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78-670: Impi is a Nguni word meaning war or combat and by association any body of men gathered for war, for example impi ya masosha is a term denoting an army. Impi were formed from regiments ( amabutho ) from large militarised homesteads ( amakhanda ). In English impi is often used to refer to a Zulu regiment, which is called an ibutho in Zulu, or the army of the Zulu Kingdom . Its beginnings lie far back in historic local warfare customs, when groups of armed men called impi battled. They were systematised radically by

156-458: A 'homestead', as it was basically a stockaded group of huts surrounding a corral for cattle), their gathering place when summoned for active service. Active service continued until a man married, a privilege only the king bestowed. The amabutho were recruited on the basis of age rather than regional or tribal origin. The reason for this was to enhance the centralised power of the Zulu king at the expense of clan and tribal leaders. They swore loyalty to

234-487: A chief or king, to whom they belonged, while a smaller shield was reserved for his subordinates' personal daily use, or as a complement at their dancing ceremonies. True Nguni shields are made of raw cattle hide, as the esteemed Sanga - Nguni cattle lend distinction to the shields, which are more than mere commodities for physical protection. Amongst the Zulus , there are various named varieties of these shields, each with

312-477: A cluster of separate languages. On more than one occasion, proposals have been put forward to create a unified Nguni language. In scholarly literature on southern African languages, the linguistic classificatory category "Nguni" is traditionally considered to subsume two subgroups: "Zunda Nguni" and "Tekela Nguni". This division is based principally on the salient phonological distinction between corresponding coronal consonants : Zunda /z/ and Tekela /t/ (thus

390-589: A day. He also drilled the troops to carry out encirclement tactics (see below). Such mobility gave the Zulu a significant impact in their local region and beyond. Upkeep of the regimental system and training seems to have continued after Shaka's death, although Zulu defeats by the Boers, and growing encroachment by British colonists, sharply curtailed raiding operations prior to the War of 1879. Morris (1965, 1982) records one such mission under King Mpande to give green warriors of

468-706: A display of reverence and tribute. It also acted as insignia of age and veteran status. Regiments of married men, some 18 during Cetshwayo's reign, were entitled to wear a headring and carried white shields, made from hides of the inyonikayipumuli herd. King Mpande 's royal Tulwana veterans likewise carried completely white shields, as white and grey suggested wisdom. Warriors of bachelor regiments, some 15 during Cetshwayo's reign, carried black or patterned shields. The black colour suggested youth and strength. Shields with specific patterns were known by names like insane , imitshezi and nkone , and regiments were distinguished this way. The colours also assisted in knowing who

546-413: A double row of slits, which are cut while the hide is still wet and pliant. Thong loops tie the strips and the shield's handle to a stout removable staff, known as the mgobo , which runs down the center of the shield. It is long enough to project at both ends, and strengthens the shield and prevents it from bending. It also assists the warrior or dancer to swing it about rapidly. The shield can be rested on

624-476: A loose mob, called an impi participated in these melees . There were no campaigns of extermination against the defeated. They simply moved on to other open spaces on the veldt , and equilibrium was restored. The bow and arrow were known but seldom used. Warfare, like the hunt, depended on skilled spearmen and trackers. The primary weapon was a thin six-foot (1.8 m) throwing spear, the assegai ; several were carried into combat. Defensive equipment included

702-685: A much longer time, as witnessed by the 7-year resistance of the Lobi against the French in West Africa, or the operations of the Berbers in Algeria against the French. When the Zulu did acquire firearms, most notably captured stocks after the great victory at Isandhlwana, they lacked training and used them ineffectively, consistently firing high to give the bullets "strength." Southern Africa, including

780-448: A new way, to systematise the approach to battle, and to standardise organization, methods and weapons, particularly in his adoption of the ilkwa – the Zulu thrusting spear, unique long-term regimental units, and the "buffalo horns" formation. Dingswayo's approach was of a loose federation of allies under his hegemony, combining to fight, each with their own contingents, under their own leaders. Shaka dispensed with this, insisting instead on

858-402: A raiding party of 100 or horde of 10,000. Numbers were not uniform, but dependent on a variety of factors including assignments by the king, or the manpower mustered by various clan chiefs or localities. A regiment might be 400 or 4000 men. These were grouped into Corps that took their name from the military kraals where they were mustered, or sometimes the dominant regiment of that locality. While

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936-630: A small cowhide shield, which was later improved by King Shaka. Many battles were prearranged, with the clan warriors meeting at an agreed place and time while women and children of the clan watched from some distance away. Ritualized taunts, single combats and tentative charges were the typical pattern. If the affair did not dissipate before, one side might find enough courage to mount a sustained attack and drive their enemies. Casualties were usually light. The defeated clan might pay in lands or cattle and have captives to be ransomed but extermination and mass casualties were rare. Tactics were rudimentary. Outside

1014-407: A small patch of darker colour. This shield uniformity was facilitated by the custom of separating the king's cattle into herds based on their coat colours. Certain adornments were awarded to individual warriors for conspicuous courage in action; these included a type of heavy brass arm-ring ( ingxotha ) and an intricate necklace composed of interlocking wooden pegs ( iziqu ). The Zulu typically took

1092-407: A specific use. The large war shield, of about 5 feet (1.5 m) in length, is known as an isihlangu , which means "to brush aside". It was king Shaka 's shield of choice, and he intended his warriors to use it in an offensive way by hooking the opponent's shield during hand-to-hand fighting. The umbumbuluzo was also a war shield, but only 3.5 feet (1.1 m) in length, and more sturdy than

1170-405: A standardised organisation and weapons package that swept away and replaced old clan allegiances with loyalty to himself. This uniform approach also encouraged the loyalty and identification of warriors with their own distinctive military regiments. In time, these warriors, from many conquered tribes and clans came to regard themselves as one nation- the Zulu. The so-called Marian reforms of Rome in

1248-762: A symbol to show their rank. The iklwa – so named because of the sucking sound it made when withdrawn from a human body – with its long 25 centimetres (9.8 in) and broad blade was an invention of Shaka that superseded the older thrown ipapa (so named because of the "pa-pa" sound it made as it flew through the air). The iklwa could theoretically be used both in melee and as a thrown weapon, but warriors were forbidden in Shaka's day from throwing it, which would disarm them and give their opponents something to throw back. Moreover, Shaka felt it discouraged warriors from closing into hand-to-hand combat. Shaka's brother, and successor, Dingane kaSenzangakhona reintroduced greater use of

1326-434: A variety of activities, from guarding the camp, to cattle herding, to certain rituals and ceremonies. It was customary in Zulu culture for young men to provide limited service to their local chiefs until they were married and recognised as official householders. Shaka manipulated this system, transferring the customary service period from the regional clan leaders to himself, strengthening his personal hegemony. Such groupings on

1404-669: A variety of enemies. As one military historian notes: To understand the full scope of the impi's performance in battle, military historians of the Zulu typically look to its early operations against internal African enemies, not merely the British interlude. In terms of numbers, the operations of the impi would change—from the Western equivalent of small company and battalion size forces, to manoeuvres in multi-divisional strength of between 10,000 and 40,000 men. The victory won by Zulu king Cetswayo at Ndondakusuka, for example, two decades before

1482-487: Is a distorted one. Manpower supplies on the continent were often limited. In the words of one historian: "The savage hordes of popular lore seldom materialized on African battlefields." This limited resource base would hurt the Zulu when they confronted technologically advanced world powers such as Britain. The advent of new weapons like firearms would also have a profound impact on the African battlefield, but as will be seen,

1560-461: Is also said to have introduced a larger, heavier cowhide shield ( isihlangu ), and trained his forces to thus close with the enemy in more effective hand-to-hand combat. The throwing spear was not discarded, but standardised like the stabbing implement and carried as a missile weapon, typically discharged at the foe, before close contact. These weapons changes integrated with and facilitated an aggressive mobility and tactical organisation. As weapons,

1638-469: Is also the title of a very famous South African song by Johnny Clegg and his band Juluka , which has become something of an unofficial national anthem, especially at major international sports events and especially when the opponent is England. Lyrics: Before stage seven of the 2013 Tour de France , the Orica–GreenEDGE cycling team played 'Impi' on their team bus in honor of teammate Daryl Impey ,

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1716-410: Is debatable due to the alleged tendency of Zulu warriors to close their eyes when firing such weapons. The possession of firearms did little to change Zulu tactics, which continued to rely on a swift approach to the enemy to bring him into close combat. All warriors carried a shield made of oxhide, which retained the hair, with a central stiffening shaft of wood, the mgobo . Shields were the property of

1794-426: Is pronounced as it is suggested ( /ŋˈɡuːni/ ) . Within a subset of Southern Bantu , the label "Nguni" is used both genetically (in the linguistic sense) and typologically (quite apart from any historical significance). The Nguni languages are closely related, and in many instances different languages are mutually intelligible; in this way, Nguni languages might better be construed as a dialect continuum than as

1872-607: Is said to have been discarded by the Xhosa in their conflicts with Europeans. Baines (1851, 1852) and Weitz (1873) however observed their use among the Mpondo many years later. By the 1870s the Zulus were exporting large quantities of cowhides to obtain firearms and this also decreased the supply. War shields, unlike assegais, were usually stockpiled by a king or chief, to be distributed in times of need. Besides its defensive role,

1950-442: Is sometimes argued that the use of Nguni as a generic label suggests a historical monolithic unity of the people in question, where in fact the situation may have been more complex. The linguistic use of the label (referring to a subgrouping of Bantu) is relatively stable. From an English editorial perspective, the articles "a" and "an" are both used with "Nguni", but "a Nguni" is more frequent and more correct especially if "Nguni"

2028-471: Is the use of reserve echelons farther back. What was unique about the Zulu was the degree of organisation, consistency with which they used these tactics, and the speed at which they executed them. Developments and refinements may have taken place after Shaka's death, as witnessed by the use of larger groupings of regiments by the Zulu against the British in 1879. Missions, available manpower and enemies varied, but whether facing native spear, or European bullet,

2106-518: The Anglo-Zulu War of 1879, involved a battlefield deployment of 30,000 troops. Higher command and unit leadership. An inDuna guided each regiment, and he in turn answered to senior izinduna who controlled the corps grouping. Overall guidance of the host was furnished by elder izinduna usually with many years of experience. One or more of these elder chiefs might accompany a big force on an important mission. Coordination of tactical movements

2184-452: The Anglo-Zulu War of 1879, many warriors wore only a loin cloth and a minimal form of headdress. The later period Zulu soldier went into battle relatively simply dressed, painting his upper body and face with chalk and red ochre, despite the popular conception of elaborately panoplied warriors. Each ibutho had a singular arrangement of headdress and other adornments, so that the Zulu army could be said to have had regimental uniforms; latterly

2262-487: The iklwa and shield. The warrior sought to get the edge of his shield behind the edge of his enemy's, so that he could pull the enemy's shield to the side, thus opening him to a thrust with the iklwa deep into the abdomen or chest. The fast-moving host, like all military formations, needed supplies. These were provided by young boys, who were attached to a force and carried rations, cooking pots, sleeping mats, extra weapons and other material. Cattle were sometimes driven on

2340-461: The isihlangu . They were easily held in one hand, and were used in 1856 during Cetshwayo 's campaign against Mbuyazi . The ihubelo is a large shield used for hunting, smaller than isihlangu , but larger than the ihawu . The ihawu is a small to medium-sized shield used at dances. The igqoka is a small, neat shield for courting, and the igabelomunye is the smallest decorative shield, which may be used as an accessory to dancing. A shield

2418-412: The 'full-dress' was only worn on festive occasions. The men of senior regiments would wear, in addition to their other headdress, the head-ring ( isicoco ) denoting their married state. A gradation of shield colour was found, junior regiments having largely dark shields the more senior ones having shields with more light colouring; Shaka's personal regiment Fasimba (The Haze) having white shields with only

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2496-579: The Anglo-Zulu War, involved a deployment of 30,000 troops. These were sizeable formations in regional context but represented the bulk of prime Zulu fighting strength. Few impi-style formations were to routinely achieve this level of mobilisation for a single battle. By comparison, at Cannae , the Romans deployed 80,000 men, and generally could put tens of thousands more into smaller combat actions. The popular notion of countless attacking black spearmen

2574-536: The Battle of the Little Bighorn, resulting in the total destruction of his command. Popular film re-enactments display a grizzled izinduna directing the Zulu host from a promontory with elegant sweeps of the hand, and the reserves still lay within top commanders' overall control. Coordination after an army was set in motion however relied more on the initial pre-positioning and assignments of the regiments before

2652-713: The Cape and in Portuguese Mozambique, and the rise of ambitious "new men." One such man, a warrior called Dingiswayo ( the Troubled One ) of the Mthethwa rose to prominence. Historians such as Donald Morris hold that his political genius laid the basis for a relatively light hegemony. This was established through a combination of diplomacy and conquest, using not extermination or slavery, but strategic reconciliation and judicious force of arms. This hegemony reduced

2730-563: The Ineyzane River, Rorke's Drift, Kambula, Gingingdlovu and finally Ulindi. The term "impi" has become synonymous with the Zulu nation in international popular culture; it appears in various video games such as Civilization III , Civilization IV: Warlords , Civilization: Revolution , Civilization V: Brave New World , and Civilization VI , where the Impi is the unique unit for the Zulu faction with Shaka as their leader. 'Impi'

2808-486: The Zulu King, Cetshwayo. Such over-confidence or disobedience by thrusting leaders or forces is not unusual in warfare. At the Battle of Trebia for example, the over-confident Roman commander Sempronius was provoked into a hasty attack, that resulted in a defeat for Roman arms. Likewise, General George Custer disobeyed the orders of his superior, General Terry, and rashly launched a disastrous charge against Indian forces at

2886-535: The Zulu king Shaka , who was then only the exiled illegitimate son of king Senzangakhona kaJama , but already showing much prowess as a general in the army ( impi ) of Mthethwa king Dingiswayo in the Ndwandwe–Zulu War of 1817–1819. The Zulu impi is popularly identified with the ascent of Shaka , ruler of the relatively small Zulu tribe before its explosion across the landscape of southern Africa, but its earliest shape as an instrument of statecraft lies in

2964-421: The Zulu kings on military missions. Throughout the 19th century they persisted in "human wave" attacks against well defended European positions where massed firepower devastated their ranks. The ministrations of an isAngoma (plural: izAngoma ) Zulu diviner or "witch doctor", and the bravery of individual regiments were ultimately of little use against the volleys of modern rifles, Gatling guns and artillery at

3042-520: The Zulu warrior carried the iklwa stabbing spear (losing one could result in execution) and a club or cudgel fashioned from dense hardwood known in Zulu as the iwisa , usually called the knobkerrie or knobkerry in English and knopkierie in Afrikaans , for beating an enemy in the manner of a mace . Zulu officers often carried the half-moon-shaped Zulu ax ( isizenze ), but this weapon was more of

3120-463: The advance, and the deep understanding by Zulu officers of the general attack plan. These sub-commanders could thus slow down or speed up their approach runs to maintain the general "buffalo horns" alignment to match terrain and situation. As noted above, Shaka was neither the originator of the impi, or the age grade structure, nor the concept of a bigger grouping than the small clan system. His major innovations were to blend these traditional elements in

3198-548: The areas near Natal, was teeming with bands like the Griquas who had learned to use guns. Indeed, one such group not only mastered the way of the gun, but became proficient horsemen as well, skills that helped build the Basotho tribe, in what is now the nation of Lesotho . In addition, numerous European renegades or adventurers (both Boer and non-Boer) skilled in firearms were known to the Zulu. Some had even led detachments for

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3276-425: The basis of age, did not constitute a permanent, paid military in the modern Western sense, nevertheless they did provide a stable basis for sustained armed mobilisation, much more so than ad hoc tribal levies or war parties. Shaka organised the various age grades into regiments , and quartered them in special military kraals, with each regiment having its own distinctive names and insignia. Some historians argue that

3354-676: The collection of taxes. In time of war, the inDunas supervised the fighting men in their areas, forming leadership of the military forces deployed for combat. The age grade iNtangas , under the guidance of the inDunas, formed the basis for the systematic regimental organisation that would become known worldwide as the impi. Warfare was of low intensity among the KwaZulu Natal tribes prior to the rise of Shaka, though it occurred frequently. Objectives were typically limited to such matters as cattle raiding , avenging some personal insult, or resolving disputes over segments of grazing land. Generally

3432-449: The colours assigned to the regiments. Their production by specialists was perhaps a later trend, as Alberti (1810) noted that every Xhosa man of military age had to make his own, to be handed to the chief for safekeeping in a special hut. Sometimes a hide was treated and buried for a few days. Otherwise it was just pegged out in the sun to dry. Then a rounded stone was used to pound it into a hollow shape, which also toughened it, before it

3510-500: The environment cited here /ʃ/ is "nasally permuted" to [tʃ] . Phuthi ⟨jh⟩ = breathy voiced [dʒʱ] = Xhosa, Zulu ⟨j⟩ (in the environment here following the nasal [n] ). Zulu, Swazi, Hlubi ⟨ng⟩ = [ŋ] . Note: Phuthi ⟨kg⟩ = IPA [x] . Nguni shield Strictly speaking these native names denote shields of different application, and additional types are known by other names. War shields were traditionally stockpiled by

3588-470: The first South African Tour de France leader. Nguni languages The Nguni languages are a group of Bantu languages spoken in southern Africa (mainly South Africa , Zimbabwe and Eswatini ) by the Nguni people . Nguni languages include Xhosa , Zulu , Ndebele , and Swati . The appellation "Nguni" derives from the Nguni cattle type. Ngoni (see below) is an older, or a shifted, variant. It

3666-452: The frenzied rush of warriors eager to get at the British, and steadied those faltering under withering enemy fire during the battle. The widely spaced maneuvers of an impi sometimes could make control problematic once an attack was unleashed. Indeed, the Zulu attacks on the British strongpoints at Rorke's Drift and at Kambula, (both bloody defeats) seemed to have been carried out by over-enthusiastic leaders and warriors despite contrary orders of

3744-434: The frequent feuding and fighting among the small clans in the Mthethwa's orbit, transferring their energies to more centralised forces. Under Dingiswayo the age grades came to be regarded as military drafts, deployed more frequently to maintain the new order. It was from these small clans, including among them the eLangeni and the Zulu, that Shaka sprung. Shaka proved himself to be one of Dingiswayo's most able warriors after

3822-479: The hoof as a movable larder. Again, such arrangements in the local context were probably nothing unusual. What was different was the systematisation and organisation, a pattern yielding major benefits when the Zulu were dispatched on raiding missions. Age-grade groupings of various sorts were common in the Bantu tribal culture of the day, and indeed are still important in much of Africa. Age grades were responsible for

3900-534: The impi-style forces largely eschewed firearms, or used them in a minor way. Whether facing native spear or European bullet, impis largely fought as they had since the days of Shaka, from Zululand to Zimbabwe, and from Mozambique to Tanzania. The Zulu had greater numbers than their opponents, but greater numbers massed together in compact arrays simply presented easy targets in the age of modern firearms and artillery. African tribes that fought in smaller guerrilla detachments typically held out against European invaders for

3978-410: The impis generally fought in and adhered to the classical buffalo horns pattern. Organization. The Zulu forces were generally grouped into 3 levels: regiments, corps of several regiments, and "armies" or bigger formations, although the Zulu did not use these terms in the modern sense. Size distinctions were taken account of, any grouping of men on a mission could collectively be called an impi, whether

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4056-532: The innovations of the Mthethwa chieftain Dingiswayo , according to some historians (Morris 1965). These innovations in turn drew upon existing tribal customs, such as the iNtanga . This was an age grade tradition common among many of the Bantu peoples of the continent's southern region. Young men were organised into age groups, with each cohort responsible for certain duties and tribal ceremonies. Periodically,

4134-461: The king of the Zulu nation. Shaka discarded sandals to enable his warriors to run faster. Initially the move was unpopular, but those who objected were simply killed, a practice that quickly concentrated the minds of remaining personnel. Zulu tradition indicates that Shaka hardened the feet of his troops by having them stamp thorny tree and bush branches flat. Shaka drilled his troops frequently, implementing forced marches covering more than fifty miles

4212-401: The king; they were stored in specialised structures raised off the ground for protection from vermin when not issued to the relevant regiment. The large isihlangu shield of Shaka's day was about five feet in length and was later partially replaced by the smaller umbumbuluzo , a shield of identical manufacture but around three and a half feet in length. Close combat relied on co-ordinated use of

4290-548: The large military establishment was a drain on the Zulu economy and necessitated continual raiding and expansion. This may be true since large numbers of the society's men were isolated from normal occupations, but whatever the resource impact, the regimental system clearly built on existing tribal cultural elements that could be adapted and shaped to fit an expansionist agenda. After their 20th birthdays, young men would be sorted into formal ibutho (plural amabutho ) or regiments. They would build their i=handa (often referred to as

4368-468: The marauders did not stay to permanently dispossess them of grazing areas, the fleeing clan might return to rebuild in a day or two. The genesis of the Zulu impi thus lies in tribal structures existing long before the coming of Europeans or the Shaka era. In the early 19th century, a combination of factors began to change the customary pattern. These included rising populations, the growth of white settlement and slaving that dispossessed native peoples both at

4446-399: The mark of the spear that killed the cattle was most coveted as it was believed to be the most powerful. The shield also played a role in the king's purification ceremony after a battle. It ritually cleansed him from possible defilement through contact with the enemy, and strengthened him. It was in addition a symbolic object. When a man of note died, his comrades lowered their shields in

4524-399: The military call up of his age grade to serve in the Mthethwa forces. He fought with his iziCwe regiment wherever he was assigned during this early period, but from the beginning, Shaka's approach to battle did not fit the traditional mould. He began to implement his own individual methods and style, designing the famous short stabbing spear the iKlwa , a larger, stronger shield, and discarding

4602-566: The military sphere are referenced by some writers as similar. While other ancient powers such as the Carthaginians maintained a patchwork of force types, and the legions retained such phalanx-style holdovers like the triarii , later writers would attribute to Marius the implementation of one consistent standardised approach for all the infantry that likely actually took place gradually across many years. This enabled more disciplined formations and efficient execution of tactics over time against

4680-417: The modest Zulu population could not turn out the hundreds of thousand available to major world or continental powers like France, Britain, or Russia, the Zulu "nation in arms" approach could mobilize substantial forces in local context for short campaigns, and maneuver them in the Western equivalent of divisional strength. The victory won by Zulu king Cetshwayo at Ndondakusuka , for example, two decades before

4758-531: The native form of the name Swati and the better-known Zulu form Swazi ), but there is a host of additional linguistic variables that enables a relatively straightforward division into these two substreams of Nguni. Note: Maho (2009) also lists S401 Old Mfengu . The following aspects of Nguni languages are typical: Compare the following sentences: Note: Xhosa ⟨tsh⟩ = Phuthi ⟨tjh⟩ = IPA [tʃʰ] ; Phuthi ⟨tsh⟩ = [tsʰ] ; Zulu ⟨sh⟩ = IPA [ʃ] , but in

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4836-411: The nearest ikhanda to kleza (literally, "to drink directly from the udder"), at which time the boys would become inkwebane , cadets. They would spend their time training until they were formally enlisted by the king. They would challenge each other to stick fights, which had to be accepted on pain of dishonor. In Shaka's day, warriors often wore elaborate plumes and cow tail regalia in battle, but by

4914-439: The offensive, deploying in the well known "buffalo horns" formation. The attack layout was composed of four elements, each of which represented a grouping of Zulu regiments: Encirclement tactics were not unique in the region and attempts to surround an enemy were not unknown even in the ritualised battles. The use of separate manoeuvre elements to support a stronger central group was also known in pre-mechanised tribal warfare, as

4992-511: The older age grades were summoned to the kraals of sub-chieftains, or inDunas , for consultations, assignments, and an induction ceremony that marked their transition from boys to full-fledged adults and warriors, the ukuButwa . Kraal or settlement elders generally handled local disputes and issues. Above them were the inDunas, and above the inDunas stood the chief of a particular clan lineage or tribe. The inDunas handled administrative matters for their chiefs – ranging from settlement of disputes, to

5070-544: The opponents shield away, to enable a stab with the assegai. Shields could also be used to confuse the enemy; the Zulu army used the shields of their enemies to disguise themselves, and cause bewilderment among enemy ranks. Likewise the vanquished enemy at times took up Zulu shields to hide their identity until they could make their escape. King Dingane 's general Bongoza advised his warriors to hide behind shields and imitate grazing cattle, in which way they lured Boer commandos into valleys and into striking distance. It

5148-509: The oxhide sandals that he felt slowed him down. These methods proved effective on a small scale, but Shaka himself was restrained by his overlord. His conception of warfare was far more extreme than the reconcilitory methods of Dingiswayo. He sought to bring combat to a swift and bloody decision, as opposed to duels of individual champions, scattered raids, or limited skirmishes where casualties were comparatively light. While his mentor and overlord Dingiswayo lived, Shaka's methods were reined in, but

5226-419: The removal of this check gave the Zulu chieftain much broader scope. It was under his rule that a much more rigorous mode of tribal warfare came into being. This newer, brutal focus demanded changes in weapons, organisation and tactics. Shaka is credited with introducing a new variant of the traditional weapon, demoting the long, spindly throwing spear in favour of a heavy-bladed, short-shafted stabbing spear. He

5304-410: The ritual battles, the quick raid was the most frequent combat action, marked by burning kraals, seizure of captives, and the driving off of cattle. Pastoral herders and light agriculturalists, the Bantu did not usually build permanent fortifications to fend off enemies. A clan under threat simply packed their meagre material possessions, rounded up their cattle and fled until the marauders were gone. If

5382-452: The shield was a standard or coat of arms of the tribe. Consequently, King Shaka meted out serious punishment to warriors who lost them. A warrior's duty was to return his shield to the king as a matter of honour and patriotism – to leave them in enemy hands or on foreign soil brought ill fame. The colours of shields were chosen specifically by the Zulu king , and the national cattle herd

5460-528: The throwing spear, perhaps as a counter to Boer firearms. As early as Shaka's reign small numbers of firearms, often obsolete muskets and rifles, were obtained by the Zulus from Europeans by trade. In the aftermath of the defeat of the British at the Battle of Isandlwana in 1879, many Martini–Henry rifles were captured by the Zulus together with considerable amounts of ammunition. The advantage of this capture

5538-400: The uThulwana regiment experience: a raid into Swaziland, dubbed "Fund' uThulwana" by the Zulu, or "Teach the uThulwana". Impi warriors were trained as early as age six, joining the army as udibi porters at first, being enrolled into same-age groups ( intanga ). Until they were buta' d, Zulu boys accompanied their fathers and brothers on campaign as servants. Eventually, they would go to

5616-461: Was carried in the left hand, as the only piece of defensive armour used by the Nguni. Its use was practiced from boyhood, by means of stick fighting . Its primary function was to deflect spears, assegais or Khoisan arrows, but they were also carried during lion or leopard hunts. King Shaka's warriors bashed their opponents with the shield to knock them off balance, or alternatively used it to hook

5694-402: Was cut to shape. A war shield required most of an ox-hide, and ornamental shields or other raw hide commodities could be made from the leavings. A double row of contrasting marks down the center of the shield, known as imigabelo (singular: umgabelo ), are both ornamental and a convenient way of fastening the handle. They are crafted by passing contrastingly coloured strips of hide through

5772-411: Was deposed. Tribal belief would have it that the qualities and properties of the valuable and revered inkomo would naturally be transferred to the shield, as like produces like. A shield's believed qualities included the supernatural. A shield treated with intelezi or umuthi medicine for efficacy, was not to fall into enemy hands, as the enemy would in turn be protected by it. A shield that bore

5850-451: Was in command during the confusion of fighting. Young men carried a small decorative igqoka when courting, to enhance their dignity and manliness. In rituals related to Nomkhubulwana ceremonies, young girls in role reversal took over their brothers' task as cowherds. They would briefly carry sticks and shields, herd cattle and take on the authority that a shield would imply. Shields were fashioned by artisans that were conversant in

5928-525: Was selected and bred with these hide preferences in mind. King Shaka favoured hides from cattle in Jobe's country near Mzinyati in Nkandla district. King Mpande 's large herd was divided according to colour-pattern and King Cetshwayo kept a large herd of white oxen near oNgoye Forest , the so-called inyonikayipumuli or 'bird that never rests'. This valued herd was confiscated and dispersed when Cetshwayo

6006-489: Was supplied by the indunas who used hand signals and messengers. Generally before deploying for battle, the regiments were made to squat in a semicircle while these commanders made final assignments and adjustments. Lower level regimental izinduna, like the NCOs of today's armies, and yesterday's Roman centurions, were extremely important to morale and discipline. Prior to the clash at Isandhlwana for example, they imposed order on

6084-575: Was used as protection against the weather, or as bivouac shelters when the Xhosa or Fengu armies camped out. When a king was sitting in the open, his subordinates would hold one or several shields over him to shade him from the sun. They were also used during dancing routines, at weddings or as a screen at a bridal procession. During consultation of a diviner they were beaten like drums. Its use went in decline when firearms were introduced to hostilities. When lions and leopards were exterminated by firearms, it also lost its usefulness in hunting. By 1835 it

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