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37-566: Its name is in all probability Pre-Greek : it features the ending -sós / -ssós / -ttós , which it shares with many other toponyms in Attica and other rivers in Greece, all of which are considered linguistic substratum survivals. During antiquity, the river flowed outside the city walls of Athens : Plato wrote in Critias that the river was one of the borders of the ancient walls. Its banks—in

74-913: A branch of the same people as entered Anatolia, the people who were to appear 1,500 years later as the Luwians ". From the distribution of the names, it appears that this language was spoken during the Early Helladic II period, which began around 2800 BC. However, since many clusters of sounds are possible in both pre-Greek and Indo-European, it is difficult in most cases to distinguish between possible "Parnassian" loanwords and shared pre-Indo-European substrate words. For instance, terms like τολύπη ( tolúpē ; 'clew, ball of wool ready for spinning') show typical pre-Greek features while being related to Anatolian words (in this case Luwian and Hittite taluppa/i- 'lump, clod') with no other attested Indo-European cognate, suggesting that they were borrowed from

111-596: A change of language. Estimates for the introduction of the Proto-Greek language into prehistoric Greece have changed over the course of the 20th century. Since the decipherment of Linear B , searches were made "for earlier breaks in the continuity of the material record that might represent the 'coming of the Greeks ' ". The majority of scholars date the coming of Proto-Greek to the transition from Early Helladic II to Early Helladic III (c. 2400−2200/2100 BC), with

148-466: A relation between Minoan, Eteocretan, Lemnian ( Pelasgian ), and Tyrsenian, inventing the name "Aegeo-Asianic" for the proposed language family. However, many Minoan loanwords found in Mycenaean Greek (e.g., words for architecture, metals and metallurgy, music, use of domestic species, social institutions, weapons, weaving) may be the result of socio-cultural and economic interactions between

185-496: A simple vowel system , with either three or five monophthongs. This system consisted of either /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/, or most likely just /a/, /i/, /u/, in which /a/ varied between /a/~/e/~/o/ as a result of palatalization for /e/ and labialization for /o/. Additionally, it had at least one diphthong (/au/), and it may also have had /ou/, although this is also often explained as the sequence -arʷ- adapted in Greek as -ουρ-, since /ou/

222-582: A single, common ancestral form with a Greek equivalent". In 1979, Edzard J. Furnée proposed a theory by which a pre-Greek substrate is associated with the Kartvelian languages . Saronic Gulf The Saronic Gulf ( Greek : Σαρωνικός κόλπος, Saronikós kólpos ) or Gulf of Aegina in Greece is formed between the peninsulas of Attica and Argolis and forms part of the Aegean Sea . It defines

259-400: A strong indication of a common early phase of Indo-European – possibly Anatolian – influence in the area, some pre-Greek loanwords still remain incompatible with Indo-European phonology while showing certain recurrent patterns that set them apart from other languages. This likely indicates that "one language, or a group of closely related dialects or languages" was

296-419: Is also in the northeast. Beaches line much of the gulf coast from Poros to Epidaurus , Galataki to Kineta and from Megara to Eleusis and from Piraeus down to Anavyssos . Athens' urban area surrounds the northern and the eastern coasts of this gulf. Bays in the gulf include Phaleron Bay , Elefsina Bay to the north, Kechries Bay in the northwest and Sofiko Bay in the east. The volcano of Methana

333-568: Is depicted striding to the right with the "pipes of Pan" in his right hand and a stick for hunting hares on the left. Others believe that this is the Shrine of the Nymphs and the river god Acheloos, with a spring of cold water, a plane tree and a willow, where, as Plato writes, Socrates and Phaedros sat during their philosophical chats. It then flows under Theseos Avenue, in the suburb of Kallithea , its original course turning sharply northwest to join

370-459: Is generally considered a rare feature characteristic of pre-Greek. It is, however, unlikely that voicing or consonantal aspiration were distinctive features, as pre-Greek loanwords in Greek vary freely between plain, voiced and aspirated stops (e.g. ἀσφάραγος/ἀσπάραγος, aspháragos/aspáragos , 'asparagus'). The observation of such variants for a particular word is often a strong indication of substrate-derived etymology. Furthermore, while

407-472: Is located to the southwest along with Kromyonia at the Isthmus of Corinth, Aegina and Poros. Methana is also the youngest most active volcano center and forms the northwestern end of the cycladic arch of active volcanoes that includes Milos island, Santorini island and Nisyros island. A hydropathic institute at Methana makes use of the hot sulphurous water that still surfaces in the area. The most recent eruption

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444-455: Is often seen with an /r/. The phonology of pre-Greek likely featured a series of both labialized and palatalized consonants, as indicated by Mycenaean inscriptions in Linear B . These features were found not only in stops , but in resonants as well (presumably including even the rare modified approximants /jʷ/ and / wʲ /), which was different from Indo-European languages at the time and

481-401: Is the case for many Christian churches in Greece, the church of Aghia Foteini, established in 1872, is built on the ruins of an ancient temple, dedicated to Hecate. Archaeological finds of 2014 identified the ruins of yet another temple, of the 4th Century B.C., dedicated to Zeus, " Μειλίχιον Δία ", in the vicinity of that of the 5th C. B.C. Ionic temple of Artemis Agrotera, slightly higher up on

518-783: Is very common in pre-Greek and characteristic when it shows up as an s -mobile. Certain characteristic consonant clusters associated with pre-Greek phonology as reflected in words inherited into Greek, as listed by Beekes according to their frequency in the PIE language: Not possible in PIE Rare in PIE Possible in PIE Various categories of words have been suggested to be pre-Greek (or "Aegean") loanwords: Possible Anatolian or "Parnassian" loanwords include: There are other substrate proposals. Some fringe theories ranging from

555-714: The Anatolian Luwian language, and to be responsible for the widespread place-names ending in -ssa and -nda in western Asia Minor, and -ssos and -nthos in mainland Greece. For instance, the name of the mount Parnassos in Greece has been interpreted as the Luwian parna- ('house') attached to the possessive suffix -ssa- . Both Hittite and Luwian texts also attest a place-name Parnassa , which could be related. Philologist Martin L. West has proposed to name this unattested Anatolian language "Parnassian", and has argued for "a parallel movement down from Thrace by

592-479: The Athenians defeat Xerxes , assuring Athens its place as the cradle of modern European culture. The ancient port of Cenchreae used to be situated here. The gulf includes the islands of Aegina , Salamis , and Poros along with smaller islands of Patroklos and Fleves . The port of Piraeus , Athens' port, lies on the northeastern edge of the gulf. The site of the former Ellinikon International Airport

629-412: The Greek peninsula and western Asia Minor before Mycenaean Greek and the attested Anatolian languages ( Hittite and Luwian ) became predominant in the region. Various explanations for this phenomenon have been given by scholars. One substrate language, whose influence is observable on Ancient Greek and Anatolian languages, is taken by a number of scholars to be an Indo-European language related to

666-531: The Kifissos River, of which it was once a tributary. The Ilisos is now routed straight to sea, coming to surface and flowing into the Saronic Gulf in the middle of Phaleron Bay . Pre-Greek The pre-Greek substrate (or substratum ) consists of the unknown pre-Greek language or languages (either Pre-Indo-European or other Indo-European languages) spoken in prehistoric Greece prior to

703-702: The Minoans and Mycenaeans during the Bronze Age, and may therefore be part of a linguistic adstrate in Greek rather than a substrate. A Tyrsenian /Etruscan substratum was proposed on the basis of the Lemnos funerary stele : four pottery sherds inscribed in Etruscan that were found in 1885 at Ephestia in Lemnos . However, the Lemnos funerary stele was written in a form of ancient Etruscan , which suggested that

740-565: The author had emigrated from Etruria in Italy , rather than the Greek sphere, and the Homeric tradition makes no mention of a Tyrrhenian presence on Lemnos. If Etruscan was spoken in Greece, it must have been effectively a language isolate , with no significant relationship to or interaction with speakers of pre-Greek or ancient Greek, since, in the words of Carlo De Simone , there are no Etruscan words that can be "etymologically traced back to

777-527: The busy intersection that presently features the Hilton Hotel and the National Gallery —were grassy and shaded by plane trees , and were considered idyllic in antiquity; they were the favored haunts of Socrates for his walks and teaching. The temple of Pankrátēs , a local hero, was located there, giving its name to the modern suburb of Pagkrati . Ilisos was also considered a demi-god,

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814-603: The canal make the gulf quite a busy area with commercial shipping. Fault lines dominate especially in the northwestern part. Sailing is popular in the Saronic Gulf which, like the neighbouring Argolic Gulf, benefits from the Attic mainland's partial shelter from the summer Meltemi wind that can reach Force 7 and above further to the east in the Aegean islands. The Gulf boasts two particularly notable archaeological sites:

851-407: The diversification into a southern and a northern group beginning by approximately 1700 BC. This has been criticized by John E. Coleman, who argues that this estimate is based on stratigraphic discontinuities at Lerna that other archaeological excavations in Greece suggested were the product of chronological gaps or separate deposit-sequencing instead of cultural changes. Coleman estimates that

888-547: The eastern side of the isthmus of Corinth , being the eastern terminus of the Corinth Canal , which cuts across the isthmus. The Saronic Islands in the gulf have played a pivotal role in the history of Greece , with the largest, Salamis being the location of a significant naval battle in the Greco-Persian wars . The Megara Gulf makes up the northern end of the Saronic Gulf. The Athens urban area lies on

925-483: The emergence of the Proto-Greek language in the region c.  3200–2200 BC , during the Early Helladic period. About 1,000 words of Greek vocabulary cannot be adequately explained as derivatives from Proto-Greek or Proto-Indo-European , leading to the substratum hypothesis. Based upon toponymic and lexical evidence, it is generally assumed that one or several languages were once spoken in both

962-638: The entry of Proto-Greek speakers into the Greek peninsula occurred during the late 4th millennium BC (c. 3200 BC) with pre-Greek spoken by the inhabitants of the Late Neolithic II period. Although no written texts exist or have been identified as pre-Greek, the phonology and lexicon have been partially reconstructed from the many words borrowed into Greek; such words often show a type of variation not found in inherited Indo-European Greek terms, and certain recurrent patterns that can be used to identify pre-Greek elements. The pre-Greek language had

999-430: The existence of word-initial approximants /w/ and /j/ can be safely inferred from common motifs in inherited words (e.g. the ἰα‑ from *ja- in ἴαμβος, Ἰάσων) or even retained in early and dialectal forms (e.g. *wa- in the cases of ἄναξ-ϝάναξ, Ὀαξός-ϝαξός, ὑάκινθος-ϝάκινθος), word-initial aspiration probably did not exist, with /h/ considered by Beekes a non-native phoneme in pre-Greek. The initial consonant σ- /s/ or /z/

1036-440: The mild (e.g., Egyptian ) to the extreme (e.g., Proto-Turkic ) have been proposed but have not been adopted by the broader academic community. The English archaeologist Arthur Evans proposed a Minoan ( Eteocretan ) substratum, based on an assumption of widespread Minoan colonisation of the Aegean, policed by a Minoan thalassocracy . Raymond A. Brown, after listing a number of words of pre-Greek origin from Crete , suggests

1073-637: The month of Anthesterion (February–March) as a form of initiation of the Great Eleusinian Mysteries . The Hill of Agrai extends as far as the Stadion and is known by the name of Ardettos or Helicon. Here there is also the Shrine of the God Pan. This rocky outcrop with a small natural cave and two perpendicular faces was found to have a relief of the god Pan. This deity of wild nature was worshiped regularly in caves and rocky terrain. Pan

1110-555: The north coast of the Saronic Gulf. The origin of the gulf's name comes from the mythological king Saron who drowned at the Psifaei lake (modern Psifta ). The Saronic Gulf was a string of six entrances to the Underworld , each guarded by a chthonic enemy in the shape of a thief or bandit. The Battle of Salamis , just to the west of modern-day Piraeus, took place in the Saronic Gulf. This naval battle off Salamis Island saw

1147-569: The river became a source of pollution and was converted gradually into a rainwater runoff conduit, covered with streets that track its original, twisting route along the lay of the land. Its bed proper flows under Mesogeion Avenue at the Old Gendarmerie Academy, flows under Michalakopoulou (the modern-day Ilisia suburb) and Vasileos Konstantinou Avenues, and passes in front of the Panathinaiko Stadium , where it

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1184-410: The same probably non-Indo-European source. Some scholars have thus proposed that at least part of the pre-Greek substrate was brought to Greece by pre-Indo-European settlers from Asia Minor, and that we should distinguish between different layers of loanwords coming successively or concurrently from different families of languages. While the correlations between Anatolian and Greek placenames may be

1221-587: The same slope of the hill, which is thought to have been called "Agrai". It was here that the goddess was celebrated every year on the anniversary of the Battle of Marathon . The archon in charge would offer goats for sacrifice and the tithe of the sale of war prisoners, while the Athenian youth passed in procession. The importance of this hill was due to the Lesser Mysteries, celebrated every year during

1258-484: The son of Poseidon and Demetra , and was worshipped in a sanctuary on the Ardittos Hill, next to the current Panathinaiko Stadium . This area was named Cynosarges in antiquity and the spring of Kallirrhóē was located there. The stream drains the western slopes of Mount Hymettus , and originates from multiple converging seasonal creeks. As urban Athens expanded during the 19th and early 20th centuries,

1295-427: The source of another, possibly earlier, layer of pre-Indo-European loanwords in the region. Of the few words of secure Anatolian origin, most are cultural items or commodities which are likely the result of commercial exchange, not of a substratum. Some of the relevant vocabulary can also be explained as linguistic exchange between Greek and Anatolian languages across the Aegean Sea without necessarily originating from

1332-578: Was bridged during the 19th century. It then flows to the southeastern flank of the ruined Columns of Olympian Zeus , where it is still visible amidst reed beds , next to the Byzantine chapel of Saint Photeine "of the Ilisos". In older times the river at this point expanded into shallow marshland, termed Βατραχονήσι ( Vatrachonísi ; lit. "Frog Island") in the vicinity of the ancient spring of Kallirrhóē , now submerged under Avenue Kallirois. As

1369-412: Was of a submarine volcano north of Methana in the 17th century. The gulf has refineries around the northern part of the gulf including east of Corinth and west of Agioi Theodoroi, Eleusis, Aspropyrgos, Skaramangas and Keratsini. These refineries produce most of Greece's refined petroleum products, a large proportion of which are then exported. Commercial shipping to the refineries, Piraeus, and to and from

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