Second
54-909: Third During the Cold War , the Indochina Wars ( Vietnamese : Chiến tranh Đông Dương ) were a series of wars which were waged in Indochina from 1946 to 1991, by communist forces (mainly ones led by Vietnamese communists ) against the opponents (mainly the Vietnamese nationalists, Trotskyists , the State of Vietnam , the Republic of Vietnam , the French, American, Laotian royalist, Cambodian and Chinese communist forces). The term "Indochina" referred to former French Indochina , which included
108-470: A cease-fire , and prohibited the North Vietnamese from sending more troops into South Vietnam - although the North Vietnamese were permitted to continue to occupy those regions of South Vietnam they had conquered in the 1972 Easter Offensive . The North Vietnamese never intended to abide by the agreement. Fighting continued sporadically through 1973 and 1974, while the North Vietnamese planned
162-441: A salacco headdress and blue, white or khaki drill clothing based on local patterns. After World War I khaki became the normal dress for indigenous troops, although sashes and fezzes continued to be worn for parade until the 1950s. The modern Troupes de Marine are distinguished in full dress by dark blue kepis with red piping and bronze anchor badges, red sashes and yellow fringed epaulettes. These traditional items are worn with
216-504: A diplomatic front against Vietnam. China attacked Vietnam in response to Vietnam's occupation of Cambodia, entered northern Vietnam and captured several cities near the border. On March 6, 1979, China declared that their punitive mission had been successful and withdrew from Vietnam. However, both China and Vietnam claimed victory. The fact that Vietnamese forces continued to stay in Cambodia for another decade implies that China's campaign
270-681: A full-scale invasion. Phnom Penh was captured in January 1979, the ruling Khmer Rouge were driven from power and a pro-Vietnamese government was installed. In 1984, Vietnam unveiled a plan for the disengagement of its army from Kampuchea. In 1988, the Vietnamese Government began withdrawing forces in earnest; the last men left in September 1989. The Third Indochina War also refers to the Sino-Vietnamese War , which
324-763: A major offensive, tentatively scheduled for 1976. The North Vietnamese Army in South Vietnam had been ravaged during the Easter offensive in 1973, and it was projected that it would take until 1976 to rebuild their logistical capabilities. The withdrawal had catastrophic effects on the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN). Shortly after the Paris Peace Accords, the United States Congress made major budget cuts in military aid to
378-764: The Bình Xuyên organized crime group. The French re-installed Bảo Đại as the head of state of Vietnam, which now comprised central and southern Vietnam. The ensuing war, between the French-controlled South and the independent communist-allied North, is known as the First Indochina War. It ended in a resounding defeat of the French Colonial Troops ( Troupes coloniales ) by the People's Army of Vietnam at Dien Bien Phu . In
432-748: The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and issued a Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam . In 1946, Vietnam had its first constitution . In 1948, France tried to regain its colonial control over Vietnam. In South Vietnam, the Japanese had surrendered to British forces, who had supported the Free French in fighting the Viet Minh, along with the armed religious Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo sects and
486-931: The First Indochina War and the Algerian War . The Armée coloniale should not be confused with the units of the French Army generally stationed in North Africa such as the Foreign Legion , the Zouave regiments, the Battalions of Light Infantry of Africa or the indigenous North African Spahis , Tirailleurs and Goumiers ; all of which were part of the Army of Africa . The North African units date back to 1830 and were brought together as
540-679: The First Indochina War , the Viet Minh , supported by the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, fought to gain their independence from the French, supported initially by the remaining troops of the Japanese Army after its surrender to Britain, also by the State of Vietnam , and later by the United States in the frame of the Cold War . This war of independence lasted from December 1946 until July 1954, with most of
594-669: The French Communist Party , Ho Chi Minh had de-emphasised his communist ties and dissolved the Indochinese Communist Party, in order to unite the country. When the Vietnamese famine broke out in 1945 causing 2 million deaths, after French and Japanese colonial administration continued to export food to France in a post war economy, the Viet Minh arranged a massive relief effort, consolidating popular support for their nationalist cause. Ho Chi Minh
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#1732766108060648-712: The Sino-Soviet split of the mid-1950s. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam), which had chosen to ally with the USSR, justified incursions into neighbouring Laos and Cambodia during the Second Indochinese War by reference to the international nature of communist revolution, where "Indochina is a single strategic unit, a single battlefield" and the Vietnam People's Army 's pivotal role in bringing this about. However, this internationalism
702-575: The Troupes Coloniales in 1921. The precise meaning of the terms "colonial troops", "colonial army", marine troops or "troops of the French colonies" has changed several times since the 18th century: Colony troops: Regular regiments of the Royal Army assigned to colonial service: The European Colonial Infantry and Colonial Artillery regiments were, until 1914, uniformed in a similar style to their metropolitan counterparts (although
756-520: The Troupes de la Marine became the Troupes Coloniales in 1900 and photographs of mehariste (camel corps) troopers taken in the 1950s show anchor badges even in the Mauritanian desert far from the sea. In 1961 the title of Troupes de Marine was readopted after a brief period (1958–61) as Troupes d'Outre-Mer (Overseas Forces). As the remaining French African territories became independent in
810-745: The XIX Army Corps in 1873, forming part of the French Metropolitan Army. Instead the Troupes Coloniales can be divided into: All colonial troops ( la Coloniale or the Colonial) came under a single General Staff. The troupes coloniales were predominantly infantry but included artillery units as well as the usual support services. At various dates they also included locally recruited cavalry units in Indo-China as well as camel troops in sub-Saharan Africa . Across
864-551: The colonial troops of the French colonial empire from 1900 until 1961. From 1822 to 1900, these troops were designated as Troupes de marine ("Marine Troops" or just "Marines"), and in 1961 they readopted this name. They were recruited from mainland France and from the French settler as well as indigenous populations of the empire. This force played a substantial role in the conquest of the empire, in World War I , World War II ,
918-776: The French colonial possessions in 1914, a total of up to 25,000 native auxiliaries served as civil guards, militia or gendarmes . While officered and partially administered by the Colonial Army these para-military units did not serve outside their territories of recruitment. On the eve of World War I the Troupes Coloniales consisted of 42,000 French regulars (of whom approximately 13,000 were posted overseas); plus 50,000 African and Indochinese indigenous troops. Two companies of cipahis ( sepoys ) garrisoned Pondicherry and other French enclaves in British India . These were converted to gendarmerie in 1907 but returned to
972-464: The Kampuchean island of Koh Wai . In August 1975, Vietnam returned the island of Koh Wai to Kampuchea and both governments started making peaceful noises, but behind the scenes tensions were mounting. On 30 April 1977, Kampuchea started attacking Vietnamese villages. In September, six divisions crossed the border, advancing 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) into Tay Ninh Province. Angered by the scale of
1026-812: The Liberation of Vietnam (Vietnamese NLF guerrilla fighters allied with the PAVN, known in America as the Viet Cong, meaning 'Communists Traitor to Vietnam') against United States troops and the United States-backed by South Vietnamese Government ARVN (Republic of Vietnam soldiers). During the War, the North Vietnamese transported most of their supplies via the Ho Chi Minh Trail (known to
1080-807: The Second Indochina War ended. The fighting that took place between North and South Vietnam following United States withdrawal is sometimes called the Third Indochina War; this term usually refers to a later 1979 conflict, however (see below). The Third Indochina War , commonly known as the Cambodian–Vietnamese War , started on 1 May 1975 when the Kampuchean Revolutionary Army invaded the Vietnamese island of Phu Quoc . Vietnamese forces quickly counter-attacked, regaining their territory and invading
1134-495: The South Vietnamese. The ARVN, which had been trained by American troops to use American tactics, quickly fell into disarray. Although it remained an effective fighting force throughout 1973 and 1974, by January 1975 it had disintegrated. The North Vietnamese hurriedly attacked the much weakened South, and were met with little resistance. Saigon , the capital of South Vietnam, was taken by the PAVN on April 30, 1975, and
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#17327661080601188-618: The Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. Thailand tolerated the presence of the Khmer Rouge on its soil as they helped to contain the Vietnamese and Thai domestic guerillas. Over the course of the following decade, the Khmer Rouge received considerable support from Vietnam's enemies and served as a bargaining tool in the Realpolitik of Thailand, China, the ASEAN and the U.S. Khmer Rouge forces operated from inside Thai territory attacking
1242-519: The Soviet Union. His denouncement of Stalin and his purges, the introduction of more moderate communist policies and foreign policy of peaceful coexistence with the West angered China's leadership. Mao Zedong had been following a strict Stalinistic course, that insisted on the cult of personality as a unifying force of the nation. Disagreements over technical assistance for developing China's nuclear weapons and basic economic policies further alienated
1296-532: The Soviets and the Chinese as opposing forces of communist influence across the globe. As decolonization movements began to pick up speed in the 1960s and many such countries descended into violence, both of the communist powers competed for political control of the various nations or competing factions in ongoing civil war fights. Ever more diverging Chinese and Soviet strategic and political doctrines had increased
1350-523: The Thai border in spring 1979. However, as China, the U.S. and the majority of the international community opposed the Vietnamese campaign, the remaining Khmer Rouge managed to permanently settle in the Thai-Cambodian border region. In a United Nations Security Council meeting, seven non-aligned members drafted a resolution for a ceasefire and Vietnamese withdrawal which failed due to opposition from
1404-619: The Troupes Coloniales wore a double-breasted tunic, known as a paletot which was only worn by them. This garment was worn throughout the First World War, and is useful in positively identifying Troupes Coloniales in photographs, as specifically distinct from troops of the Metropolitan Army who did not wear this garment. As with the rest of the army, they adopted horizon blue uniforms in 1915, subsequent to
1458-660: The Vietnamese as the Truong Son Trail, after the Truong Son mountains), which ran through Laos and Cambodia. As a result, the areas of these nations bordering Vietnam would see heavy combat during the war. For the United States, the political and combat goals were ambiguous: success and progress were ill-defined and, along with the large numbers of casualties, the Vietnam War raised moral issues that made
1512-595: The Vietnamese leadership realised they would not secure their political objective and decided to withdraw their troops. As Kampuchean forces soon resumed their attacks across the border, the Vietnamese launched another limited counter-attack in June, forcing the Kampucheans to retreat. Again the Vietnamese withdrew and the Kampucheans resumed their attacks. The Vietnamese had had enough; in December 1978, Vietnam launched
1566-483: The attacks, the Vietnam People's Army assembled eight divisions to launch a retaliatory strike against Kampuchea. In December, in an effort to force the Kampuchean government to negotiate, the Vietnamese forces invaded Kampuchea, easily defeating the Kampuchean army. On 6 January 1978, Vietnamese forces were only 38 kilometers (24 mi) from Phnom Penh ; however, the Kampuchean government remained defiant and
1620-787: The communist powers. The communist regimes of Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos pledged allegiance with one of these two opposing factions. After the Fall of Saigon and Phnom Penh in April and May 1975 and the subsequent communist takeover in Laos five months later, Indochina was dominated by communist regimes. Armed border clashes between Cambodia and Vietnam soon flared up and escalated as Khmer Rouge forces advanced deep into Vietnamese territory and raided villages, killing hundreds of civilians. Vietnam counterattacked and in December 1978, NVA troops invaded Cambodia, reaching Phnom Penh in January 1979 and arriving at
1674-441: The country, which now formed the largest part of French Indochina. It took the Vietnamese people almost a century to expel the last colonial influence in their country. A continuous thread of local resistance began with Hàm Nghi , then to Phan Đình Phùng , Phan Bội Châu and lastly to Ho Chi Minh , who returned to Vietnam from France and helped to create the Viet Minh national independence coalition in 1941. A founding member of
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1728-533: The current states of Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia . In current usage, it applies largely to a geographic region, rather than to a political area. The wars included: The French colonization and occupation of Vietnam were a result of secular imperialism , driven by economic interests and strategic considerations. In addition to exploiting Vietnam's resources, the French saw the region as a strategic buffer to facilitate access to resources in China. France, however, used
1782-717: The fighting taking place in areas surrounding Hanoi . It ended with the French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and French withdrawal from Vietnam after the Geneva Accords . The Second Indochina War, commonly known as the Vietnam War , pitted the recently successful Communist Vietnam People's Army (VPA or PAVN, but also known as the North Vietnamese Army or NVA) and the National Front for
1836-422: The former had yellow fringed epaulettes and medium blue trousers instead of the red epaulettes and red trousers of the line infantry). On colonial service white, dark blue or light khaki uniforms were worn with topees , according to circumstances. Between 1895 and 1905 a light blue/grey ( bleu mecanicien ) uniform was worn for field dress in Africa and Indo China (see photograph opposite). From 1873 onwards,
1890-867: The gate to Hanoi was open, declared their punitive mission achieved, and withdrew. On 23 October 1991, the Cambodian-Vietnamese War was officially declared over as a result of negotiations and the signing of 1991 Paris Peace Agreements . Third Indochina War 1991 Paris Peace Accords [REDACTED] China [REDACTED] Democratic Kampuchea (until 1979/82) [REDACTED] CGDK (after 1982) [REDACTED] Lao royalists [REDACTED] Hmong insurgents [REDACTED] FULRO [REDACTED] Thailand [REDACTED] Vietnam [REDACTED] Laos [REDACTED] People's Republic of Kampuchea (until 1989) [REDACTED] State of Cambodia (from 1989) [REDACTED] Communist Party of Thailand Second Third The Third Indochina War
1944-424: The invasion of Cambodia. Chinese armed forces launched a punitive operation ( Sino-Vietnamese War ) in February 1979 and attacked Vietnam's northern provinces, determined to contain Soviet/Vietnamese influence and prevent territorial gains in the region. In order to acquire full control over Cambodia the People's Army of Vietnam needed to dislodge the remaining Khmer Rouge leaders and units, which had retreated to
1998-399: The late 1950s and early 1960s, the tirailleurs were discharged, usually to join their new national armies. In 1964, the 7th Regiment of Tirailleurs, formed in 1913 as the 7e Régiment de tirailleurs Algériens was redesigned the 170e Régiment d'Infanterie. The various "Tirailleurs Indochinois" regiments were dispersed by the Japanese coup of 10 March 1945 and were not reformed. On 1 May 1994, in
2052-546: The late 1980s the Vietnamese Communist Party's (VCP) began to adopt its Doi Moi (renovation) policy and reconsider its China policy in particular. Prolonged hostile relations with China had been recognized as to be detrimental to economic reforms, national security and the regime's survival. A number of political concessions opened the way for the normalization process of 1991. Troupes coloniales The Troupes coloniales ("Colonial Troops") or Armée coloniale ("Colonial Army"), commonly called La Coloniale , were
2106-488: The newly unified Vietnam overthrew the Pol Pot regime and the Khmer Rouge, in turn ending the Cambodian genocide . Vietnam had installed a government led by many opponents of Pol Pot, most notably Hun Sen , a former Khmer Rouge commander. This led to Vietnam's occupation of Cambodia for over a decade. The Vietnamese push to completely destroy the Khmer Rouge led to them conducting border raids in Thailand against those who had provided sanctuary. China strongly objected to
2160-491: The notice of 9 December 1914. Towards the end of, and after, World War I khaki became the norm for all colonial troops in contrast to the horizon blue of the metropolitan conscripts. The blue dress uniform was however restored for French personnel who enlisted as volunteers in either the Colonial Infantry or Colonial Artillery, from 1928 to 1939. Tirailleur regiments in Africa wore red fezes and sashes with dark blue, or khaki uniforms until 1914. The Indo-Chinese units wore
2214-424: The presence of veterans of the armée d'Afrique, légionnaires, spahis, zouaves and artilleurs, the 170e Régiment d'Infanterie was redesignated as the 1er Régiment de Tirailleurs. It wears the insignia and bears the honors and traditions of the old 1er régiment de tirailleurs Algériens, which was disbanded in 1964. Throughout their changing titles and roles the French Troupes de Marine or Troupes coloniales retained
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2268-431: The pretext of protecting Christians, who were persecuted by the Nguyen, as a justification for their invasion of Vietnam. While Gia Long tolerated Catholicism, his successors Minh Mạng and Thiệu Trị were orthodox, fundamentalist Confucians , admiring ancient Chinese culture. They forbade Catholic proselytism and resisted European and American attempts to establish colonial trade posts, which France tried to impose. This
2322-525: The pro-Hanoi People's Republic of Kampuchea's government. Similarly Vietnamese forces frequently attacked the Khmer Rouge bases inside Thailand. Eventually Thai and Vietnamese regular troops clashed on several occasions during the following decade. The situation escalated as Thailand's territorial sovereignty was violated on numerous occasions. Heavy fighting with many casualties resulted from direct confrontations between Vietnamese and Thai troops. Thailand increased troop strength, purchased new equipment and built
2376-475: The remote areas along the Thai-Cambodian border. After the Paris Peace Conference in 1989, the PAVN withdrew from Cambodian territory. Finally regular troop engagements in the region ended after the conclusion of the 1991 Paris Peace Accords . In Laos, an insurgency is still ongoing, though to a lesser extent since 2007, with the government being supported by both China and Vietnam. After Joseph Stalin 's death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became leader of
2430-405: The remote jungles of eastern Cambodia where they continued the Ho Chi Minh trail. The Cambodian communist insurgents had joined these sanctuaries during the late 1960s. Although co-operation took place, the Khmer communists did not adopt modern socialist doctrines and eventually allied with China. The complete American withdrawal instantaneously eliminated the principal and common adversary of all
2484-406: The standard light beige or camouflage dress of the modern French Army on ceremonial occasions. From 1822 to 1900 these troops, both French and indigenous, had been designated as Troupes de Marine , though they were not directly linked to the French Navy . Both services were however administered by the Ministre de la Marine and shared an anchor badge. This insignia continued to be worn after
2538-488: The war increasingly unpopular at home. U.S. news reports of the 1968 Tet offensive , especially from CBS, were unfavorable in regard to the lack of progress in ending the war. Although the 1968 Tet offensive resulted in a military victory for South Vietnam and the United States, with virtually complete destruction of the NLF forces combat capability, it was, by the intensity of the combats, the contradiction it implied with recent reports of withdrawals of US troops and status of
2592-405: The war, also a turning point in American voter opposition to U.S. support for their Cold War Vietnamese allies. The Battle of Khe Sanh , for 77 days, occurred during that period, making it one of the biggest single battles at that point in the war. The United States began withdrawing troops from Vietnam in 1970, with the last troops returning in January, 1973. The Paris Peace Accords called for
2646-420: Was a series of interconnected armed conflicts, mainly among the various communist factions over strategic influence in Indochina after Communist victory in South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia in 1975. The conflict primarily started due to continued raids and incursions by the Khmer Rouge into Vietnamese territory that they sought to retake. These incursions would result in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War in which
2700-483: Was a strategic failure. On the other hand, the conflict had proven that China had succeeded in preventing effective Soviet support for its Vietnamese ally. As forces remained mobilized, the Vietnamese Army and the Chinese People's Liberation Army engaged in another decade-long series of border disputes and naval clashes that lasted until 1990. These mostly local engagements usually wore out in prolonged stand-offs, as neither side achieved any long-term military gains. By
2754-482: Was elected Prime Minister of the Viet Minh in 1945. When World War II ended, the August Revolution expelled the Japanese colonial army and gave control of the country to Viet Minh. The Japanese surrendered to the Chinese Nationalists in North Vietnam. Emperor Bảo Đại abdicated power to the Viet Minh, on August 25, 1945. In a popular move, Ho Chi Minh made Bảo Đại "supreme adviser" to the Viet Minh-led government in Hanoi , which asserted its independence on September 2 as
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#17327661080602808-437: Was fought in February–March 1979 between the People's Republic of China and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam . Shortly after the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, the People's Republic of China , who were the Khmer Rouge's political ally, launched a punitive invasion of Vietnam. Fighting was short but intense. The Chinese advanced about forty kilometers into Vietnam, occupying the city of Lang Son on 6 March. There, they claimed
2862-658: Was obstructed by complicated regional historical realities, such as the "timeless oppositions between the Chinese and the Vietnamese on the one hand and the Vietnamese and the Khmers on the other". North Vietnam intervened in the civil war between the Royal Lao Army and the communist Pathet Lao until the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic and the "Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation" signed in July 1977. Permanently stationed North Vietnamese troops secured and maintained vital supply routes and strategic staging sites ( Ho Chi Minh trail ). From 1958 on, Northern and Southern Vietnamese combat troops also began to infiltrate
2916-431: Was seen by colonial powers as "provocative". Isolationist and chauvinist policy led the Vietnamese to refuse industrial modernization , so that they were not able to resist military power of a French invasion. In August 1858, Napoleon III ordered the landing of French forces at Tourane, (present-day Da Nang ), beginning a colonial occupation that was to last almost a century. By 1884, the French had complete control over
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