122-538: Shaka kaSenzangakhona ( c. 1787 –24 September 1828), also known as Shaka Zulu ( Zulu pronunciation: [ˈʃaːɠa] ) and Sigidi kaSenzangakhona , was the king of the Zulu Kingdom from 1816 to 1828. One of the most influential monarchs of the Zulu , he ordered wide-reaching reforms that reorganized the military into a formidable force. King Shaka was born in the lunar month of uNtulikazi (July) in
244-589: A cooperative to a share of the surplus or profit generated by the co-op, called a patronage refund . This refund is a form of dividend . In the Church of England , patronage is the commonly used term for the right to present a candidate to a benefice. The liturgical feast of the Patronage of Our Lady was first permitted by decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites on 6 May 1679, for all
366-489: A sangoma , was killed by Shaka. Shaka chose a particularly gruesome revenge on her by locking her in a house with jackals or hyenas inside. They devoured her, and in the morning, Shaka burned the house to the ground. Shaka continued his pursuit of Zwide. It was not until around 1825 that the two military leaders met in the vicinity of Pongola , near the present-day border of Mpumalanga , a province in South Africa. Shaka
488-487: A great deal of patronage, in the sense that they make decisions on the appointment of officials inside and outside government (for example on quangos in the UK). Patronage is therefore a recognized power of the executive branch . In most countries, the executive has the right to make many appointments, some of which may be lucrative (see also sinecures ). In some democracies , high-level appointments are reviewed or approved by
610-580: A land deal for the voortrekkers. In November, about 1,000 Voortrekker wagons began descending the Drakensberg mountains from the Orange Free State into what is now KwaZulu-Natal . Dingane asked that Retief and his party retrieve some cattle stolen from him by a local chief as part of the treaty for land for the Boers. This Retief and his men did, returning on 3 February 1838. The next day,
732-707: A major contributing source of income is derived from tourism – the area is known for its savanna covered hills. It is home to a WWF Black Rhinoceros reintroduction project known as "The Black Rhino Range Expansion Project" within the Zululand Rhino Reserve (ZRR) . The ZRR is a 20,000 hectare reserve consisting of 15 individually owned farms that have lowered their fences in order to further conservation. The Zulu royal family still fulfils many important ceremonial duties. 28°17′51″S 31°25′18″E / 28.29750°S 31.42167°E / -28.29750; 31.42167 Patronage Patronage
854-547: A massive number of deaths, mostly due to the disruptions the Zulu caused in neighbouring tribes, although the exact death toll is a matter of scholarly dispute. Further unquantifiable deaths occurred during mass tribal migrations to escape his armies. The Mfecane produced Mzilikazi of the Khumalo, a general of Shaka's. He fled Shaka's employ, and in turn conquered an empire in Zimbabwe , after clashing with European groups like
976-679: A mixture of diplomacy and patronage, incorporating friendly chieftains, including Zihlandlo of the Mkhize, Jobe of the Sithole, and Mathubane of the Thuli. These people were never defeated in battle by the Zulus; they did not have to be. Shaka won them over with subtler tactics, such as patronage and reward. As for the ruling of Qwabe, they began re-inventing their genealogies to give the impression that Qwabe and Zulu were closely related (i.e. as Nguni ) in
1098-559: A murderous campaign against other Nguni tribes and clans, setting in motion what became known as Difaqane or Mfecane , a mass-migration of tribes fleeing the remnants of the Ndwandwe fleeing the Zulu. The Ngoni people fled as far north as Tanzania and Malawi. The death toll has never been satisfactorily determined, but the whole region became nearly depopulated. By 1822, Shaka had conquered an empire covering an area of around 80,000 square miles (210,000 km ), covering Pongola to
1220-598: A new leader, Andries Pretorius , who led a successful defence of the Voortrekker position from the Zulu forces and Dingane at the Battle of Blood River on 16 December 1838, when 15,000 Zulu impis (warriors) attacked a group of 470 Voortrekker settlers led by Pretorius. Following his defeat, Dingane burned his royal household and fled north. Mpande , the half-brother who had been spared from Dingane's purges, defected with 17,000 followers, and, together with Pretorius and
1342-591: A number of battles. King Shaka's reign coincided with the start of the Mfecane/Difaqane ("upheaval" or "crushing"), a period of devastating warfare and chaos in southern Africa between 1815 and 1840 that depopulated the region. His role in the Mfecane/Difaqane is highly controversial. He was ultimately assassinated by his half-brothers, King Dingane and Prince Mhlangana and Mbopha kaSithayi. Shaka (roughly translated as "intestinal beetle")
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#17327660488561464-538: A number of writers who have modified these stories. Various modern historians writing on Shaka and the Zulu point to the uncertain nature of Fynn and Isaac's accounts of Shaka's reign. A general reference work in the field is Donald Morris's "The Washing of The Spears", which notes that the sources, as a whole, for this historical era are not the best. Morris references a large number of sources, including Stuart, and A. T. Bryant's "Olden Times in Zululand and Natal", which
1586-471: A picture of Shaka as a degenerate and pathological monster, which survives in modified forms to this day. Isaacs was aided in this by Henry Francis Fynn , whose diary (actually a rewritten collage of various papers) was edited by James Stuart only in 1950. Their accounts may be balanced by the rich resource of oral histories collected around 1900 by the same James Stuart, now published in six volumes as The James Stuart Archive . Stuart's early 20th century work
1708-679: A redirection of the war effort, and the British, though outnumbered, began winning small engagements and later larger setpiece encounters. The fighting culminated in the Siege of Ulundi , the Zulus' capital city, and the subsequent defeat of the Zulu Kingdom. Cetshwayo was captured a month after his defeat, and then exiled to Cape Town . The British passed rule of the Zulu kingdom onto 13 "kinglets", each with his own subkingdom. Conflict soon erupted between these subkingdoms, and in 1882, Cetshwayo
1830-480: A store by a regular customer, and the guardianship of saints . The word patron derives from the Latin patronus ('patron'), one who gives benefits to his clients (see patronage in ancient Rome ). In some countries the term is used to describe political patronage or patronal politics , which is the use of state resources to reward individuals for their electoral support. Some patronage systems are legal, as in
1952-452: A stroke, a power struggle began between Soviet Premier Alexei Rykov , Pravda editor Nikolai Bukharin , Profintern leader Mikhail Tomsky , Red Army founder Leon Trotsky , former Premier Lev Kamenev , Comintern leader Grigory Zinoviev , and General Secretary Joseph Stalin . Stalin used patronage to appoint many Stalinist delegates (such as Vyacheslav Molotov , Lazar Kaganovich , Grigory Ordzhonikidze , and Mikhail Kalinin ) to
2074-692: A treaty was signed, wherein Dingane ceded all the land south of the Tugela River to the Mzimvubu River to the Voortrekkers. Celebrations followed. On 6 February, at the end of the celebrations, Retief's party were invited to a dance, and asked to leave their weapons behind. At the peak of the dance, Dingane leapt to his feet and yelled "Bambani abathakathi!" ( isiZulu for "Seize the wizards"). Retief and his men were overpowered, taken to
2196-406: A tribe, he enrolled its remnants in his army, so that they might in their turn help to conquer others. He armed his regiments with the short stabbing Iklwa , instead of the throwing assegai which they had been accustomed to use, and kept them subject to an iron discipline. If a man was observed to show the slightest hesitation about coming to close quarters with the enemy, he was executed as soon as
2318-458: A variety of activities, from guarding the camp, to cattle herding, to certain rituals and ceremonies. Shaka organised various grades into regiments , and quartered them in special military kraals, with regiments having their own distinctive names and insignia. The regimental system clearly built on existing tribal cultural elements that could be adapted and shaped to fit an expansionist agenda. Most historians credit Shaka with initial development of
2440-611: A wave of Boer (also known as Voortrekkers) migration northwards from 1836 onwards in order to establish autonomous Boer states independent of British control. The Boers settlers began moving across the Orange River northwards. While travelling they first collided with the Ndebele kingdom, and then with Dingane's Zulu kingdom. In October 1837, the Voortrekker leader Piet Retief visited Dingane at his royal kraal to negotiate
2562-542: A wide area of rugged ravines and gullies, and attacking the British who were forced into a rapid disorderly fighting retreat, back to the town of Kambula . A number of historians argue that Shaka "changed the nature of warfare in Southern Africa" from "a ritualised exchange of taunts with minimal loss of life into a true method of subjugation by wholesale slaughter." Others dispute this characterization. A number of writers focus on Shaka's military innovations such as
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#17327660488562684-492: Is meritocracy . In many Latin American countries, patronage developed as a means of population control , concentrating economic and political power in a small minority which held privileges that the majority of the population did not. In this system, the patrón holds authority and influence over a less powerful person, whom he protects by granting favors in exchange for loyalty and allegiance. With roots in feudalism ,
2806-450: Is based on four decades of interviews of tribal sources. After sifting through these sources and noting their strengths and weaknesses, Morris generally credits Shaka with a large number of military and social innovations. This is the general consensus in the field. A 1998 study by historian Carolyn Hamilton summarizes much of the scholarship on Shaka towards the dawn of the 21st century in areas ranging from ideology, politics and culture, to
2928-525: Is entirely possible that states of that type existed in a more remote past. Soga and Bryant related each of them to a larger grouping they called Mho. Scholarship in recent years has revised views of the sources on Shaka's reign. The earliest are two eyewitness accounts written by European adventurer-traders who met Shaka during the last four years of his reign. Nathaniel Isaacs published his Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa in 1836, creating
3050-415: Is familiar in the contemporary world. This kind of system continues across many fields of the arts. Though the nature of the sponsors has changed—from churches to charitable foundations, and from aristocrats to plutocrats —the term patronage has a more neutral connotation than in politics. It may simply refer to direct support (often financial) of an artist, for example by grants . In the latter part of
3172-437: Is often said to have been dissatisfied with the long throwing assegai , and is credited with having introduced a new variant of the weapon: the iklwa , a short stabbing spear with a long, broad, sword-like spearhead. Although he is credited with introducing the ilkwa to his people, Shaka likely did not invent it himself. He most likely outsourced it from Nzama, who later had a feud with him because he did not want to pay for
3294-528: Is probable that, over time, the Zulus were able to hone and improve their encirclement tactics. Another decisive battle eventually took place on the Mhlatuze River , at the confluence with the Mvuzane stream. In the two-day running battle, the Zulus inflicted a resounding defeat on their opponents. Shaka then led a fresh reserve some 110 kilometres (70 mi) to the royal kraal of Zwide, ruler of
3416-463: Is still in negotiation today, as there are points yet to be decided. Political patronage is not always considered corrupt. In the United States, the U.S. Constitution provides the president with the power to appoint individuals to government positions. The president also may appoint personal advisers without congressional approval. Not surprisingly, these individuals tend to be supporters of
3538-447: Is the most frequently cited date, when almost all available Zulu manpower had been sent on yet another mass sweep to the north. This left the royal kraal critically lacking in protection. It was all the conspirators needed. An iNduna named Mbopa created a diversion, and Dingane and Mhlangana struck the fatal blows. Shaka's corpse was dumped by his assassins in an empty grain pit, which was then filled with stones and mud. The exact location
3660-407: Is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows on another. In the history of art, arts patronage refers to the support that princes , popes , and other wealthy and influential people have provided to artists such as musicians, painters, and sculptors. It can also refer to the right of bestowing offices or church benefices , the business given to
3782-473: Is unknown. A monument was built at one alleged site. Historian Donald Morris holds that the true site is somewhere on Couper Street in the village of Stanger , in KwaZulu-Natal , South Africa. Dingane assumed power and embarked on an extensive purge of pro-Shaka elements and chieftains, over the course of several years, in order to secure his position. The initial problem Dingane faced was maintaining
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3904-428: The Battle of Blood River . The second major clash was against the British during 1879. Once again, most Zulu successes rested on their mobility, ability to screen their forces and to close when their opponents were unfavourably deployed. Their major victory at the Battle of Isandlwana was the most prominent one, but they also forced back a British column at the Battle of Hlobane , by deploying fast-moving regiments over
4026-593: The Brookings Institution , Harold Trinkunas, stated that involving the military in business was "a danger", with Trinkunas explaining that the Venezuelan military "has the greatest ability to coerce people, into business like they have". According to Bloomberg Business , "[b]y showering contracts on former military officials and pro-government business executives, Chavez put a new face on the system of patronage". There are historical examples where
4148-506: The Mthethwa clan, the most powerful regional tribe. There, he matured, and served as a warrior under Jobe, and then for Dingiswayo , a respected warrior and chief of the clan. When Inkosi Dingiswayo discovered Shaka was royalty, he put him in charge of a regiment, helping to develop Shaka's military tactics and strategy. After Inkosi Zwide murdered Dingiswayo, Shaka sought to avenge his death. During that encounter, Zwide's mother, Ntombazi,
4270-528: The Mthethwa Paramountcy 's support over the next several years. He forged alliances with his smaller neighbours to counter Ndwandwe raids from the north. The initial Zulu maneuvers were primarily defensive, as King Shaka preferred to apply pressure diplomatically, with an occasional strategic assassination. His reforms of local society built on existing structures. Although he preferred social and propagandistic political methods, he also engaged in
4392-523: The Ndwandwe , was the Battle of Gqokli Hill , on the Mfolozi River. Shaka's troops maintained a strong position on the crest of the hill. A frontal assault by their opponents failed to dislodge them, and Shaka sealed the victory by sending his reserve forces in a sweep around the hill to attack the enemy's rear. Losses were high overall but the efficiency of the new Shakan innovations was proven. It
4514-835: The Party Politburo and Sovnarkom in order to sway the votes in his favour, making Stalin the effective leader of the country by 1929. In 2012, the African National Congress (ANC) mayor of Beaufort West in the Western Cape Province wrote a letter that openly and illegally solicited funds from the Construction Education and Training Authority for the ANC's 2016 election campaign. This episode, amongst many others including instances revolving around President Jacob Zuma, revealed how
4636-695: The Pendleton Act in 1883, which set up the Civil Service Commission . Henceforth, applicants for most federal government jobs would have to pass an examination. Federal politicians' influence over bureaucratic appointments waned, and patronage declined as a national political issue. Beginning in 1969, a Supreme Court case in Chicago, Michael L. Shakman v. Democratic Organization of Cook County , occurred involving political patronage and its constitutionality. Shakman claimed that much of
4758-463: The Union of South Africa . Shaka was the illegitimate son of Senzangakhona , Chief of the Zulus. He was born c. 1787. He and his mother, Nandi , were exiled by Senzangakhona, and found refuge with the Mthethwa . Shaka fought as a warrior under Dingiswayo , leader of the Mthethwa Paramountcy . When Senzangakona died, Dingiswayo helped Shaka become king of the Zulu. After Dingiswayo 's death at
4880-646: The United States House of Representatives , the New York City Board of Advisors, and the New York State Senate . In 1873, Tweed was convicted for diverting between $ 40 million and $ 200 million of public monies. Six months after James Garfield became president in 1881, Charles J. Guiteau , a disappointed office-seeker, assassinated him. To prevent further political violence and to assuage public outrage, Congress passed
5002-657: The Zulu Empire, was a monarchy in Southern Africa . During the 1810s, Shaka established a standing army that consolidated rival clans and built a large following which ruled a wide expanse of Southern Africa that extended along the coast of the Indian Ocean from the Tugela River in the south to the Pongola River in the north. A bitter civil war in the mid-19th century erupted which culminated in
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5124-482: The iklwa – the Zulu thrusting spear, and the "buffalo horns" formation. This combination has been compared to the standardisation supposedly implemented by the reorganised Roman legions under Marius . Combined with Shaka's "buffalo horns" attack formation for surrounding and annihilating enemy forces, the Zulu combination of iklwa and shield—similar to the Roman legionaries' use of gladius and scutum—was devastating. By
5246-568: The legislature (as in the advice and consent of the United States Senate ); in other countries, such as those using the Westminster system , this is not the case. Other types of political patronage may violate the laws or ethics codes, such as when political leaders engage in nepotism (hiring family members) and cronyism such as fraudulently awarding non-competitive government contracts to friends or relatives or pressuring
5368-623: The 1856 Battle of Ndondakusuka between the brothers Cetshwayo and Mbuyazi. In 1879, a British force invaded Zululand, beginning the Anglo-Zulu War . After an initial Zulu victory at the Battle of Isandlwana in January, the British regrouped and defeated the Zulus in July during the Battle of Ulundi , ending the war. The area was absorbed into the Colony of Natal and later became part of
5490-439: The 20th century to allow some participation in power structures, but many systems still favor a small powerful elite, who distribute economic and political favors in exchange for benefits to the lower classes. From the ancient world onward, patronage of the arts was important in art history . It is known in greatest detail in reference to medieval and Renaissance Europe, though patronage can also be traced in feudal Japan ,
5612-490: The 20th century, the academic sub-discipline of patronage studies began to evolve, in recognition of the important and often neglected role that the phenomenon of patronage had played in the cultural life of previous centuries. Charitable and other non-profit making organizations often seek one or more influential figureheads to act as patrons. The relationship often does not involve money. As well as conferring credibility, these people can use their contacts and charisma to assist
5734-547: The African National Congress as ruling political party utilized patronage to reward supporters and strengthen the leading faction of the party's control over governmental institutions. In the United States during the Gilded Age , patronage became a controversial issue. Tammany boss William M. Tweed was an American politician who ran what is considered now to have been one of the most corrupt political machines in
5856-533: The Barmakids in those times is reflected in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights ; the vizier Ja'far appears in several stories, as well as a tale that gave rise to the expression "Barmecide feast". We know of Yahya b Khalid al Barmaki (805) as a patron of physicians and, specifically, of the translation of Hindu medical works into both Arabic and Persian. In all likelihood, however, his activity took place in
5978-518: The Black Napoleon, and allowing for different societies and customs, the comparison is apt. Shaka is without doubt the greatest commander to have come out of Africa. Some scholars hold that popular depictions of Shaka as a suddenly appearing genius creating innovation are overstated, and that to the contrary, Shaka was a borrower and imitator of indigenous methods, customs and even ruler-lineages already in place. They also argue that Shaka's line
6100-648: The Boers. The settling of Mzilikazi's people, the AmaNdebele or Matabele, in the south of Zimbabwe with the concomitant driving of the Mashona into the north caused a tribal conflict that still resonates today. Other notable figures to arise from the Mfecane/Difaqane include Soshangane , who expanded from the Zulu area into what is now Mozambique , and Zwangendaba . The theory of the Mfecane holds that
6222-518: The British and the Boers, resulting in the British annexation of Natalia. Mpande shifted his allegiance to the British, and remained on good terms with them. In 1843, Mpande ordered a purge of perceived dissidents within his kingdom. This resulted in numerous deaths, and the fleeing of thousands of refugees into neighbouring areas (including the British-controlled Natal ). Many of these refugees fled with cattle. Mpande began raiding
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#17327660488566344-438: The British suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of Isandlwana on 22 January 1879 where the Zulu army killed more than 1,000 British soldiers in a single day. The Zulu deployment at Isandhlwana showed the well-organized tactical system that had made the Zulu kingdom successful for many decades. This constituted the worst defeat the British army had ever suffered at the hands of a native African fighting force. The defeat prompted
6466-644: The Canadian tradition of the prime minister to appoint senators and the heads of a number of commissions and agencies; in many cases, these appointments go to people who have supported the political party of the prime minister. As well, the term may refer to a type of corruption or favoritism in which a party in power rewards groups, families, or ethnicities for their electoral support using illegal gifts or fraudulently awarded appointments or government contracts. The opposite of this structure, where all individuals advance based on their personal traits and abilities,
6588-568: The Hlubi, Ndwandwe, and Dlamini lines. Using different informants and genealogical charts, A.T. Bryant arrived at similar conclusions. The Zulu line – "a royal house of doubtful pedigree" – was very short in comparison to the Langene, Ndwandwe, Swazi, and Hlubi lines. Using his standard formula of eighteen years per reign, Bryant calculated that the Swazi, Ndwandwe, and Hlubi lines could be traced back to
6710-525: The Mpondo elements and some disaffected iziYendane people. Shaka had made enough enemies among his own people to hasten his demise. It came relatively quickly after the death of his mother, Nandi , in October 1827 and the devastation caused by Shaka's subsequent erratic behavior. According to Donald Morris, Shaka ordered that no crops should be planted during the following year of mourning, no milk (the basis of
6832-599: The Ndwandwe was clearly the most aggressive grouping in the sub-region. Shaka was able to form an alliance with the leaders of the Mthethwa clan and was able to establish himself amongst the Qwabe, after Phakathwayo was overthrown with relative ease. With Qwabe, Hlubi and Mkhize support, Shaka was finally able to summon a force capable of resisting the Ndwandwe (of the Nxumalo clan). Shaka's first major battle against Zwide , of
6954-655: The Ndwandwe, and destroyed it. Zwide himself escaped with a handful of followers before falling afoul of a chieftain named Mjanji, ruler of a Babelu clan. (He died in mysterious circumstances soon afterwards.) Zwide's general, Soshangane (of the Shangaan ), moved north towards what is now Mozambique to inflict further damage on less resistant foes and take advantage of slaving opportunities, obliging Portuguese traders to pay tribute. Shaka later had to contend again with Zwide's son, Sikhunyane, in 1826. Shaka granted permission to Europeans to enter Zulu territory on rare occasions. In
7076-581: The Tugera Rivers. An offshoot of the Zulu, the amaNdebele, better known to history as the Matabele , created an even larger empire under their king Mzilikazi , including large parts of the highveld and modern-day Zimbabwe . [1] Shaka was succeeded by Dingane , his half-brother, who conspired with Mhlangana, another half-brother, and Mbopa, an induna , to murder him in 1828. Following this assassination, Dingane murdered Mhlangana, and took over
7198-626: The Union of South Africa was formed, Louis Botha became its first prime minister, and he arranged for his old ally Dinuzulu to return to South Africa and live in exile on a farm in the Transvaal, where he died in 1913. Dinuzulu's son Solomon kaDinuzulu was never recognised by South African authorities as the Zulu king, only as a local chief, but he was increasingly regarded as king by chiefs, by political intellectuals such as John Langalibalele Dube and by ordinary Zulu people. In 1923, Solomon founded
7320-563: The Voortrekkers, went to war with Dingane. Dingane was assassinated near the modern Swaziland border. Mpande then took over rulership of the Zulu nation. Following the campaign against Dingane, in 1839 the Voortrekkers, under Pretorius, formed the Boer republic of Natalia , south of the Tugela, and west of the British settlement of Port Natal (now Durban ). Mpande and Pretorius maintained peaceful relations. However, in 1842, war broke out between
7442-660: The Zulu War describe Zulu fighting methods and tactics, including authors Ian Knight and Robert Edgerton. General histories of Southern Africa include Noel Mostert's "Frontiers" and a detailed account of the results from the Zulu expansion, J.D. Omer-Cooper's "The Zulu Aftermath", which advances the traditional Mfecane/Difaqane theory. The increased military efficiency led to more and more clans being incorporated into Shaka's Zulu empire, while other tribes moved away to be out of range of Shaka's impis . The ripple effect caused by these mass migrations would become known (though only in
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#17327660488567564-427: The Zulu army covered "no more than 19 kilometres [12 mi] a day, and usually went only about 14 kilometres [ 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 mi]." Furthermore, Zulus under Shaka sometimes advanced more slowly. They spent two whole days recuperating in one instance, and on another they rested for a day and two nights before pursuing their enemy. Several other historians of the Zulu and the Zulu military system, however, affirm
7686-409: The Zulu diet at the time) was to be used, and any woman who became pregnant was to be killed along with her husband. At least 7,000 people who were deemed to be insufficiently grief-stricken were executed, although the killing was not restricted to humans; cows were slaughtered so that their calves would know what losing a mother felt like. Shaka was killed by three assassins sometime in 1828; September
7808-446: The aggressive expansion of Shaka's armies caused a brutal chain reaction across the southern areas of the continent, as dispossessed tribe after tribe turned on their neighbours in a deadly cycle of fight and conquest. Some scholars contend that this theory must be treated with caution as it generally neglects several other factors such as the impact of European encroachment, slave trading and expansion in that area of Southern Africa around
7930-593: The arts to endorse their political ambitions, social positions, and prestige. That is, patrons operated as sponsors . Many languages have terms for patrons (such as the English "mecenate") that are derived from the name of Gaius Maecenas , generous friend and adviser to the Roman Emperor Augustus . Some patrons, such as the Medici family of Florence , used artistic patronage to "cleanse" wealth that
8052-509: The battle of Gqokli Hill. In his initial years, Shaka had neither the influence nor reputation to compel any but the smallest of groups to join him, and upon Dingiswayo's death, he moved southwards across the Thukela River , establishing his capital, Bulawayo , in Qwabe territory. He never returned to the traditional Zulu heartland. In Qwabe, Shaka may have intervened in an existing succession dispute to help his own choice, Nqetho, into power. As Shaka became more respected by his people, he
8174-441: The beginning of the fifteenth century, while the eponymous chief Zulu had died at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Shaka's triumphs did not succeed in obliterating or diminishing the memories of his better-born rivals. The hypothesis that several states of a new kind arose about the same time does not take account of the contrast between the short line of Shaka and the long pedigrees of his most important opponents – especially
8296-405: The coalition grouped around his deadly enemy Zwide (d. 1822). The founders of the states which Omer-Cooper called "Zulu-type states," including the Ndebele, the Gasa, the Ngoni, and the Swazi had all been closely associated with Zwide. Instead of hypothesizing that they all chose to imitate Shaka, it is easier to imagine that he modeled his state on theirs. And as they stemmed from ancient families it
8418-417: The concept of "light" forces is questionable. The fast-moving Zulu raiding party, or "ibutho lempi," on a mission invariably travelled light, driving cattle as provisions on the hoof, and were not weighed down with heavy weapons and supply packs. Age-grade groupings of various sorts were common in the Bantu culture of the day, and indeed are still important in much of Africa. Age grades were responsible for
8540-401: The country's history. Tweed and his corrupt associates ruled for a brief time with absolute power over the city and state of New York. At the height of his influence, Tweed was the third-largest landowner in New York City , a director of the Erie Railway , the Tenth National Bank , and the New-York Printing Company, as well as proprietor of the Metropolitan Hotel . At times he was a member of
8662-456: The decades after Shaka's death. In fact, European travellers to Shaka's kingdom demonstrated advanced technology such as firearms and writing, but the Zulu monarch was less than convinced. There was no need to record messages, he held, since his messengers stood under penalty of death should they bear inaccurate tidings. As for firearms, Shaka acknowledged their utility as missile weapons after seeing muzzle-loaders demonstrated, but he argued that in
8784-576: The ecclesiastical provinces of Spain , in memory of the victories obtained over the Saracens, heretics and other enemies from the sixth century to the reign of Philip IV of Spain . Pope Benedict XIV ordered it to be kept in the Papal States on the third Sunday of November. To other places it is granted, on request, for some Sunday in November, to be designated by the ordinary . In many places,
8906-560: The existing patronage system. Boliburguesía is a term that was coined by journalist Juan Carlos Zapata in order to "define the oligarchy that has developed under the protection of the Chavez government ". During Hugo Chávez's tenure, he seized thousands of properties and businesses while also reducing the footprint of foreign companies. Venezuela's economy was then largely state-run and was operated by military officers that had their business and government affairs connected. Senior fellow at
9028-485: The famous "bull horn" formation. It was composed of three elements: Shaka created ruthless determination in his army by instilling in his warriors the knowledge of what would happen if their courage failed them in battle or their regiments were defeated. A brutal fate awaited them and their families if they did not perform well in combat. H. Rider Haggard learned about Shaka's methods from his nephew and late 19th-century Zulu king, Cetshwayo kaMpande : As Shaka conquered
9150-581: The feast of the Patronage is held with an additional Marian title of Queen of All Saints, of Mercy, Mother of Graces . The Office is taken entirely from the Common of the Blessed Virgin, and the Mass is the "Salve sancta parens". The Church Patronage (Scotland) Act 1711 , (in force until 1874) resulted in multiple secessions from the Church of Scotland , including the secession of 1733 , which led to
9272-551: The feet of Zulu warriors has been noted in various military accounts such as The Washing of the Spears , Like Lions They Fought , and Anatomy of the Zulu Army . Implementation was typically blunt. Those who objected to going without sandals were simply killed. Shaka drilled his troops frequently, in forced marches that sometimes covered more than 80 kilometres (50 mi) a day in a fast trot over hot, rocky terrain. He also drilled
9394-546: The fight was over. If a regiment had the misfortune to be defeated, whether by its own fault or not, it would on its return to headquarters find that a goodly proportion of the wives and children belonging to it had been beaten to death on Shaka's orders, and that he was waiting their arrival to complete his vengeance by dashing out their brains. The result was, that though Shaka's armies were occasionally defeated, they were rarely annihilated, and they never ran away. The expanding Zulu power inevitably clashed with European hegemony in
9516-797: The formation of the Associate Presbytery, the secession of 1761 , which led to the formation of the Relief Church , and the Disruption of 1843 , which led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland . While most news companies, particularly in North America are funded through advertising revenue, secondary funding sources include audience members and philanthropists who donate to for-profit and non-profit organizations. Political leaders have at their disposal
9638-405: The hands of Zwide , king of the Ndwandwe , around 1816, Shaka assumed leadership of the entire Mthethwa alliance. Shaka's clan at first numbered no more than a few thousands, but eventually grew in size to 45,000 after absorbing neighboring clans. His military reforms included new battle techniques, training, and tough discipline, as well as the replacement of long-throwing spears in exchange for
9760-522: The independent Republic of Vryheid. This alarmed the British who wanted to prevent the Boers access to a harbour. The British then annexed Zululand in 1887. Dinuzulu became involved in later conflicts with rivals. In 1906 Dinuzulu was accused of being behind the Bambatha Rebellion . He was arrested and put on trial by the British for "high treason and public violence". In 1909, he was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment on St Helena island. When
9882-400: The intent of instigating a war with the Zulu, Sir Henry Bartle Frere , on his own initiative and without the approval of the British government, presented an ultimatum to the Zulu king Cetshwayo in terms with which he could not possibly comply: that the Zulu army be disbanded and the Zulus accept a British resident. British forces crossed the Tugela river at the end of December 1878. Initially,
10004-490: The loyalty of the Zulu fighting regiments. He set up his main residence at Mgungundlovu and established his authority over the Zulu kingdom. Dingane ruled for some twelve years, during which time he fought, disastrously, against the Voortrekkers , and against another half-brother, Mpande , who, with Boer and British support, took over the Zulu leadership in 1840, ruling for some 30 years. Some older histories have doubted
10126-551: The mid-1820s, Henry Francis Fynn provided medical treatment to the king after an assassination attempt by a rival tribe member hidden in a crowd. To show his gratitude, Shaka permitted European settlers to enter and operate in the Zulu kingdom. Shaka observed several demonstrations of European technology and knowledge, but he held that the Zulu way was superior to that of the foreigners. Dingane and Mhlangana , Shaka's half-brothers, appeared to have made at least two attempts to assassinate Shaka before they succeeded, with support from
10248-465: The military and social innovations customarily attributed to Shaka, denying them outright, or attributing them variously to European influences. More modern researchers argue that such explanations fall short, and that the general Zulu culture, which included other tribes and clans, contained a number of practices that Shaka could have drawn on to fulfill his objectives, whether in raiding, conquest or hegemony. Some of these practices are shown below. Shaka
10370-445: The mobility rate of up to 80 kilometres (50 mi) per day. Boys aged six and over joined Shaka's force as apprentice warriors ( udibi ) and served as carriers of rations , supplies such as cooking pots and sleeping mats, and extra weapons until they joined the main ranks. It is sometimes held that such support was used more for very light forces designed to extract tribute in cattle and slaves from neighbouring groups. Nevertheless,
10492-425: The more effective short-stabbing spears. Conscripted men were segregated from the rest of Zulu society to be trained as an organized standing army called the amabutho . The alliance under his leadership survived Zwide's first assault at the Battle of Gqokli Hill (1818). Within two years, Shaka had defeated Zwide at the Battle of Mhlatuze River (1820) and broken up the Ndwandwe alliance, some of whom in turn began
10614-424: The nearby hill kwaMatiwane, and executed. Some allege that they were killed for withholding some of the cattle they recovered, but it is likely that the deal was a plot to overpower the Voortrekkers. Dingane's army then attacked and massacred a group of 250 Voortrekker men, women and children camped nearby. The site of this massacre is today called Weenen , ( Dutch for "to weep"). The remaining Voortrekkers elected
10736-528: The new province of KwaZulu-Natal . The name KwaZulu translates roughly as Place of Zulus , or more formally Zululand . The Zulu Kingdom is currently part of South Africa's KwaZulu-Natal (of which the King of the Zulu Nation is the monarch), one of the country's nine provinces, under the leadership of King MisuZulu ka Zwelithini . A large portion of the territory is made up of wildlife reserves and
10858-521: The noble classes financed scientific pursuits. Many Barmakids were patrons of the sciences, which greatly helped the propagation of Indian science and scholarship from the neighboring Academy of Gundishapur into the Arabic world. They patronized scholars such as Jabir ibn Hayyan and Jabril ibn Bukhtishu . They are also credited with the establishment of the first paper mill in Baghdad. The power of
10980-572: The orbit of the caliphal court in Iraq, where at the behest of Harun al Rashid (786 -809), such books were translated into Arabic. Thus Khurasan and Transoxania were effectively bypassed in this transfer of learning from India to Islam, even though, undeniably the Barmakis cultural outlook owed something to their land of origin, northern Afghanistan, and Yahya al Barmaki's interest in medicine may have derived from no longer identifiable family tradition. In
11102-624: The organisation Inkatha YaKwaZulu to promote his royal claims, which became moribund and then was revived in the 1970s by Mangosuthu Buthelezi , chief minister of the KwaZulu bantustan. In December 1951, Solomon's son Cyprian Bhekuzulu kaSolomon was officially recognised as the Paramount Chief of the Zulu people, but real power over ordinary Zulu people lay with South African government officials working through local chiefs who could be removed from office for failure to cooperate. KwaZulu
11224-413: The organization to raise funds or to affect government policy. The British royal family are especially prolific in this respect, devoting a large proportion of their time to a wide range of causes. Sometimes consumers support smaller or local businesses or corporations out of loyalty even if less expensive options exist. Their regular custom is referred to as 'patronage'. Patronage may entitle members of
11346-508: The past. In this way, a greater sense of cohesion was created, though it never became complete, as subsequent civil wars attest. Shaka still recognised Dingiswayo and his larger Mthethwa clan, as overlord after he returned to the Zulu land but, some years later, Dingiswayo was ambushed by Zwide's Ndwandwe and killed. There is no evidence to suggest that Shaka betrayed Dingiswayo. The core Zulus had to retreat before several Ndwandwe incursions;
11468-441: The patronage going on in Chicago politics was unlawful on the grounds of the first and fourteenth amendments. Through a series of legal battles and negotiations, the two parties agreed upon The Shakman Decrees . Under these decrees, it was declared that the employment status of most public employees could not be affected positively or negatively based on political allegiance, with exceptions for politically inclined positions. The case
11590-522: The president. Similarly, at the state and local levels, governors and mayors retain appointments powers. Some scholars have argued that patronage may be used for laudable purposes, such as the "recognition" of minority communities through the appointment of their members to a high-profile position. Bearfield has argued that patronage be used for four general purposes: create or strengthen a political organization; achieve democratic or egalitarian goals; bridge political divisions and create coalitions, and to alter
11712-838: The public service to hire an unqualified family member or friend. Political patronage, also known as " padrino system ", has been the source of many controversies and corruption . It has been an open secret that one cannot join the political arena of the Philippines without mastery of the padrino system. From the lowest barangay official to the President of the Republic , it is expected that one gains political debts and dispenses political favor to advance one's career or gain influence, if not wealth. After Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin 's retirement from politics in March 1923 following
11834-486: The revisionist approach, noting that stories of cannibalism, raiding, burning of villages, or mass slaughter were not developed out of thin air but based on the clearly documented accounts of hundreds of black victims and refugees. Confirmation of such accounts can also be seen in modern archaeology of the village of Lepalong, an entire settlement built underground to shelter remnants of the Kwena people from 1827 to 1836 against
11956-578: The same manner as commercial patronage, those who attend a sporting event may be referred to as patrons, though the usage in much of the world is now considered archaic—with some notable exceptions. Those who attend the Masters Tournament , one of the four major championships of professional golf , are still traditionally referred to as "patrons," largely at the insistence of the Augusta National Golf Club . This insistence
12078-505: The same time. Normal estimates for the death toll range from 1 million to 2 million. These numbers are, however, controversial. According to Julian Cobbing , the development of the view that Shaka was the monster responsible for the devastation is based on the need of apartheid era historians to justify the apartheid regime's racist policies. Other scholars acknowledge distortion of the historical record by apartheid supporters and shady European traders seeking to cover their tracks, but dispute
12200-408: The spears. According to Zulu scholar John Laband , Shaka insisted that his warriors train with the weapon, which gave them a "terrifying advantage over opponents who clung to the traditional practice of throwing their spears and avoiding hand-to-hand conflict." The throwing spear was not discarded, but used as an initial missile weapon before close contact with the enemy, when the shorter stabbing spear
12322-423: The support of noble or ecclesiastical patrons. Figures as late as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven also participated in the system to some degree; it was only with the rise of bourgeois and capitalist social forms in the middle 19th century that European culture moved away from its patronage system to the more publicly supported system of museums, theaters, mass audiences and mass consumption that
12444-496: The surrounding areas, culminating in the invasion of Swaziland in 1852. However, the British pressured him into withdrawing, which he did shortly. At this time, a battle for the succession broke out between two of Mpande's sons, Cetshwayo and Mbuyazi. This culminated in 1856 with the Battle of Ndondakusuka , which left Mbuyazi dead. Cetshwayo then set about usurping his father's authority. When Mpande died of old age in 1872, Cetshwayo took over as ruler. On 11 December 1878, with
12566-446: The system was designed to maintain an inexpensive, subservient labor force, which could be utilized to limit production costs and allow wealth and its privileges to be monopolized by a small elite. Long after slavery , and other forms of bondage like the encomienda and repartimiento systems were abolished, patronage was used to maintain rigid class structures. With the rise of a labor class, traditional patronage changed in
12688-544: The throne. The academic Roberto Breschi notes that Zululand had a flag from 1884 to 1897 but this is pure conjecture as A.P. Burgers notes in his book. It consisted of three horizontal bands in equal width of gold, green and red. Dinuzulu made a pact with the Boers of his own, promising them land in return for their aid. The Boers were led by Louis Botha . Dinuzulu and the Boers defeated Zibhebhu in 1884. They were granted about half of Zululand individually as farms, and formed
12810-538: The throne. One of his first royal acts was to execute all of his royal kin. In the years that followed, he also executed many past supporters of Shaka in order to secure his position. One exception to these purges was Mpande , another half-brother, who was considered too weak to be a threat at the time. In the Cape Colony , increasing tensions between some Dutch Settlers and the British colonial authorities led to
12932-560: The tide of disruption that engulfed the region during Shakan times. William Rubinstein wrote that "Western guilt over colonialism, have also accounted for much of this distortion of what pre-literate societies actually were like, as does the wish to avoid anything which smacks of racism, even when this means distorting the actual and often appalling facts of life in many pre-literate societies". Rubinstein also notes: Zulu Kingdom The Zulu Kingdom ( / ˈ z uː l uː / ZOO -loo ; Zulu : KwaZulu ), sometimes referred to as
13054-459: The time a gunman took to reload, he would be swamped by charging spear-wielding warriors. The first major clash after Shaka's death took place under his successor Dingane, against expanding European Voortrekkers from the Cape. Initial Zulu success rested on fast-moving surprise attacks and ambushes, but the Voortrekkers recovered and dealt the Zulu a severe defeat from their fortified wagon laager at
13176-449: The time of Shaka's assassination in 1828, it had made the Zulu kingdom the greatest power in southern Africa and a force to be reckoned with, even against Britain's modern army in 1879. Much controversy still surrounds the character, methods and activities of the Zulu king. From a military standpoint, historian John Keegan notes exaggerations and myths that surround Shaka, but nevertheless maintains: Fanciful commentators called him Shaka,
13298-447: The traditional Southeast Asian kingdoms, and elsewhere—art patronage tended to arise wherever a royal or imperial system and an aristocracy dominated a society and controlled a significant share of resources. Samuel Johnson defined a patron as "one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling for life in the water, and, when he has reached ground, encumbers him with help". Rulers, nobles, and very wealthy people used patronage of
13420-531: The troops to carry out encirclement tactics. Historian John Laband dismisses these stories as myth, writing: "What are we to make, then, of [European trader Henry Francis] Fynn's statement that once the Zulu army reached hard and stony ground in 1826, Shaka ordered sandals of ox-hide to be made for himself?" Laband also dismissed the idea of an 80-kilometre (50 mi) march in a single day as ridiculous. He further claims that even though these stories have been repeated by "astonished and admiring white commentators,"
13542-500: The twentieth century) as the Mfecane/Difaqane (annihilation). Shaka's army set out on a massive programme of expansion, killing or enslaving those who resisted in the territories he conquered. His impis (warrior regiments) were rigorously disciplined: failure in battle meant death. At the time of his death, Shaka ruled over 250,000 people and could muster more than 50,000 warriors. His 10-year-long kingship resulted in
13664-415: The use of his name and image in a popular South African theme park , Shakaland. It argues that in many ways, the image of Shaka has been "invented" in the modern era according to whatever agenda persons hold. This "imagining of Shaka" it is held, should be balanced by a sober view of the historical record, and allow greater scope for the contributions of indigenous African discourse. Military historians of
13786-545: The year 1787, in Mthonjaneni , KwaZulu-Natal Province , South Africa . The son of the Zulu King Senzankakhona kaJama , he was spurned as an illegitimate son. Shaka spent part of his childhood in his mother's settlements, where he was initiated into an ibutho lempi (fighting unit/regiment), serving as a warrior under Inkosi Dingiswayo . King Shaka further refined the ibutho military system with
13908-544: Was a bantustan in South Africa , intended by the apartheid government as a semi-independent homeland for the Zulu people. The capital was moved from Nongoma to Ulundi in 1980. It was led until its abolition in 1994 by Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi of the Zulu royal family and head of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP). It was merged with the surrounding South African province of Natal to form
14030-518: Was able to spread his ideas along with greater ease. Using his background as a soldier, Shaka taught the Zulus that the most effective way of gaining power quickly was by conquering and controlling other tribes. His teachings greatly influenced the social outlook of the Zulus. The Zulu tribe soon developed a warrior outlook, which Shaka used to his advantage. Shaka's hegemony was primarily based on military might, smashing rivals and incorporating scattered remnants into his own army. He supplemented this with
14152-566: Was allowed to visit England. He had audiences with Queen Victoria and other famous personages before being allowed to return to Zululand to be reinstated as king. In 1883, Cetshwayo was put in place as king over a buffer reserve territory, much reduced from his original kingdom. Later that year, however, Cetshwayo was attacked at Ulundi by Zibhebhu , one of the 13 kinglets. Cetshwayo was wounded and fled. Cetshwayo died in February 1884, possibly poisoned. His son, Dinuzulu , then 15, inherited
14274-484: Was born to the Zulu king. He was the eldest of many sons, but was considered to be a bastard child and was sent away to live in another neighboring tribe known as the Elangeni, where his mother was originally from, leaving his half-brother to rule the Zulu kingdom . At the time, the Zulu were a regional tribe relying on pastoral livestock, maize, and milk. When Shaka reached a suitable age, he and his mother were sent to
14396-453: Was continued by D. McK. Malcolm in 1950. These and other sources such as A.T. Bryant gives us a more Zulu-centred picture. Most popular accounts are based on E.A. Ritter's novel Shaka Zulu (1955), a potboiling romance that was re-edited into something more closely resembling a history. John Wright (history professor at University of KwaZulu-Natal , Pietermaritzburg ), Julian Cobbing and Dan Wylie ( Rhodes University , Grahamstown ) are among
14518-783: Was perceived as ill-gotten through usury . Art patronage was especially important in the creation of religious art . The Roman Catholic Church and later Protestant groups sponsored art and architecture , as seen in churches , cathedrals , painting , sculpture and handicrafts . While sponsorship of artists and the commissioning of artwork is the best-known aspect of the patronage system, other disciplines also benefited from patronage, including those who studied natural philosophy ( pre-modern science ), musicians , writers , philosophers , alchemists , astrologers , and other scholars . Artists as diverse and important as Chrétien de Troyes , Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo , William Shakespeare , and Ben Jonson all sought and enjoyed
14640-507: Was relatively short-lived and receives undue attention, compared to other, longer established lines and rulers in the region. It seems much more likely that Shaka, seeking to build the power of a previously insignificant chiefdom, drew on an existing heritage of statecraft known to his immediate neighbors. J.H. Soga implied as much when he used genealogical evidence to argue that the Zulu were an upstart group inferior in dignity and distinction to established chiefdoms in their region, for example,
14762-808: Was used in hand-to-hand combat. It is also supposed that Shaka introduced a larger, heavier version of the Nguni shield . Furthermore, it is believed that he taught his warriors how to use the shield's left side to hook the enemy's shield to the right, exposing the enemy's ribs for a fatal spear stab. In Shaka's time, these cowhide shields were supplied by the king, and they remained the king's property. Different coloured shields distinguished different amabutho within Shaka's army. Some had black shields, others used white shields with black spots, and some had white shields with brown spots, while others used pure brown or white shields. The story that sandals were discarded to toughen
14884-424: Was victorious in battle, although his forces sustained heavy casualties, including his military commander, Mgobhozi Ovela Entabeni. Already at this time, Shaka had grown famous for his use of the short stabbing spear. It was deadly and easy to thrust, whereas before, tribesmen barely tried to customize or improve their weapons. Shaka's innovative tactics, among them the bull horn tactic, devastated Zwide's forces at
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