Graham (2010) broadly supported the primary groups, but queried their relationships, concluding that "at present perhaps the best that can be said about all relationships among the major lineages of monilophytes in current studies is that we do not understand them very well". Grewe et al. (2013) confirmed the inclusion of horsetails within ferns sensu lato , but also suggested that uncertainties remained in their precise placement. Other classifications have raised Ophioglossales to

1368-609: Is leavened by Clostridium perfringens , one of the most common sources of food-borne illness. Aerated bread is leavened by carbon dioxide being forced into dough under pressure. From the mid-19th to mid-20th centuries, bread made this way was somewhat popular in the United Kingdom, made by the Aerated Bread Company and sold in its high-street tearooms . The company was founded in 1862, and ceased independent operations in 1955. The Pressure-Vacuum mixer

1444-404: Is most commonly eaten with the hands, either by itself or as a carrier for other foods. Bread can be spread with butter , dipped into liquids such as gravy , olive oil , or soup ; it can be topped with various sweet and savory spreads, or used to make sandwiches containing meats , cheeses, vegetables, and condiments . Bread is used as an ingredient in other culinary preparations, such as

1520-567: Is one of the oldest human-made foods, having been of significance since the dawn of agriculture , and plays an essential role in both religious rituals and secular culture. Bread may be leavened by naturally occurring microbes (e.g. sourdough), chemicals (e.g. baking soda), industrially produced yeast , or high-pressure aeration, which creates the gas bubbles that fluff up bread. In many countries, commercial bread often contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, nutrition, and ease of production. The Old English word for bread

1596-463: Is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe and Australia revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants. It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns , was spread on a flat rock, placed over a fire and cooked into a primitive form of flatbread . The oldest evidence of bread-making has been found in

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1672-427: Is the best indicator of the quality of the bread dough and the finished bread. While bread can be made from all-purpose wheat flour, a specialty bread flour, containing more protein (12–14%), is recommended for high-quality bread. If one uses a flour with a lower protein content (9–11%) to produce bread, a shorter mixing time is required to develop gluten strength properly. An extended mixing time leads to oxidization of

1748-418: Is the most important measurement in a bread recipe, as it affects texture and crumb the most. Hard wheat flours absorb about 62% water , while softer wheat flours absorb about 56%. Common table breads made from these doughs result in a finely textured, light bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60 to 75% water. In yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO 2 bubbles and

1824-498: Is the process of adding gas to a dough before or during baking to produce a lighter, more easily chewed bread. Most bread eaten in the West is leavened. A simple technique for leavening bread is the use of gas-producing chemicals. There are two common methods. The first is to use baking powder or a self-raising flour that includes baking powder. The second is to include an acidic ingredient such as buttermilk and add baking soda ;

1900-476: The Americas , Australia , and Southern Africa . This is in contrast to parts of South and East Asia, where rice or noodles are the staple. Bread is usually made from a wheat - flour dough that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and baked in an oven . Carbon dioxide and ethanol vapors produced during yeast fermentation result in bread's air pockets. Owing to its high levels of gluten (which give

1976-646: The Cretaceous , contemporaneous with the rise of flowering plants that came to dominate the world's flora. Ferns are not of major economic importance, but some are used for food, medicine, as biofertilizer , as ornamental plants, and for remediating contaminated soil. They have been the subject of research for their ability to remove some chemical pollutants from the atmosphere. Some fern species, such as bracken ( Pteridium aquilinum ) and water fern ( Azolla filiculoides ), are significant weeds worldwide. Some fern genera, such as Azolla , can fix nitrogen and make

2052-553: The Sumerian civilization, who may have passed on the knowledge to the Egyptians around 3000 BC. The Egyptians refined the process and started adding yeast to the flour . The Sumerians were already using ash to supplement the dough as it was baked. There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread. Airborne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. Pliny

2128-479: The class Filices, and later in a Division of the Plant Kingdom named Pteridophyta or Filicophyta. Pteridophyta is no longer recognised as a valid taxon because it is paraphyletic . The ferns are also referred to as Polypodiophyta or, when treated as a subdivision of Tracheophyta (vascular plants), Polypodiopsida, although this name sometimes only refers to leptosporangiate ferns. Traditionally, all of

2204-564: The lactic acid produced during anaerobic fermentation by the lactobacilli. Longer fermented sourdoughs can also contain acetic acid , the main non-water component of vinegar. Sourdough breads are made with a sourdough starter. The starter cultivates yeast and lactobacilli in a mixture of flour and water, making use of the microorganisms already present on flour; it does not need any added yeast. A starter may be maintained indefinitely by regular additions of flour and water. Some bakers have starters many generations old, which are said to have

2280-536: The straight dough process , the sourdough process , the Chorleywood bread process and the sponge and dough process . Professional bread recipes are stated using the baker's percentage notation. The amount of flour is denoted to be 100%, and the other ingredients are expressed as a percentage of that amount by weight. Measurement by weight is more accurate and consistent than measurement by volume, particularly for dry ingredients. The proportion of water to flour

2356-521: The Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer , called barm , to produce "a lighter kind of bread than other peoples" such as barm cake . Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of grape juice and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine , as a source for yeast . The most common source of leavening

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2432-559: The FODMAPs that cause discomfort can be broken down during a rising time of four hours. In the study, whole-grain yeast doughs were examined after different rising times; the highest level of FODMAPs was present after one hour in each case and decreased thereafter. The study thus shows that it is essentially the baking technique and not the type of grain that determines whether a bread is well tolerated or not. A better tolerance of bread made from original cereals can therefore not be explained by

2508-530: The United States as the Miles ZX40 . This article about a modern automobile produced after 1975 is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Bread Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour (usually wheat ) and water , usually by baking . Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cultures' diet. It

2584-626: The best thing since " sliced bread ". The expression "to break bread with someone" means "to share a meal with someone". The English word "lord" comes from the Anglo-Saxon hlāfweard , meaning "bread keeper." Ferns The ferns ( Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta ) are a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem ) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers . They differ from mosses by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissues that conduct water and nutrients, and in having life cycles in which

2660-485: The branched sporophyte is the dominant phase. Ferns have complex leaves called megaphylls that are more complex than the microphylls of clubmosses . Most ferns are leptosporangiate ferns . They produce coiled fiddleheads that uncoil and expand into fronds . The group includes about 10,560 known extant species. Ferns are defined here in the broad sense, being all of the Polypodiopsida , comprising both

2736-405: The bread is baked in an oven . Many breads are made from a " straight dough ", which means that all of the ingredients are combined in one step, and the dough is baked after the rising time; others are made from a " pre-ferment " in which the leavening agent is combined with some of the flour and water a day or so ahead of baking and allowed to ferment overnight. On the day of baking, the rest of

2812-423: The crumb and the overall texture by stabilizing and strengthening the gluten. Some artisan bakers forego early addition of salt to the dough, whether wholemeal or refined, and wait until after a 20-minute rest to allow the dough to autolyse . Mixtures of salts are sometimes employed, such as employing potassium chloride to reduce the sodium level, and monosodium glutamate to give flavor ( umami ). Leavening

2888-569: The development of gluten in breads by coating and lubricating the individual strands of protein. They also help to hold the structure together. If too much fat is included in a bread dough, the lubrication effect causes the protein structures to divide. A fat content of approximately 3% by weight is the concentration that produces the greatest leavening action. In addition to their effects on leavening, fats also serve to tenderize breads and preserve freshness. Bread improvers and dough conditioners are often used in producing commercial breads to reduce

2964-702: The dough is allowed to autolyse . Water, or some other liquid, is used to form the flour into a paste or dough. The weight or ratio of liquid required varies between recipes, but a ratio of three parts liquid to five parts flour is common for yeast breads. Recipes that use steam as the primary leavening method may have a liquid content in excess of one part liquid to one part flour. Instead of water, recipes may use liquids such as milk or other dairy products (including buttermilk or yogurt ), fruit juice, or eggs. These contribute additional sweeteners, fats, or leavening components, as well as water. Fats, such as butter, vegetable oils, lard, or that contained in eggs, affect

3040-407: The dough rises for several hours, industrial breads rise for a much shorter time, usually only one hour. However, a sufficiently long rising time is important to break down the indigestible FODMAP carbohydrates. Some flours (for example, spelt , emmer and einkorn ) contain fewer FODMAPs, but the difference between grain types is relatively small (between 1 and 2 percent by weight ). Instead, 90% of

3116-459: The dough sponginess and elasticity), common or bread wheat is the most common grain used for the preparation of bread, which makes the largest single contribution to the world's food supply of any food. Bread is also made from the flour of other wheat species (including spelt , emmer , einkorn and kamut ). Non-wheat cereals including rye , barley , maize (corn), oats , sorghum , millet and rice have been used to make bread, but, with

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3192-425: The dough, which gives the finished product a whiter crumb, instead of the cream color preferred by most artisan bakers. Wheat flour, in addition to its starch, contains three water-soluble protein groups ( albumin , globulin , and proteoses ) and two water-insoluble protein groups ( glutenin and gliadin ). When flour is mixed with water, the water-soluble proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form

3268-502: The elements (alongside wine ) of the Eucharist , and in other religions including Paganism . In many cultures , bread is a metaphor for basic necessities and living conditions in general. For example, a "bread-winner" is a household's main economic contributor and has little to do with actual bread-provision. This is also seen in the phrase "putting bread on the table". The Roman poet Juvenal satirized superficial politicians and

3344-535: The exception of rye, usually in combination with wheat flour as they have less gluten. Gluten-free breads are made using flours from a variety of ingredients such as almonds, rice, sorghum, corn, legumes such as beans, and tubers such as cassava. Since these foods lack gluten, dough made from them may not hold its shape as the loaves rise, and their crumb may be dense with little aeration. Additives such as xanthan gum , guar gum , hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), corn starch , or eggs are used to compensate for

3420-557: The facelifted TJ6330 and TJ 1010FL/FLA (introduced in 1998 for the 1999 model year) until production of all versions ended in 2002. Huali went on to produce two rebadged versions of the first-generation Daihatsu Terios known as the Huali Dario and the first-generation Daihatsu Move known as the Huali TJ5015XFY or Happy Messenger sold from 2003 to 2008. The Huali TJ5015XFY forms the basis for an electrical version, sold in

3496-431: The fronds are branched more than once, it can also be a combination of the pinnatifid are pinnate shapes. If the leaf blades are divided twice, the plant has bipinnate fronds, and tripinnate fronds if they branch three times, and all the way to tetra- and pentapinnate fronds. In tree ferns, the main stalk that connects the leaf to the stem (known as the stipe), often has multiple leaflets. The leafy structures that grow from

3572-494: The inclusion of Equisetaceae in the ferns, notably relating to the construction of their sperm and peculiarities of their roots. The leptosporangiate ferns are sometimes called "true ferns". This group includes most plants familiarly known as ferns. Modern research supports older ideas based on morphology that the Osmundaceae diverged early in the evolutionary history of the leptosporangiate ferns; in certain ways this family

3648-510: The ingredients are added, and the process continues as with straight dough. This produces a more flavorful bread with better texture. Many bakers see the starter method as a compromise between the reliable results of baker's yeast and the flavor and complexity of a longer fermentation. It also allows the baker to use only a minimal amount of baker's yeast, which was scarce and expensive when it first became available. Most yeasted pre-ferments fall into one of three categories: " poolish " or "pouliche",

3724-1000: The intense heat at the bread surface. The crust of most breads is harder, and more complexly and intensely flavored, than the rest. Old wives' tales suggest that eating the bread crust makes a person's hair curlier. Additionally, the crust is rumored to be healthier than the remainder of the bread. Some studies have shown that this is true as the crust has more dietary fiber and antioxidants such as pronyl - lysine . Doughs are usually baked , but in some cuisines breads are steamed (e.g., mantou ), fried (e.g., puri ), or baked on an unoiled frying pan (e.g., tortillas ). It may be leavened or unleavened (e.g. matzo ). Salt , fat and leavening agents such as yeast and baking soda are common ingredients, though bread may contain other ingredients, such as milk , egg , sugar , spice , fruit (such as raisins ), vegetables (such as onion ), nuts (such as walnut ) or seeds (such as poppy ). Methods of processing dough into bread include

3800-552: The lack of gluten. In wheat , phenolic compounds are mainly found in hulls in the form of insoluble bound ferulic acid , where it is relevant to wheat resistance to fungal diseases. Rye bread contains phenolic acids and ferulic acid dehydrodimers . Three natural phenolic glucosides, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside , p-coumaric acid glucoside and ferulic acid glucoside , can be found in commercial breads containing flaxseed . Glutenin and gliadin are functional proteins found in wheat bread that contribute to

3876-446: The leptosporangiate ( Polypodiidae ) and eusporangiate ferns , the latter group including horsetails , whisk ferns , marattioid ferns , and ophioglossoid ferns . The fern crown group , consisting of the leptosporangiates and eusporangiates, is estimated to have originated in the late Silurian period 423.2 million years ago, but Polypodiales , the group that makes up 80% of living fern diversity, did not appear and diversify until

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3952-474: The leptosporangiate ferns. The Marattiaceae are a primitive group of tropical ferns with large, fleshy rhizomes and are now thought to be a sibling taxon to the leptosporangiate ferns. Several other groups of species were considered fern allies: the clubmosses , spikemosses , and quillworts in Lycopodiophyta ; the whisk ferns of Psilotaceae ; and the horsetails of Equisetaceae . Since this grouping

4028-555: The maternal gametophyte . The green , photosynthetic part of the plant is technically a megaphyll and in ferns, it is often called a frond . New leaves typically expand by the unrolling of a tight spiral called a crozier or fiddlehead into fronds . This uncurling of the leaf is termed circinate vernation . Leaves are divided into two types: sporophylls and tropophylls. Sporophylls produce spores; tropophylls do not. Fern spores are borne in sporangia which are usually clustered to form sori . The sporangia may be covered with

4104-486: The original cereal itself, but rather by the fact that traditional, artisanal baking techniques are generally used when baking original cereals, which include a long dough process. The study also showed that a long rising time also breaks down undesirable phytates more effectively, flavors develop better, and the finished bread contains more biologically accessible trace elements . Bread can be served at many temperatures ; once baked, it can subsequently be toasted . It

4180-750: The public as caring only for " panem et circenses " ( bread and circuses ). In Russia in 1917, the Bolsheviks promised "peace, land, and bread." The term " breadbasket " denotes an agriculturally productive region. In parts of Northern , Central , Southern and Eastern Europe bread and salt is offered as a welcome to guests. In India , life's basic necessities are often referred to as "roti, kapra aur makan" (bread, clothes, and house). Words for bread, including "dough" and "bread" itself, are used in English -speaking countries as synonyms for money . A remarkable or revolutionary innovation may be called

4256-430: The rank of a fifth class, separating the whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns. The ferns are related to other groups as shown in the following cladogram: Lycophytes [REDACTED] Ferns [REDACTED] Gymnosperms [REDACTED] Angiosperms [REDACTED] The classification of Smith et al. in 2006 treated ferns as four classes: In addition they defined 11 orders and 37 families. That system

4332-463: The reaction of the acid with the soda produces gas. Chemically leavened breads are called quick breads and soda breads . This method is commonly used to make muffins , pancakes , American-style biscuits , and quick breads such as banana bread . Many breads are leavened by yeast . The yeast most commonly used for leavening bread is Saccharomyces cerevisiae , the same species used for brewing alcoholic beverages. This yeast ferments some of

4408-412: The same pattern. Water is mixed with flour, salt and the leavening agent. Other additions (spices, herbs, fats, seeds, fruit, etc.) are not needed to bake bread, but are often used. The mixed dough is then allowed to rise one or more times (a longer rising time results in more flavor, so bakers often "punch down" the dough and let it rise again), loaves are formed, and (after an optional final rising time)

4484-476: The spore producing vascular plants were informally denominated the pteridophytes , rendering the term synonymous with ferns and fern allies . This can be confusing because members of the division Pteridophyta were also denominated pteridophytes ( sensu stricto ). Traditionally, three discrete groups have been denominated ferns: two groups of eusporangiate ferns, the families Ophioglossaceae ( adder's tongues , moonworts , and grape ferns) and Marattiaceae ; and

4560-417: The spore wall and are dependent on the parent sporophyte for their nutrition. A fern gametophyte typically consists of: The lifecycle of a fern involves two stages, as in club mosses and horsetails . In stage one, the spores are produced by sporophytes in sporangia , which are clustered together in sori ( s.g. sorus ), developing on the underside of fertile fronds. In stage two, the spores germinate into

4636-496: The sterile leaves, and may have no green tissue at all, as in the Blechnaceae and Lomariopsidaceae . The anatomy of fern leaves can be anywhere from simple to highly divided, or even indeterminate (e.g. Gleicheniaceae , Lygodiaceae ). The divided forms are pinnate , where the leaf segments are completely separated from one other, or pinnatifid (partially pinnate), where the leaf segments are still partially connected. When

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4712-463: The stipe are known as pinnae and are often again divided into smaller pinnules. Fern stems are often loosely called rhizomes , even though they grow underground only in some of the species. Epiphytic species and many of the terrestrial ones have above-ground creeping stolons (e.g., Polypodiaceae ), and many groups have above-ground erect semi-woody trunks (e.g., Cyatheaceae , the scaly tree ferns). These can reach up to 20 meters (66 ft) tall in

4788-547: The structure of bread. Glutenin forms interconnected gluten networks within bread through interchain disulfide bonds. Gliadin binds weakly to the gluten network established by glutenin via intrachain disulfide bonds. Structurally, bread can be defined as an elastic-plastic foam (same as styrofoam ). The glutenin protein contributes to its elastic nature, as it is able to regain its initial shape after deformation. The gliadin protein contributes to its plastic nature, because it demonstrates non-reversible structural change after

4864-415: The structure of the resulting bread. When relatively dry dough is worked by kneading , or wet dough is allowed to rise for a long time (see no-knead bread ), the glutenin forms strands of long, thin, chainlike molecules, while the shorter gliadin forms bridges between the strands of glutenin. The resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins are known as gluten . Gluten development improves if

4940-445: The sugars producing carbon dioxide . Commercial bakers often leaven their dough with commercially produced baker's yeast . Baker's yeast has the advantage of producing uniform, quick, and reliable results, because it is obtained from a pure culture . Many artisan bakers produce their own yeast with a growth culture. If kept in the right conditions, it provides leavening for many years. The baker's yeast and sourdough methods follow

5016-472: The time needed for rising and to improve texture and volume and to give antistaling effects. The substances used may be oxidising agents to strengthen the dough or reducing agents to develop gluten and reduce mixing time, emulsifiers to strengthen the dough or to provide other properties such as making slicing easier, or enzymes to increase gas production. Salt ( sodium chloride ) is very often added to enhance flavor and restrict yeast activity. It also affects

5092-635: The time taken to produce a loaf. The process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of grain with a lower protein content, is now widely used around the world in large factories. As a result, bread can be produced very quickly and at low costs to the manufacturer and the consumer. However, there has been some criticism of the effect on nutritional value. Bread is the staple food of the Middle East , Central Asia , North Africa , Europe , and in European-derived cultures such as those in

5168-435: The use of breadcrumbs to provide crunchy crusts or thicken sauces; toasted cubes of bread, called croutons , are used as a salad topping; seasoned bread is used as stuffing inside roasted turkey; sweet or savoury bread puddings are made with bread and various liquids; egg and milk-soaked bread is fried as French toast ; and bread is used as a binding agent in sausages , meatballs and other ground meat products. Bread

5244-451: The water from the inner surface of the bubbles within the dough. The steam expands and makes the bread rise. This is the main factor in the rising of bread once it has been put in the oven. CO 2 generation, on its own, is too small to account for the rise. Heat kills bacteria or yeast at an early stage, so the CO 2 generation is stopped. Salt-rising bread does not use yeast. Instead, it

5320-477: The whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns are demonstrably a clade , and the horsetails and Marattiaceae are arguably another clade. Smith et al. (2006) carried out the first higher-level pteridophyte classification published in the molecular phylogenetic era, and considered the ferns as monilophytes, as follows: Molecular data, which remain poorly constrained for many parts of the plants' phylogeny, have been supplemented by morphological observations supporting

5396-780: Was hlaf ( hlaifs in Gothic : modern English loaf ) which appears to be the oldest Teutonic name. Old High German hleib and modern German Laib derive from this Proto-Germanic word, which was borrowed into some Slavic ( Czech : chléb , Polish : bochen chleba , Russian : khleb ) and Finnic ( Finnish : leipä , Estonian : leib ) languages as well. The Middle and Modern English word bread appears in other Germanic languages , such as West Frisian : brea , Dutch : brood , German : Brot , Swedish : bröd , and Norwegian and Danish : brød ; it may be related to brew or perhaps to break , originally meaning "broken piece", "morsel". Bread

5472-844: Was a consensus of a number of studies, and was further refined. The phylogenetic relationships are shown in the following cladogram (to the level of orders). This division into four major clades was then confirmed using morphology alone. Lycopodiophytes (club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts) Spermatophytes (seed plants) Equisetales (horsetails) [REDACTED] Ophioglossales (grapeferns etc.) Psilotales (whisk ferns) [REDACTED] Marattiales [REDACTED] Osmundales [REDACTED] Hymenophyllales (filmy ferns) [REDACTED] Gleicheniales [REDACTED] Schizaeales Salviniales (heterosporous) Cyatheales (tree ferns) [REDACTED] Polypodiales [REDACTED] Subsequently, Chase and Reveal considered both lycopods and ferns as subclasses of

5548-534: Was later developed by the Flour Milling and Baking Research Association for the Chorleywood bread process . It manipulates the gas bubble size and optionally the composition of gases in the dough via the gas applied to the headspace. Bread has a significance beyond mere nutrition in many cultures because of its history and contemporary importance. Bread is also significant in Christianity as one of

5624-533: Was replaced by Xiali and Volkswagen cars in the 1990s. The first Dafas looked very similar to the 1981 Daihatsu Hijet , but two major facelifts left late versions looking quite different, with body-colored bumpers and grille accompanying a slightly elongated nose. Originally, the Dafa's internal code was TJ110 (1984-1989). After 1989 model codes switched to TJ6320 and TJ6350 for minivans, while trucks were called TJ 1010SL, TJ 1010A, and TJ 1013F. These were built alongside

5700-499: Was saved to be the starter for next week's bread. The rapid expansion of steam produced during baking leavens the bread, which is as simple as it is unpredictable. Steam-leavening is unpredictable since the steam is not produced until the bread is baked. Steam leavening happens regardless of the raising agents (baking soda, yeast, baking powder, sour dough, beaten egg white) included in the mix. The leavening agent either contains air bubbles or generates carbon dioxide. The heat vaporises

5776-408: Was to retain a piece of dough from the previous day to use as a form of sourdough starter , as Pliny also reported. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans all considered the degree of refinement in the bakery arts as a sign of civilization. The Chorleywood bread process was developed in 1961; it uses the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the fermentation period and

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