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123-414: The term "fifth generation" was chosen to emphasize the system's advanced nature. In the history of computing hardware , there had been four prior "generations" of computers: the first generation utilized vacuum tubes ; the second, transistors and diodes ; the third, integrated circuits ; and the fourth, microprocessors . While earlier generations focused on increasing the number of logic elements within

246-591: A Turing-complete machine in 1998 by Raúl Rojas . In two 1936 patent applications, Zuse also anticipated that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data—the key insight of what became known as the von Neumann architecture , first implemented in 1948 in America in the electromechanical IBM SSEC and in Britain in the fully electronic Manchester Baby . Zuse suffered setbacks during World War II when some of his machines were destroyed in

369-695: A correct circuit diagram for a 4 bit digital binary adder. Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. Machines such as the Z3 , the Atanasoff–Berry Computer , the Colossus computers , and the ENIAC were built by hand, using circuits containing relays or valves (vacuum tubes), and often used punched cards or punched paper tape for input and as

492-560: A line, the slide rule was invented in the 1620s, shortly after Napier's work, to allow multiplication and division operations to be carried out significantly faster than was previously possible. Edmund Gunter built a calculating device with a single logarithmic scale at the University of Oxford . His device greatly simplified arithmetic calculations, including multiplication and division. William Oughtred greatly improved this in 1630 with his circular slide rule. He followed this up with

615-570: A little less than ¥57 billion (about US$ 320 million) total. After the FGCS Project, MITI stopped funding large-scale computer research projects, and the research momentum developed by the FGCS Project dissipated. However MITI/ICOT embarked on a neural-net project which some called the Sixth Generation Project in the 1990s, with a similar level of funding. Per-year spending was less than 1% of the entire R&D expenditure of

738-618: A method adapted from the Jacquard loom invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804, which controlled textile patterns with a sequence of punched cards. These cards became foundational in later computing systems as well. Babbage's machine would have featured multiple output devices, including a printer, a curve plotter, and even a bell, demonstrating his ambition for versatile computational applications beyond simple arithmetic. Ada Lovelace expanded on Babbage's vision by conceptualizing algorithms that could be executed by his machine. Her notes on

861-428: A number of languages were developed, all with their own limitations. In particular, the committed choice feature of concurrent constraint logic programming interfered with the logical semantics of the languages. The project found that the benefits of logic programming were largely negated using committed choice. Another problem was that existing CPU performance quickly overcame the barriers that experts anticipated in

984-426: A prototype machine with performance between 100M and 1G LIPS, where a LIPS is a Logical Inference Per Second. At the time typical workstation machines were capable of about 100k LIPS. They proposed to build this machine over a ten-year period, 3 years for initial R&D, 4 years for building various subsystems, and a final 3 years to complete a working prototype system. In 1982 the government decided to go ahead with

1107-419: A query or goal is more efficient than forward reasoning. But sometimes with Datalog and Answer Set Programming, there may be no query that is separate from the set of clauses as a whole, and then generating all the facts that can be derived from the clauses is a sensible problem-solving strategy. Here is another example, where forward reasoning beats backward reasoning in a more conventional computation task, where

1230-512: A range of subsequent developments in computing hardware. Notably, in the 1890s, Herman Hollerith adapted the idea of punched cards for automated data processing, which was utilized in the U.S. Census and sped up data tabulation significantly, bridging industrial machinery with data processing. The Industrial Revolution's advancements in mechanical systems demonstrated the potential for machines to conduct complex calculations, influencing engineers like Leonardo Torres Quevedo and Vannevar Bush in

1353-502: A restricted form, called Horn-clauses or definite-clauses . The statement proved in a computation is an existential statement. The proof is constructive, and provides values for the existentially quantified variables: these values constitute the output of the computation. Logic programming was thought of as something that unified various gradients of computer science ( software engineering , databases , computer architecture and artificial intelligence ). It seemed that logic programming

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1476-454: A separate proof-theoretic (or operational) semantics for logic programs. But from a logical point of view, they are proof methods, rather than semantics. The other approach to the declarative semantics of Horn clause programs is the satisfiability semantics , which understands solving a goal as showing that the goal is true (or satisfied) in some intended (or standard) model of the program. For Horn clause programs, there always exists such

1599-400: A single CPU, it was widely believed at the time that the fifth generation would achieve enhanced performance through the use of massive numbers of CPUs. In the late 1960s until the early 1970s, there was much talk about "generations" of computer hardware, then usually organized into three generations. Omitted from this taxonomy is the "zeroth-generation" computer based on metal gears (such as

1722-457: A standard model: It is the unique minimal model of the program. Informally speaking, a minimal model is a model that, when it is viewed as the set of all (variable-free) facts that are true in the model, contains no smaller set of facts that is also a model of the program. For example, the following facts represent the minimal model of the family relationships example in the introduction of this article. All other variable-free facts are false in

1845-466: A top-level atomic goal, backward reasoning determines an and-or tree , which constitutes the search space for solving the goal. The top-level goal is the root of the tree. Given any node in the tree and any clause whose head matches the node, there exists a set of child nodes corresponding to the sub-goals in the body of the clause. These child nodes are grouped together by an "and". The alternative sets of children corresponding to alternative ways of solving

1968-416: A vast number of administrative uses. The Astronomical Computing Bureau, Columbia University , performed astronomical calculations representing the state of the art in computing . By the 20th century, earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable. The word "computer"

2091-461: A wide range of applications in programming, databases, knowledge representation and problem solving. The procedural interpretation of logic programs, which uses backward reasoning to reduce goals to subgoals, is a special case of the use of a problem-solving strategy to control the use of a declarative, logical representation of knowledge to obtain the behaviour of an algorithm . More generally, different problem-solving strategies can be applied to

2214-499: Is Boolean algebra , developed by the British mathematician George Boole in his work The Laws of Thought , published in 1854. His Boolean algebra was further refined in the 1860s by William Jevons and Charles Sanders Peirce , and was first presented systematically by Ernst Schröder and A. N. Whitehead . In 1879 Gottlob Frege develops the formal approach to logic and proposes the first logic language for logical equations. In

2337-534: Is a process oriented language , which embodies dataflow synchronization and guarded-command indeterminacy as its basic control mechanisms. Shapiro described the language in a Report marked as ICOT Technical Report 003, which presented a Concurrent Prolog interpreter written in Prolog. Shapiro's work on Concurrent Prolog inspired a change in the direction of the FGCS from focusing on parallel implementation of Prolog to

2460-484: Is also a feature of the lambda calculus , developed by Alonzo Church in the 1930s. However, the first proposal to use the clausal form of logic for representing computer programs was made by Cordell Green . This used an axiomatization of a subset of LISP , together with a representation of an input-output relation, to compute the relation by simulating the execution of the program in LISP. Foster and Elcock's Absys , on

2583-524: Is called or-parallel . Other search strategies, such as intelligent backtracking, or best-first search to find an optimal solution, are also possible. In the more general, non-propositional case, where sub-goals can share variables, other strategies can be used, such as choosing the subgoal that is most highly instantiated or that is sufficiently instantiated so that only one procedure applies. Such strategies are used, for example, in concurrent logic programming . In most cases, backward reasoning from

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2706-538: Is deemed to hold if and only if the positive literal B fails to hold. Much of the research in the field of logic programming has been concerned with trying to develop a logical semantics for negation as failure and with developing other semantics and other implementations for negation. These developments have been important, in turn, for supporting the development of formal methods for logic-based program verification and program transformation . The use of mathematical logic to represent and execute computer programs

2829-415: Is more compact for nested functions. For example, in functional syntax the definition of maternal grandmother can be written in the nested form: The same definition in relational notation needs to be written in the unnested, flattened form: However, nested syntax can be regarded as syntactic sugar for unnested syntax. Ciao Prolog, for example, transforms functional syntax into relational form and executes

2952-493: Is not clear if FGCS was leveraged to facilitate these developments in any significant way. No significant impact of FGCS on the computing industry has been demonstrated. History of computing hardware The history of computing hardware spans the developments from early devices used for simple calculations to today's complex computers, encompassing advancements in both analog and digital technology. The first aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required

3075-403: Is not meant to be controlled by the programmer. However, in the Prolog family of languages, logic programs also have a procedural interpretation as goal-reduction procedures. From this point of view, clause A :- B 1 ,...,B n is understood as: Negative conditions in the bodies of clauses also have a procedural interpretation, known as negation as failure : A negative literal not B

3198-667: Is one example. The abacus was early used for arithmetic tasks. What we now call the Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early as c.  2700 –2300 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house , a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money. Several analog computers were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations. These included

3321-448: Is provably capable of computing anything that is computable by executing a program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation . Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete , which

3444-516: Is the original logical consequence semantics , which understands solving a goal as showing that the goal is a theorem that is true in all models of the program. In this approach, computation is theorem-proving in first-order logic ; and both backward reasoning , as in SLD resolution, and forward reasoning , as in hyper-resolution, are correct and complete theorem-proving methods. Sometimes such theorem-proving methods are also regarded as providing

3567-567: Is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine . The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development before and during World War II. Most digital computers built in this period were built with electromechanical – electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These mechanical components had a low operating speed due to their mechanical nature and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric components, originally using vacuum tubes and later transistors . The Z2

3690-465: Is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used." However, Leibniz did not incorporate a fully successful carry mechanism. Leibniz also described the binary numeral system , a central ingredient of all modern computers. However, up to the 1940s, many subsequent designs (including Charles Babbage 's machines of 1822 and even ENIAC of 1945) were based on

3813-479: The Analytical Engine in 1833. This concept, far more advanced than his Difference Engine, included an arithmetic logic unit , control flow through conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory. Babbage's plans made his Analytical Engine the first general-purpose design that could be described as Turing-complete in modern terms. The Analytical Engine was programmed using punched cards ,

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3936-608: The IBM 407 ) or mechanical relays (such as the Mark I), and the post-third-generation computers based on Very Large Scale Integrated ( VLSI ) circuits. There was also a parallel set of generations for software: Throughout these multiple generations up to the 1970s, Japan built computers following U.S. and British leads. In the mid-1970s, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry stopped following western leads and started looking into

4059-524: The Lisp machine companies and Thinking Machines . The highly parallel computer architecture was eventually surpassed in speed by less specialized hardware (for example, Sun workstations and Intel x86 machines). A primary problem was the choice of concurrent logic programming as the bridge between the parallel computer architecture and the use of logic as a knowledge representation and problem solving language for AI applications. This never happened cleanly;

4182-456: The Norden ( United States Army Air Forces ). The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer , built by H. L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927, which built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious;

4305-664: The astrolabe and Antikythera mechanism from the Hellenistic world (c. 150–100 BC). In Roman Egypt , Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) made mechanical devices including automata and a programmable cart . The steam-powered automatic flute described by the Book of Ingenious Devices (850) by the Persian-Baghdadi Banū Mūsā brothers may have been the first programmable device. Other early mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include

4428-506: The internet enabled locally stored databases to become distributed; and even simple research projects provided better real-world results in data mining. The FGCS workstations had no appeal in a market where general purpose systems could replace and outperform them. This is parallel to the Lisp machine market, where rule-based systems such as CLIPS could run on general-purpose computers, making expensive Lisp machines unnecessary. In summary,

4551-444: The microprocessor , leading to another key breakthrough, the miniaturized personal computer (PC), in the 1970s. The cost of computers gradually became so low that personal computers by the 1990s, and then mobile computers ( smartphones and tablets ) in the 2000s, became ubiquitous. Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers . The earliest counting device

4674-515: The planisphere and other mechanical computing devices invented by Al-Biruni (c. AD 1000); the equatorium and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Al-Zarqali (c. AD 1015); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval Muslim astronomers and engineers; and the astronomical clock tower of Su Song (1094) during the Song dynasty . The castle clock , a hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented by Ismail al-Jazari in 1206,

4797-556: The telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes . In the US, in 1940 Arthur Dickinson (IBM) invented the first digital electronic computer. This calculating device was fully electronic – control, calculations and output (the first electronic display). John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942,

4920-417: The " cryptologic bomb " ( Polish : "bomba kryptologiczna" ). In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3 , the world's first working electromechanical programmable , fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 relays , implementing a 22- bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10  Hz . Program code and data were stored on punched film . It

5043-413: The "inventor of the mechanical calculator" and the range of issues to be considered is discussed elsewhere. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the stepped reckoner and his famous stepped drum mechanism around 1672. He attempted to create a machine that could be used not only for addition and subtraction but would use a moveable carriage to enable multiplication and division. Leibniz once said "It

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5166-517: The 1930s and working independently, American electronic engineer Claude Shannon and Soviet logician Victor Shestakov both showed a one-to-one correspondence between the concepts of Boolean logic and certain electrical circuits, now called logic gates , which are now ubiquitous in digital computers. They showed that electronic relays and switches can realize the expressions of Boolean algebra . This thesis essentially founded practical digital circuit design. In addition Shannon's paper gives

5289-686: The 1930s that could add, subtract, multiply and divide. In 1948, the Curta was introduced by Austrian inventor Curt Herzstark . It was a small, hand-cranked mechanical calculator and as such, a descendant of Gottfried Leibniz 's Stepped Reckoner and Thomas ' Arithmometer . The world's first all-electronic desktop calculator was the British Bell Punch ANITA , released in 1961. It used vacuum tubes , cold-cathode tubes and Dekatrons in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode "Nixie" tubes for its display. The ANITA sold well since it

5412-653: The 1950s and 1960s, and later in some specialized applications. The principle of the modern computer was first described by computer scientist Alan Turing , who set out the idea in his seminal 1936 paper, On Computable Numbers . Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel 's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines . He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm . He went on to prove that there

5535-421: The 1970s. In 1804, French weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard developed a loom in which the pattern being woven was controlled by a paper tape constructed from punched cards . The paper tape could be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom. This was a landmark achievement in programmability. His machine was an improvement over similar weaving looms. Punched cards were preceded by punch bands, as in

5658-458: The 1980s, and the value of parallel computing dropped to the point where it was for some time used only in niche situations. Although a number of workstations of increasing capacity were designed and built over the project's lifespan, they generally found themselves soon outperformed by "off the shelf" units available commercially. The project also failed to incorporate outside innovations. During its lifespan, GUIs became mainstream in computers;

5781-484: The Analytical Engine, written in the 1840s, are now recognized as the earliest examples of computer programming. Lovelace saw potential in computers to go beyond numerical calculations, predicting that they might one day generate complex musical compositions or perform tasks like language processing. Though Babbage's designs were never fully realized due to technical and financial challenges, they influenced

5904-470: The FGCS project. In particular, although Prolog was developed to combine declarative and procedural representations of knowledge, the purely declarative interpretation of logic programs became the focus for applications in the field of deductive databases . Work in this field became prominent around 1977, when Hervé Gallaire and Jack Minker organized a workshop on logic and databases in Toulouse. The field

6027-534: The Fifth-Generation project was revolutionary, and accomplished some basic research that anticipated future research directions. Many papers and patents were published. MITI established a committee which assessed the performance of the FGCS Project as having made major contributions in computing, in particular eliminating bottlenecks in parallel processing software and the realization of intelligent interactive processing based on large knowledge bases. However,

6150-555: The Institute for New Generation Computer Technology has launched a revolutionary ten-year plan for the development of large computer systems which will be applicable to knowledge information processing systems. These Fifth Generation computers will be built around the concepts of logic programming. In order to refute the accusation that Japan exploits knowledge from abroad without contributing any of its own, this project will stimulate original research and will make its results available to

6273-509: The Z3, but was not quite Turing-complete. The term digital was first suggested by George Robert Stibitz and refers to where a signal, such as a voltage, is not used to directly represent a value (as it would be in an analog computer ), but to encode it. In November 1937, Stibitz, then working at Bell Labs (1930–1941), completed a relay-based calculator he later dubbed the " Model K " (for " k itchen table", on which he had assembled it), which became

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6396-501: The calculation of first, second, third and quarter degrees can be avoided. Guidobaldo is the first to document the use of gears for mechanical calculation. Wilhelm Schickard , a German polymath , designed a calculating machine in 1623 which combined a mechanized form of Napier's rods with the world's first mechanical adding machine built into the base. Because it made use of a single-tooth gear there were circumstances in which its carry mechanism would jam. A fire destroyed at least one of

6519-529: The committee was strongly biased to justify the project, so this overstates the actual results. Many of the themes seen in the Fifth-Generation project are now being re-interpreted in current technologies, as the hardware limitations foreseen in the 1980s were finally reached in the 2000s. When clock speeds of CPUs began to move into the 3–5 GHz range, CPU power dissipation and other problems became more important. The ability of industry to produce ever-faster single CPU systems (linked to Moore's Law about

6642-1155: The computer field. Soon parallel projects were set up in the US as the Strategic Computing Initiative and the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC), in the UK as Alvey , and in Europe as the European Strategic Program on Research in Information Technology (ESPRIT), as well as the European Computer‐Industry Research Centre (ECRC) in Munich , a collaboration between ICL in Britain, Bull in France, and Siemens in Germany. The project ran from 1982 to 1994, spending

6765-698: The concurrent language Ether. Hayes and Kowalski in Edinburgh tried to reconcile the logic-based declarative approach to knowledge representation with Planner's procedural approach. Hayes (1973) developed an equational language, Golux, in which different procedures could be obtained by altering the behavior of the theorem prover. In the meanwhile, Alain Colmerauer in Marseille was working on natural-language understanding , using logic to represent semantics and using resolution for question-answering. During

6888-552: The concurrent logic programming field. The project produced a new generation of promising Japanese researchers. Five running Parallel Inference Machines (PIM) were eventually produced: PIM/m, PIM/p, PIM/i, PIM/k, PIM/c. The project also produced applications to run on these systems, such as the parallel database management system Kappa, the legal reasoning system HELIC-II , and the automated theorem prover MGTP , as well as bioinformatics applications. The FGCS Project did not meet with commercial success for reasons similar to

7011-491: The continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical , mechanical , or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved, in contrast to digital computers that represented varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change. As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, as they can with Turing machines . The first modern analog computer

7134-472: The course of Allied bombing campaigns. Apparently his work remained largely unknown to engineers in the UK and US until much later, although at least IBM was aware of it as it financed his post-war startup company in 1946 in return for an option on Zuse's patents. In 1944, the Harvard Mark I was constructed at IBM's Endicott laboratories. It was a similar general purpose electro-mechanical computer to

7257-523: The creation of the oil supertanker , the automotive industry , consumer electronics, and computer memory. MITI decided that the future was going to be information technology . However, the Japanese language , particularly in its written form, presented and still presents obstacles for computers. As a result of these hurdles, MITI held a conference to seek assistance from experts. The primary fields for investigation from this initial project were: The aim

7380-572: The decimal system. Around 1820, Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar created what would over the rest of the century become the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas Arithmometer . It could be used to add and subtract, and with a moveable carriage the operator could also multiply, and divide by a process of long multiplication and long division. It utilised a stepped drum similar in conception to that invented by Leibniz. Mechanical calculators remained in use until

7503-421: The definition of sibling uses a negative condition, where the predicate = is defined by the clause X = X : Logic programming languages that include negative conditions have the knowledge representation capabilities of a non-monotonic logic . In ASP and Datalog, logic programs have only a declarative reading, and their execution is performed by means of a proof procedure or model generator whose behaviour

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7626-410: The domain. Major logic programming language families include Prolog , Answer Set Programming (ASP) and Datalog . In all of these languages, rules are written in the form of clauses : and are read as declarative sentences in logical form: A is called the head of the rule, B 1 , ..., B n is called the body , and the B i are called literals or conditions. When n = 0,

7749-407: The early 20th century. Torres Quevedo designed an electromechanical machine with floating-point arithmetic, while Bush's later work explored electronic digital computing. By the mid-20th century, these innovations paved the way for the first fully electronic computers. In the first half of the 20th century, analog computers were considered by many to be the future of computing. These devices used

7872-497: The electronics and communications equipment industry. For example, the project's highest expenditure year was 7.2 million yen in 1991, but IBM alone spent 1.5 billion dollars (370 billion yen) in 1982, while the industry spent 2150 billion yen in 1990. In 1982, during a visit to the ICOT, Ehud Shapiro invented Concurrent Prolog , a novel programming language that integrated logic programming and concurrent programming. Concurrent Prolog

7995-436: The evolution of computing hardware, as the era's rapid advancements in machinery and manufacturing laid the groundwork for mechanized and automated computing. Industrial needs for precise, large-scale calculations—especially in fields such as navigation, engineering, and finance—prompted innovations in both design and function, setting the stage for devices like Charles Babbage's Difference Engine (1822). This mechanical device

8118-543: The first binary adder . Typically signals have two states – low (usually representing 0) and high (usually representing 1), but sometimes three-valued logic is used, especially in high-density memory. Modern computers generally use binary logic , but many early machines were decimal computers . In these machines, the basic unit of data was the decimal digit, encoded in one of several schemes, including binary-coded decimal or BCD, bi-quinary , excess-3 , and two-out-of-five code . The mathematical basis of digital computing

8241-496: The first binary electronic digital calculating device. This design was semi-electronic (electro-mechanical control and electronic calculations), and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory. However, its paper card writer/reader was unreliable and the regenerative drum contact system was mechanical. The machine's special-purpose nature and lack of changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers. Computers whose logic

8364-421: The flight times of the shells. Various spotters on board the ship would relay distance measures and observations to a central plotting station. There the fire direction teams fed in the location, speed and direction of the ship and its target, as well as various adjustments for Coriolis effect , weather effects on the air, and other adjustments; the computer would then output a firing solution, which would be fed to

8487-411: The focus on concurrent logic programming as the software foundation for the project. It also inspired the concurrent logic programming language Guarded Horn Clauses (GHC) by Ueda, which was the basis of KL1 , the programming language that was finally designed and implemented by the FGCS project as its core programming language. The FGCS project and its findings contributed greatly to the development of

8610-466: The following summer of 1972, that Kowalski, again working with Colmerauer, developed the procedural interpretation of implications in clausal form. It also became clear that such clauses could be restricted to definite clauses or Horn clauses , and that SL-resolution could be restricted (and generalised) to SLD resolution . Kowalski's procedural interpretation and SLD were described in a 1973 memo, published in 1974. Colmerauer, with Philippe Roussel, used

8733-551: The future of computing on a small scale. They asked the Japan Information Processing Development Center (JIPDEC) to indicate a number of future directions, and in 1979 offered a three-year contract to carry out more in-depth studies along with industry and academia. It was during this period that the term "fifth-generation computer" started to be used. Prior to the 1970s, MITI guidance had successes such as an improved steel industry,

8856-402: The goal ?- fibonacci(n, Result) is to find the n fibonacci number: Here the relation fibonacci(N, M) stands for the function fibonacci(N) = M , and the predicate N is Expression is Prolog notation for the predicate that instantiates the variable N to the value of Expression . Given the goal of computing the fibonacci number of n , backward reasoning reduces the goal to

8979-461: The international research community." The target defined by the FGCS project was to develop "Knowledge Information Processing systems" (roughly meaning, applied Artificial Intelligence ). The chosen tool to implement this goal was logic programming . Logic programming approach as was characterized by Maarten Van Emden – one of its founders – as: More technically, it can be summed up in two equations: The Axioms typically used are universal axioms of

9102-495: The leadership of Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert . Although it was based on the proof methods of logic, Planner , developed by Carl Hewitt at MIT, was the first language to emerge within this proceduralist paradigm. Planner featured pattern-directed invocation of procedural plans from goals (i.e. goal-reduction or backward chaining ) and from assertions (i.e. forward chaining ). The most influential implementation of Planner

9225-544: The machine proposed by Basile Bouchon . These bands would inspire information recording for automatic pianos and more recently numerical control machine tools. In the late 1880s, the American Herman Hollerith invented data storage on punched cards that could then be read by a machine. To process these punched cards, he invented the tabulator and the keypunch machine. His machines used electromechanical relays and counters . Hollerith's method

9348-611: The machines in 1624 and it is believed Schickard was too disheartened to build another. In 1642, while still a teenager, Blaise Pascal started some pioneering work on calculating machines and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes he invented a mechanical calculator . He built twenty of these machines (called Pascal's calculator or Pascaline) in the following ten years. Nine Pascalines have survived, most of which are on display in European museums. A continuing debate exists over whether Schickard or Pascal should be regarded as

9471-528: The main (non-volatile) storage medium. Engineer Tommy Flowers joined the telecommunications branch of the General Post Office in 1926. While working at the research station in Dollis Hill in the 1930s, he began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange . Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later, converting a portion of

9594-424: The model: The satisfiability semantics also has an alternative, more mathematical characterisation as the least fixed point of the function that uses the rules in the program to derive new facts from existing facts in one step of inference. Remarkably, the same problem-solving methods of forward and backward reasoning, which were originally developed for the logical consequence semantics, are equally applicable to

9717-541: The modern slide rule in 1632, essentially a combination of two Gunter rules , held together with the hands. Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically involved professional workers, until the invention of the pocket calculator . In 1609 Guidobaldo del Monte made a mechanical multiplier to calculate fractions of a degree. Based on a system of four gears, the rotation of an index on one quadrant corresponds to 60 rotations of another index on an opposite quadrant. Thanks to this machine, errors in

9840-471: The most powerful was constructed at the University of Pennsylvania 's Moore School of Electrical Engineering , where the ENIAC was built. A fully electronic analog computer was built by Helmut Hölzer in 1942 at Peenemünde Army Research Center . By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but hybrid analog computers , controlled by digital electronics, remained in substantial use into

9963-483: The multiplication and division of numbers could be performed by the addition and subtraction, respectively, of the logarithms of those numbers. While producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications. It was at this point that he designed his ' Napier's bones ', an abacus-like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division. Since real numbers can be represented as distances or intervals on

10086-402: The node are grouped together by an "or". Any search strategy can be used to search this space. Prolog uses a sequential, last-in-first-out, backtracking strategy, in which only one alternative and one sub-goal are considered at a time. For example, subgoals can be solved in parallel, and clauses can also be tried in parallel. The first strategy is called and-parallel and the second strategy

10209-486: The operator to set up the initial values of an elementary arithmetic operation, then manipulate the device to obtain the result. In later stages, computing devices began representing numbers in continuous forms, such as by distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a specific voltage level. Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanism. Although this approach generally required more complex mechanisms, it greatly increased

10332-822: The other hand, employed a combination of equations and lambda calculus in an assertional programming language that places no constraints on the order in which operations are performed. Logic programming, with its current syntax of facts and rules, can be traced back to debates in the late 1960s and early 1970s about declarative versus procedural representations of knowledge in artificial intelligence . Advocates of declarative representations were notably working at Stanford , associated with John McCarthy , Bertram Raphael and Cordell Green, and in Edinburgh , with John Alan Robinson (an academic visitor from Syracuse University ), Pat Hayes , and Robert Kowalski . Advocates of procedural representations were mainly centered at MIT , under

10455-641: The periodic doubling of transistor counts) began to be threatened. In the early 21st century, many flavors of parallel computing began to proliferate, including multi-core architectures at the low-end and massively parallel processing at the high end. Ordinary consumer machines and game consoles began to have parallel processors like the Intel Core , AMD K10 , and Cell . Graphics card companies like Nvidia and AMD began introducing large parallel systems like CUDA and OpenCL . It appears, however, that these new technologies do not cite FGCS research. It

10578-448: The precision of results. The development of transistor technology, followed by the invention of integrated circuit chips, led to revolutionary breakthroughs. Transistor-based computers and, later, integrated circuit-based computers enabled digital systems to gradually replace analog systems, increasing both efficiency and processing power. Metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) large-scale integration (LSI) then enabled semiconductor memory and

10701-507: The procedural interpretation as the basis of Prolog, which was implemented in the summer and autumn of 1972. The first Prolog program, also written in 1972 and implemented in Marseille, was a French question-answering system. The use of Prolog as a practical programming language was given great momentum by the development of a compiler by David H. D. Warren in Edinburgh in 1977. Experiments demonstrated that Edinburgh Prolog could compete with

10824-735: The processing speed of other symbolic programming languages such as Lisp . Edinburgh Prolog became the de facto standard and strongly influenced the definition of ISO standard Prolog. Logic programming gained international attention during the 1980s, when it was chosen by the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry to develop the software for the Fifth Generation Computer Systems (FGCS) project. The FGCS project aimed to use logic programming to develop advanced Artificial Intelligence applications on massively parallel computers . Although

10947-418: The program can be queried both to generate grandparents and to generate grandchildren. It can even be used to generate all pairs of grandchildren and grandparents, or simply to check if a given pair is such a pair: Although Horn clause logic programs are Turing complete , for most practical applications, Horn clause programs need to be extended to "normal" logic programs with negative conditions. For example,

11070-439: The project failed to compete with advances taking place in the development of more conventional, general-purpose computers. Together these two issues resulted in the FGCS project failing to meet its objectives. Interest in both logic programming and AI fell into world-wide decline. In the meanwhile, more declarative logic programming approaches, including those based on the use of Prolog, continued to make progress independently of

11193-429: The project initially explored the use of Prolog, it later adopted the use of concurrent logic programming , because it was closer to the FGCS computer architecture. However, the committed choice feature of concurrent logic programming interfered with the language's logical semantics and with its suitability for knowledge representation and problem solving applications. Moreover, the parallel computer systems developed in

11316-462: The project, and established the Institute for New Generation Computer Technology (ICOT) through joint investment with various Japanese computer companies. After the project ended, MITI would consider an investment in a new "sixth generation" project. Ehud Shapiro captured the rationale and motivations driving this project: "As part of Japan's effort to become a leader in the computer industry,

11439-450: The resulting logic program using the standard Prolog execution strategy. Moreover, the same transformation can be used to execute nested relations that are not functional. For example: The term relational programming has been used to cover a variety of programming languages that treat functions as a special case of relations. Some of these languages, such as miniKanren and relational linear programming are logic programming languages in

11562-399: The rule is called a fact and is written in the simplified form: Queries (or goals) have the same syntax as the bodies of rules and are commonly written in the form: In the simplest case of Horn clauses (or "definite" clauses), all of the A, B 1 , ..., B n are atomic formulae of the form p(t 1 ,..., t m ), where p is a predicate symbol naming a relation, like "motherhood", and

11685-433: The same logical representation to obtain different algorithms. Alternatively, different algorithms can be obtained with a given problem-solving strategy by using different logical representations. The two main problem-solving strategies are backward reasoning (goal reduction) and forward reasoning , also known as top-down and bottom-up reasoning, respectively. In the simple case of a propositional Horn clause program and

11808-418: The satisfiability semantics: Forward reasoning generates the minimal model of a Horn clause program, by deriving new facts from existing facts, until no new additional facts can be generated. Backward reasoning, which succeeds by reducing a goal to subgoals, until all subgoals are solved by facts, ensures that the goal is true in the minimal model, without generating the model explicitly. The difference between

11931-453: The sense of this article. However, the relational language RML is an imperative programming language whose core construct is a relational expression, which is similar to an expression in first-order predicate logic. Other relational programming languages are based on the relational calculus or relational algebra. Viewed in purely logical terms, there are two approaches to the declarative semantics of Horn clause logic programs: One approach

12054-425: The sequence of fibonacci numbers, starting from 0 and 1 without any recomputation, and its complexity is linear with respect to n. Prolog cannot perform forward reasoning directly. But it can achieve the effect of forward reasoning within the context of backward reasoning by means of tabling : Subgoals are maintained in a table, along with their solutions. If a subgoal is re-encountered, it is solved directly by using

12177-510: The solutions already in the table, instead of re-solving the subgoals redundantly. Logic programming can be viewed as a generalisation of functional programming, in which functions are a special case of relations. For example, the function, mother(X) = Y, (every X has only one mother Y) can be represented by the relation mother(X, Y). In this respect, logic programs are similar to relational databases , which also represent functions as relations. Compared with relational syntax, functional syntax

12300-403: The summer of 1971, Colmerauer invited Kowalski to Marseille, and together they discovered that the clausal form of logic could be used to represent formal grammars and that resolution theorem provers could be used for parsing. They observed that some theorem provers, like hyper-resolution, behave as bottom-up parsers and others, like SL resolution (1971) behave as top-down parsers. It was in

12423-404: The t i are terms naming objects (or individuals). Terms include both constant symbols, like "charles", and variables, such as X, which start with an upper case letter. Consider, for example, the following Horn clause program: Given a query, the program produces answers. For instance for a query ?- parent_child(X, william) , the single answer is Various queries can be asked. For instance

12546-614: The turrets for laying. In 1912, British engineer Arthur Pollen developed the first electrically powered mechanical analogue computer (called at the time the Argo Clock). It was used by the Imperial Russian Navy in World War I . The alternative Dreyer Table fire control system was fitted to British capital ships by mid-1916. Mechanical devices were also used to aid the accuracy of aerial bombing . Drift Sight

12669-450: The two subgoals of computing the fibonacci numbers of n-1 and n-2. It reduces the subgoal of computing the fibonacci number of n-1 to the two subgoals of computing the fibonacci numbers of n-2 and n-3, redundantly computing the fibonacci number of n-2. This process of reducing one fibonacci subgoal to two fibonacci subgoals continues until it reaches the numbers 0 and 1. Its complexity is of the order 2 . In contrast, forward reasoning generates

12792-401: Was The Journal of Logic Programming . Its founding editor-in-chief was J. Alan Robinson . In 2001, the journal was renamed The Journal of Logic and Algebraic Programming , and the official journal of ALP became Theory and Practice of Logic Programming , published by Cambridge University Press . Logic programs enjoy a rich variety of semantics and problem solving methods, as well as

12915-508: Was a tide-predicting machine , invented by Sir William Thomson , later Lord Kelvin, in 1872. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location and was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. His device was the foundation for further developments in analog computing. The differential analyser , a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms,

13038-572: Was a job title assigned to primarily women who used these calculators to perform mathematical calculations. By the 1920s, British scientist Lewis Fry Richardson 's interest in weather prediction led him to propose human computers and numerical analysis to model the weather; to this day, the most powerful computers on Earth are needed to adequately model its weather using the Navier–Stokes equations . Companies like Friden , Marchant Calculator and Monroe made desktop mechanical calculators from

13161-472: Was a key missing connection between knowledge engineering and parallel computer architectures. After having influenced the consumer electronics field during the 1970s and the automotive world during the 1980s, the Japanese had developed a strong reputation. The launch of the FGCS project spread the belief that parallel computing was the future of all performance gains, producing a wave of apprehension in

13284-419: Was able to compute the roots of arbitrary polynomials of order eight, including the complex ones, with a precision down to thousandths. An important advance in analog computing was the development of the first fire-control systems for long range ship gunlaying . When gunnery ranges increased dramatically in the late 19th century it was no longer a simple matter of calculating the proper aim point, given

13407-476: Was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson , the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin. He explored the possible construction of such calculators, but was stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators . In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. A notable series of analog calculating machines were developed by Leonardo Torres Quevedo since 1895, including one that

13530-607: Was created in 1939 at the UK Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park by Alan Turing , with an important refinement devised in 1940 by Gordon Welchman . The engineering design and construction was the work of Harold Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company . It was a substantial development from a device that had been designed in 1938 by Polish Cipher Bureau cryptologist Marian Rejewski , and known as

13653-443: Was eventually renamed as Datalog . This focus on the logical, declarative reading of logic programs was given further impetus by the development of constraint logic programming in the 1980s and Answer Set Programming in the 1990s. It is also receiving renewed emphasis in recent applications of Prolog The Association for Logic Programming (ALP) was founded in 1986 to promote Logic Programming. Its official journal until 2000,

13776-461: Was intended to automate the calculation of polynomial functions and represented one of the earliest applications of computational logic. Babbage, often regarded as the "father of the computer," envisioned a fully mechanical system of gears and wheels, powered by steam, capable of handling complex calculations that previously required intensive manual labor. His Difference Engine, designed to aid navigational calculations, ultimately led him to conceive

13899-507: Was no solution to the Entscheidungsproblem by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable : in general, it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a given Turing machine will ever halt. He also introduced the notion of a "universal machine" (now known as a universal Turing machine ), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine, or in other words, it

14022-581: Was one of the earliest examples of an electric operated digital computer built with electromechanical relays and was created by civil engineer Konrad Zuse in 1940 in Germany. It was an improvement on his earlier, mechanical Z1 ; although it used the same mechanical memory , it replaced the arithmetic and control logic with electrical relay circuits. In the same year, electro-mechanical devices called bombes were built by British cryptologists to help decipher German Enigma-machine -encrypted secret messages during World War II . The bombe's initial design

14145-430: Was primarily built using vacuum tubes are now known as first generation computers . Logic programming Logic programming is a programming , database and knowledge representation paradigm based on formal logic . A logic program is a set of sentences in logical form, representing knowledge about some problem domain. Computation is performed by applying logical reasoning to that knowledge, to solve problems in

14268-586: Was probably a form of tally stick . The Lebombo bone from the mountains between Eswatini and South Africa may be the oldest known mathematical artifact. It dates from 35,000 BCE and consists of 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a baboon 's fibula . Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods

14391-467: Was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating-point numbers . Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage 's earlier design) by the simpler binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was proven to have been

14514-496: Was the first programmable analog computer. Ramon Llull invented the Lullian Circle: a notional machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions (in this case, to do with Christianity) via logical combinatorics. This idea was taken up by Leibniz centuries later, and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and information science . Scottish mathematician and physicist John Napier discovered that

14637-553: Was the first such aid, developed by Harry Wimperis in 1916 for the Royal Naval Air Service ; it measured the wind speed from the air, and used that measurement to calculate the wind's effects on the trajectory of the bombs. The system was later improved with the Course Setting Bomb Sight , and reached a climax with World War II bomb sights, Mark XIV bomb sight ( RAF Bomber Command ) and

14760-471: Was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. The tube technology was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured Friden EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch (13 cm) CRT , and introduced reverse Polish notation (RPN). The Industrial Revolution (late 18th to early 19th century) had a significant impact on

14883-457: Was the subset of Planner, called Micro-Planner, implemented by Gerry Sussman , Eugene Charniak and Terry Winograd . Winograd used Micro-Planner to implement the landmark, natural-language understanding program SHRDLU . For the sake of efficiency, Planner used a backtracking control structure so that only one possible computation path had to be stored at a time. Planner gave rise to the programming languages QA4 , Popler, Conniver, QLISP, and

15006-413: Was to build parallel computers for artificial intelligence applications using concurrent logic programming. The project imagined an "epoch-making" computer with supercomputer-like performance running on top of large databases (as opposed to a traditional filesystem ) using a logic programming language to define and access the data using massively parallel computing/processing . They envisioned building

15129-1216: Was used in the 1890 United States Census . That census was processed two years faster than the prior census had been. Hollerith's company eventually became the core of IBM . By 1920, electromechanical tabulating machines could add, subtract, and print accumulated totals. Machine functions were directed by inserting dozens of wire jumpers into removable control panels . When the United States instituted Social Security in 1935, IBM punched-card systems were used to process records of 26 million workers. Punched cards became ubiquitous in industry and government for accounting and administration. Leslie Comrie 's articles on punched-card methods and W. J. Eckert 's publication of Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation in 1940, described punched-card techniques sufficiently advanced to solve some differential equations or perform multiplication and division using floating-point representations, all on punched cards and unit record machines . Such machines were used during World War II for cryptographic statistical processing, as well as

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