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122-614: The jurisdiction of the Revolutionary Courts, as amended in 1983, encompasses Disputes over jurisdiction between the Revolutionary Courts and Iranian Penal Courts are resolved by the Iranian Supreme Court. To date, according to the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, "it appears that there is a tendency to extend the jurisdiction of the Revolutionary Courts to all offenses which in the opinion of

244-523: A "heroic figure", and his own objections to constitutionalism and a secular government derived from Nuri's objections to the 1907 constitution. In the late 19th century, the clergy had shown themselves to be a powerful political force in Iran initiating the Tobacco Protest against a concession to a foreign (British) interest. At the age of 61, Khomeini found the arena of leadership open following

366-515: A "mainstream nationalist leader" that they were in for disappointment. To others, it was a reflection of Khomeini's disinterest in the desires, beliefs, or the needs of the Iranian populace. He was Time magazine's Man of the Year in 1979 for his international influence. Khomeini adamantly opposed the provisional government of Shapour Bakhtiar , promising "I shall kick their teeth in. I appoint

488-508: A book titled variously Islamic Government or Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist ( Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih ). This principle, though not known to the wider public before the revolution, was appended to the new Iranian constitution after the revolution. Velâyat-e Faqih was his best known and most influential work, and laid out his ideas on governance (at that time): A modified form of this wilayat al-faqih system

610-547: A broad political movement to strict clerical ruler, Khomeini's first expressed approval of the provisional constitution for the Islamic Republic that had no post of supreme Islamic clerical ruler. After his supporters gained an overwhelming majority of the seats in the body making final changes in the draft (the Assembly of Experts), they rewrote the proposed constitution to include an Islamic jurist Supreme Leader of

732-673: A fatwa which had never been made public in details of when and how it was issued. I would like to inform all the intrepid Muslims in the world that the author of the book entitled The Satanic Verses , which has been compiled, printed and published in opposition to Islam, the Prophet and the Qur'an, as well as those publishers who were aware of its contents, have been declared madhur el dam [those whose blood must be shed]. I call on all zealous Muslims to execute them quickly, wherever they find them, so that no-one will dare to insult Islam again. Whoever

854-502: A few hours, sometimes minutes. Defendants could be found guilty on the basis of "popular repute." The concept of a defense attorney was dismissed as a " Western absurdity." A charge that was widely applied against defendants but unfamiliar to some was Mofsed-e-filarz , or "spreading corruption on earth". This covered a variety of offenses – "insulting Islam and the clergy ," "opposing the Islamic Revolution ," "supporting

976-642: A further challenge to the Ulama. In January 1963, the Shah announced the White Revolution , a six-point programme of reform calling for land reform , nationalization of the forests, the sale of state-owned enterprises to private interests, electoral changes to enfranchise women and allow non-Muslims to hold office, profit-sharing in industry, and a literacy campaign in the nation's schools. Some of these initiatives were regarded as dangerous, especially by

1098-435: A leading scholar of Shia Islam. He taught political philosophy, Islamic history and ethics. Several of his students, for example Morteza Motahhari , later became leading Islamic philosophers and also marja' . As a scholar and teacher, Khomeini produced numerous writings on Islamic philosophy, law, and ethics. He showed an exceptional interest in subjects like philosophy and mysticism that not only were usually absent from

1220-592: A message to the United States Government through [Tehran University professor] Haj Mirza Khalil Kamarei", where he expressed that "he was not opposed to American interests in Iran", and that "on the contrary, he thought the American presence was necessary as a counterbalance to Soviet and possibly British influence". According to the BBC, "these document show that in his long quest for power, he [Khomeini]

1342-511: A pen name in some of his ghazals . Khomeini's grandfather, Mirza Ahmad Mojtahed-e Khonsari was the cleric issuing a fatwa to forbid usage of tobacco during the Tobacco Protest . According to his birth certificate, Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini, whose first name means "spirit of Allah", was born on 17 May 1900 in Khomeyn , Markazi Province , although his brother Mortaza (later known as Ayatollah Pasandideh) gives his birth date of 24 September 1902,

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1464-535: A short stay to the Kingdom of Awadh , a region in the modern state of Uttar Pradesh , India , whose rulers were Twelver Shia Muslims of Persian origin. During their rule, they extensively invited and received a steady stream of Persian scholars, poets, jurists, architects, and painters. The family eventually settled in the small town of Kintoor , near Lucknow , the capital of Awadh. Ayatollah Khomeini's paternal grandfather, Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi ,

1586-493: A single moment for our performance during the war. Have we forgotten that we fought to fulfill our religious duty and that the result is a marginal issue?" In an interview with Gareth Porter , Mohsen Rafighdoost , the eight-year war time minister of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps , disclosed how Khomeini had opposed his proposal for beginning work on both nuclear and chemical weapons by

1708-453: A woman head of state; however, once he returned, his stances on women's rights exhibited drastic changes. Khomeini revoked Iran's 1967 divorce law , considering any divorce granted under this law to be invalid. Nevertheless, Khomeini supported women's right to divorce as allowed by Islamic law. Khomeini reaffirmed the traditional position of rape in Islamic law in which rape by a spouse

1830-680: Is commonly used as a sign of respect although the Constitution designates them simply as "Leader" ( رهبر , rahbar ). According to the constitution (Article 111), the Assembly of Experts is tasked with electing (following Ayatollah Khomeini), supervising, and dismissing the Supreme Leader. In practice, the Assembly has never been known to challenge or otherwise publicly oversee any of the Supreme Leader's decisions (all of its meetings and notes are strictly confidential). Members of

1952-605: Is elected by the Assembly of Experts ( مجلس خبرگان , Majles-e Khobregan ), which is also the only government body in charge of choosing and dismissing Supreme Leaders of Iran. The Supreme Leader is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and the provisional head of the three branches of the state (the Judiciary , the Legislature , and the Executive ). He oversees, appoints (or inaugurates) and can dismiss

2074-406: Is further attested by the modern poet Nader Naderpour (1929–2000), who "had spent many hours exchanging poems with Khomeini in the early 1960s". Naderpour remembered: "For four hours we recited poetry. Every single line I recited from any poet, he recited the next." Ruhollah Khomeini was a lecturer at Najaf and Qom seminaries for decades before he was known on the political scene. He soon became

2196-433: Is killed in this path will be regarded as a martyr. In early 1989, Khomeini issued a fatwa calling for the assassination of Salman Rushdie , an India-born British author. Rushdie's book, The Satanic Verses , published in 1988, was alleged to commit blasphemy against Islam and Khomeini's juristic ruling (fatwā) prescribed Rushdie's assassination by any Muslim. The fatwā required not only Rushdie's execution, but also

2318-475: Is legally considered "inviolable", with Iranians being routinely punished for questioning or insulting him. In March 1979, shortly after Ruhollah Khomeini 's return from exile and the overthrow of Iran's monarchy, a national referendum was held throughout Iran with the question "Islamic Republic, yes or no?" . Although some groups objected to the wording and choice and boycotted the referendum, 98% of those voting voted "yes". Following this landslide victory,

2440-435: Is not a single reference to velayat-e faqih." Khomenei was careful not to publicize his ideas for clerical rule outside of his Islamic network of opposition to the Shah and so not frighten away the secular middle class from his movement. His movement emphasized populism, talking about fighting for the mustazafin , a Quranic term for the oppressed or deprived, that in this context came to mean "just about everyone in Iran except

2562-602: Is now Iran's Markazi province , his father was murdered in 1903 when Khomeini was just two years old. He began studying the Quran and Arabic from a young age and was assisted in his religious studies by his relatives, including his mother's cousin and older brother. Khomeini was a high ranking cleric in Twelver Shi'ism , an ayatollah , a marja' ("source of emulation"), a mujtahid or faqīh (an expert in sharia ), and author of more than 40 books. His opposition to

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2684-531: Is the head of state and the highest political and religious authority of the Islamic Republic of Iran (above the president ). The armed forces , judiciary , state radio and television , and other key government organizations such as the Guardian Council and Expediency Discernment Council are subject to the Supreme Leader. According to the constitution, the Supreme Leader delineates

2806-550: The Assembly of Experts who are elected by Iranian voters to eight year terms. However, all candidates for membership at the Assembly of Experts (along with candidates for president and for the Majlis (parliament)) must have their candidacy approved by the Guardian Council (in 2016, 166 candidates were approved by the Guardians out of 801 who applied to run for the office), whose members in turn, are half appointed unilaterally by

2928-546: The Pahlavis ," and "undermining Iran's independence" by helping the 1953 coup and giving capitulatory privileges to the imperial powers". The secrecy, vagueness of charges, lack of opportunity for defendants to defend themselves came under criticism from people such as Ayatollah Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari , Hassan Tabatabai-Qomi and Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan . But the court's swift and harsh sentences also had strong support from both Islamists and leftist groups such as

3050-456: The Tudeh party and People's Mujahedin of Iran . Khomeini responded to complaints saying that "criminals should not be tried, they should be killed". Judge Khalkhali stated "The revolutionary courts were born out of the anger of the Iranian people and these people will not accept any principles outside Islamic principles". Attempts by Bazargan to appeal to Khomeini to restrict the courts only led to

3172-511: The White Revolution resulted in his state-sponsored expulsion to Bursa in 1964. Nearly a year later, he moved to Najaf , where speeches he gave outlining his religiopolitical theory of Guardianship of the Jurist were compiled into Islamic Government . Khomeini was Time magazine's Man of the Year in 1979 for his international influence and has been described as the "virtual face of Shia Islam in Western popular culture", where he

3294-400: The mass execution of political prisoners in late summer and early autumn 1988. Montazeri was demoted as a marja and Khomeini chose a new successor, a relatively low-ranking member of the clergy, Ali Khamene'i . However Article 109 stipulated that the leader be "a source of imitation" (Marja-e taqlid). Khomeini wrote a letter to the president of the Assembly for Revising the Constitution, which

3416-404: The ulama " (Islamic clergy). They alone would preserve "Islamic order" and keep everyone from deviating from "the just path of Islam". Prior to the revolution , observant Shia Muslims selected their own leading faqih to emulate (known as a Marja' -i taqlid ) according to their own decision making. The "congregation rather than the hierarchy decided how prominent the ayatollah was" thus allowing

3538-618: The American Embassy in Tehran, holding 52 embassy staff hostage for 444 days, an event known as the Iran hostage crisis. In the United States, the hostage-taking was seen as a flagrant violation of international law and aroused intense anger and anti-Iranian sentiment . In Iran, the takeover was immensely popular and earned the support of Khomeini under the slogan " America can't do a damn thing against us ". The seizure of

3660-468: The Assembly are chosen by bodies (the Guardian Council ) whose members are appointed by the Supreme Leader or appointed by an individual ( Chief Justice of Iran ) appointed by the Supreme Leader. In its history , the Islamic Republic of Iran has had only two Supreme Leaders: Khomeini, who held the position from 1979 until his death in 1989 and Ali Khamenei, who has held the position for more than 30 years since Khomeini's death. The Supreme Leader of Iran

3782-581: The Iran–Iraq War), as well as for using child soldiers extensively during the Iran–Iraq War for human wave attacks—estimates are as high as 100,000 for the number of children killed. Ruhollah Khomeini came from a lineage of small land owners, clerics, and merchants. His ancestors migrated towards the end of the 18th century from their original home in Nishapur , Khorasan province in northeastern Iran for

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3904-525: The Islamic seminary in the holy city of Qom , southwest of Tehran , and invited his students to follow. Khomeini accepted the invitation, moved, and took up residence at the Dar al-Shafa school in Qom. Khomeini's studies included Islamic law ( sharia ) and jurisprudence ( fiqh ), but by that time, Khomeini had also acquired an interest in poetry and philosophy ( irfan ). So, upon arriving in Qom, Khomeini sought

4026-456: The Prayer), where "the symbolic dimensions and inner meaning of every part of the prayer, from the ablution that precedes it to the salam that concludes it, are expounded in a rich, complex, and eloquent language that owes much to the concepts and terminology of Ibn 'Arabi . As Sayyid Fihri, the editor and translator of Sirr al-Salat , has remarked, the work is addressed only to the foremost among

4148-630: The Revolutionary Tribunals. According to historian Ervand Abrahamian , Khomeini encouraged the clerical courts to continue implementing their version of the Shari'a. As part of the campaign to "cleanse" the society, these courts executed over 100 drug addicts, prostitutes, homosexuals, rapists, and adulterers on the charge of "sowing corruption on earth". According to author Arno Schmitt, "Khomeini asserted that 'homosexuals' had to be exterminated because they were parasites and corruptors of

4270-571: The Shah and his government. When Khomeini refused, Mansur slapped him in the face in a fit of rage. Two months later, Mansur was assassinated on his way to parliament. Four members of the Fadayan-e Islam , a Shia militia sympathetic to Khomeini, were later executed for the murder. Khomeini spent more than 14 years in exile, mostly in the holy Iraqi city of Najaf . Initially, he was sent to Turkey on 4 November 1964 where he stayed in Bursa in

4392-425: The Shah and his reign. As Iran became more polarized and opposition more radical, Khomeini "was able to mobilize the entire network of mosques in Iran", along with their pious faithful, regular gatherings, hitherto skeptical Mullah leaders, and supported by "over 20,000 properties and buildings throughout Iran"—a political resource the secular middle class and Shiite socialists could not hope to compete with. Aware of

4514-580: The Shah of submission to the United States and Israel. He also decreed that the Nowruz celebrations for the Iranian year 1342 (which fell on 21 March 1963) be canceled as a sign of protest against government policies. On the afternoon of 'Ashura (3 June 1963), Khomeini delivered a speech at the Feyziyeh madrasah drawing parallels between the Caliph Yazid , who is perceived as a 'tyrant' by Shias, and

4636-423: The Shah took an armored column to Qom, and delivered a speech harshly attacking the ulama as a class. Khomeini continued his denunciation of the Shah's programmes, issuing a manifesto that bore the signatures of eight other senior Shia religious scholars. Khomeini's manifesto argued that the Shah had violated the constitution in various ways, he condemned the spread of moral corruption in the country, and accused

4758-445: The Shah, denouncing the Shah as a "wretched, miserable man", and warning him that if he did not change his ways the day would come when the people would offer up thanks for his departure from the country. On 5 June 1963 (15 of Khordad ) at 3:00 am, two days after this public denunciation of the Shah, Khomeini was detained in Qom and transferred to Tehran. Following this action, there were three days of major riots throughout Iran and

4880-514: The Shi'a majority of his country. In September 1980, Iraq launched a full-scale invasion of Iran, beginning the Iran–Iraq War (September 1980 – August 1988). A combination of fierce resistance by Iranians and military incompetence by Iraqi forces soon stalled the Iraqi advance and, despite Saddam's internationally condemned use of poison gas, Iran had by early 1982 regained almost all of the territory lost to

5002-476: The Supreme Leader and half subject to confirmation by the Majlis after being appointed by the head of the Iranian judiciary ( Chief Justice of Iran ), who is himself appointed by the Supreme Leader. The Assembly has never questioned the Supreme Leader. There have been cases where the Guardian Council repealed its ban on particular people after being directed to do so by Khamenei. The Supreme Leader

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5124-496: The Supreme Leader by the Constitution, decrees and other laws are: The role of the Iranian Vice Supreme Leader (Deputy Supreme Leader) was eventually incorporated into the authority of the Supreme Leader. During the presidency of Hassan Rouhani and amid longstanding rumors of Khamenei's declining health, it was recommended to Khamenei to reestablish the office of deputy supreme leader to better facilitate

5246-423: The Supreme Leader is capable of mandating a new decision as per the concept of Vilayat-e Faqih. The Supreme Leader does not receive a salary. Shortly before Khomeini's death a change was made in the constitution allowing a lower ranking Shia cleric to become Supreme Leader. Khomeini had a falling out with his successor Hussein-Ali Montazeri who disapproved of human rights abuses by the Islamic Republic such as

5368-584: The US "is part of a trove of newly declassified US government documents—diplomatic cables, policy memos, meeting records". The documents suggest that the Carter administration helped Khomeini return to Iran by preventing the Iranian army from launching a military coup, and that Khomeini told an American in France to convey a message to Washington that "There should be no fear about oil. It is not true that we wouldn't sell to

5490-521: The US." The Guardian wrote that it "did not have access to the newly declassified documents and was not able to independently verify them"; however it confirmed Khomeini's contact with the Kennedy administration and claims of support for US interest in Iran particularly oil through a CIA analysis report titled "Islam in Iran". According to a 1980 CIA study, "in November 1963 Ayatollah Khomeini sent

5612-590: The United States of America during the Shah's era and the United States illegally smuggled arms to Iran during the 1980s despite Khomeini's anti-Western policy (see Iran–Contra affair ). During the war, the Iranians used human wave attacks (people walking to certain death included child soldiers), with Khomeini promising that they would automatically go to paradise—al Janna—if they died in battle. Khomeini's pursuit of victory ultimately proved futile. By March 1984, two million of Iran's most educated citizens had left

5734-643: The assistance of his relatives, including his mother's cousin, Ja'far, and his elder brother, Morteza Pasandideh. After the First World War , arrangements were made for him to study at the Islamic seminary in Isfahan , but he was attracted instead to the seminary in Arak . He was placed under the leadership of Ayatollah Abdolkarim Haeri Yazdi . In 1920, Khomeini moved to Arak and commenced his studies. The following year, Ayatollah Haeri Yazdi transferred to

5856-556: The authorities are not punished severely enough." The trials are not public, there is no jury, and a single judge decides the matter at hand. Information on the trial is disclosed at the discretion of the government. The revolutionary courts were created shortly after the overthrow of the monarchy and the arrival of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in Iran. The general goal of the court is thought to have been to seek vengeance against officials of Shah's regime (particularly SAVAK ) – as many revolutionaries had lost friends and family members at

5978-531: The banning of hijab by Reza Shah , whom he always blamed for his father's murder. In addition, he went from Qom to Tehran to listen to Ayatullah Hasan Mudarris, the leader of the opposition majority in Iran's parliament during the 1920s. Khomeini became a marja' in 1963, following the death of Grand Ayatollah Seyyed Husayn Borujerdi . Khomeini also valued the ideals of Islamists such as Sheikh Fazlollah Noori and Abol-Ghasem Kashani . Khomeini saw Fazlollah Nuri as

6100-568: The birth anniversary of Muhammad 's daughter, Fatima . He was raised by his mother, Agha Khanum, and his aunt, Sahebeth, following the murder of his father, Mustafa Musawi, over two years after his birth in 1903. Ruhollah began to study the Qur'an and elementary Persian at the age of six. The following year, he began to attend a local school, where he learned religion, noheh khani (lamentation recital), and other traditional subjects. Throughout his childhood, he continued his religious education with

6222-535: The book survived murder attempts, the last (in Rushdie's case) in August 2022. The controversy, and subsequent unrest associated with the fatwa has been linked to surges in sales for Rushdie's work. In a speech on 1 February 1979 delivered to a huge crowd after returning to Iran from exile, Khomeini made a variety of promises to Iranians for his coming Islamic regime: a popularly elected government that would represent

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6344-428: The books, and if he does not provide, he is indebted to the wife, whether he has the ability or not. Issue 2413 – If a woman does not obey her husband in the matters mentioned in the previous issue, she is a sinner and has no right to food, clothing, housing, and co-sleeping, but her dowry is not lost. Issue 2414 – A man has no right to force his wife to serve the house." A mere three weeks after assuming power, under

6466-511: The classical jurist only require a Muslim to kill anyone who insults the Prophet in his hearing and in his presence." Although Rushdie publicly regretted "the distress that publication has occasioned to sincere followers of Islam", the fatwa was not revoked. The fatwa was followed by a number of deaths, including the lethal stabbing of Hitoshi Igarashi , the Japanese translator of the book, in 1991. Rushdie himself and two other translators of

6588-415: The constitution of Iran of 1906 was declared invalid and a new constitution for an Islamic state was created and ratified by referendum during the first week of December in 1979 . According to Francis Fukuyama , the 1979 constitution is a "hybrid" of "theocratic and democratic elements" with much of it based on the ideas Khomeini presented in his published book Islamic Government ( Hukumat-e Islami ). In

6710-464: The constitution of the Islamic Republic states, it intends to establish an ideal and model society on the basis of Islamic norms. ... the Constitution provides the necessary basis for ensuring the continuation of the Revolution at home and abroad. In particular, in the development of international relations, the Constitution will strive with other Islamic and popular movements to prepare the way for

6832-545: The constitution was approved, on 22 October 1979, the United States admitted the exiled and ailing Shah into the country for cancer treatment. In Iran, there was an immediate outcry, with both Khomeini and leftist groups demanding the Shah's return to Iran for trial and execution. On 4 November, a group of Iranian college students calling themselves the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line took control of

6954-420: The country, and a more powerful Council of Guardians to veto un-Islamic legislation and screen candidates for office, disqualifying those found un-Islamic. The Supreme Leader followed closely but not completely Khomeini ideas in his 1970 book Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih ( Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist ) that had been distributed to his supporters and kept from the public. In November 1979,

7076-496: The country. In July 1988, Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations . Despite the high cost of the war, including 450,000 to 950,000 Iranian casualties and US$ 300 billion, Khomeini insisted that extending the war into Iraq in an attempt to overthrow Saddam had not been a mistake. In a "Letter to Clergy", he wrote that "we do not repent, nor are we sorry for even

7198-534: The courts becoming "stronger and more firmly entrenched". According to political scientist and historian Ervand Abrahamian , the Revolutionary Courts participated in the secret mass killings of thousands of imprisoned members of the People's Mujahedin of Iran and other leftist organizations in 1988. Although the Revolutionary Court normally deals with major economic and security crimes, in 2006 it

7320-560: The creation of theocracy, which was based on the Velayat-e faqih . This began the process of suppression of groups inside his broad coalition but outside his network that had placed their hopes in Khomeini but whose support was no longer needed. This also led to the purge or replacement of many secular politicians in Iran, with Khomeini and his close associates taking the following steps: establishing Islamic Revolutionary courts; replacing

7442-610: The curriculum of seminaries but were often an object of hostility and suspicion. Inaugurating his teaching career at the age of 27 by giving private lessons on irfan and Mulla Sadra to a private circle, around the same time, in 1928, he also released his first publication, Sharh Du'a al-Sahar (Commentary on the Du'a al-Baha ), "a detailed commentary, in Arabic , on the prayer recited before dawn during Ramadan by Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq ", followed, some years later, by Sirr al-Salat (Secret of

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7564-407: The day, and he worked against secularism in the 1940s. His first political book Kashf al-Asrar ( Uncovering of Secrets ), published in 1942, was a point-by-point refutation of Asrar-e Hezar Sale ( Secrets of a Thousand Years ), a tract written by a disciple of Iran's leading anti-clerical historian Ahmad Kasravi , as well as a condemnation of innovations such as international time zones, and

7686-400: The deaths of Ayatollah Sayyed Husayn Borujerdi (1961), the leading, although quiescent, Shi'ah religious leader; and Ayatollah Abol-Ghasem Kashani (1962), an activist cleric. The clerical class had been on the defensive ever since the 1920s when the secular, anti-clerical modernizer Reza Shah Pahlavi rose to power. Reza's son Mohammad Reza Shah instituted the White Revolution , which was

7808-459: The deaths of some 400 people. That event is now referred to as the Movement of 15 Khordad . Khomeini remained under house arrest until August. On 26 October 1964, Khomeini denounced both the Shah and the United States. This time it was in response to the "capitulations" or diplomatic immunity granted by the Shah to American military personnel in Iran. What Khomeini labeled a capitulation law,

7930-437: The documents and the BBC's report. On 16 January 1979, the Shah left the country for medical treatment (ostensibly "on vacation"), never to return. Two weeks later, on Thursday, 1 February 1979, Khomeini returned in triumph to Iran, welcomed by a joyous crowd reported to be of up to five million people. On his chartered Air France flight back to Tehran , he was accompanied by 120 journalists, including three women. One of

8052-401: The embassy of a country he called the " Great Satan " helped to advance the cause of theocratic government and outflank politicians and groups who emphasized stability and normalized relations with other countries. Khomeini is reported to have told his president: "This action has many benefits ... this has united our people. Our opponents do not dare act against us. We can put the constitution to

8174-536: The event was celebrated in thousands of mosques. The phenomenon was thought to demonstrate that by late 1978 he was increasingly regarded as a messianic figure in Iran, and perceived by many as the spiritual as well as political leader of the revolt. As protests grew, so did his profile and importance. Although several thousand kilometers away from Iran in Paris, Khomeini set the course of the revolution, urging Iranians not to compromise and ordering work stoppages against

8296-426: The execution of "all those involved in the publication" of the book. Khomeini's fatwā was condemned across the Western world by governments on the grounds that it violated the universal human rights of free speech and freedom of religion . The fatwā has also been attacked for violating the rules of fiqh by not allowing the accused an opportunity to defend himself, and because "even the most rigorous and extreme of

8418-470: The export of his revolution throughout the world. He believed Shia and the significantly more numerous Sunni Muslims should be "united and stand firmly against Western and arrogant powers", and also said: "Establishing the Islamic state world-wide belong to the great goals of the revolution." He declared the birth week of Muhammad (the week between 12th to 17th of Rabi' al-awwal ) as the Unity Week and

8540-551: The fate of the American embassy hostages, and demanded that the United States hand over the Shah for trial in Iran for crimes against the nation. Although the Shah died a few months later, during the summer, the crisis continued. In Iran, supporters of Khomeini named the embassy a " Den of Espionage ", publicizing details regarding armaments, espionage equipment and many volumes of official and classified documents which they found there. Khomeini believed in Muslim unity and solidarity and

8662-600: The final decisions on the amount of transparency in elections , and has dismissed and reinstated presidential cabinet appointees. The office was established by the Constitution of Iran in 1979, pursuant to Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini 's concept of the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist , and is a lifetime appointment. Originally the constitution required the Supreme Leader to be Marja' -e taqlid ,

8784-470: The firing squads by revolutionary tribunals. Revolutionary Tribunals were set up in the major towns, with two courts in the capital of Tehran – one each in the prisons of Qasr and Evin , and one traveling tribunal for Sadegh Khalkhali who was known for handing out many death sentences. The courts presiding judges were clerics appointed by Khomeini himself. At least at first, the revolutionary courts differ from standard Western law courts by limiting trials to

8906-556: The following offices: Iran's regional policy is directly controlled by the office of the Supreme Leader with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ' task limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. All of Iran's ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Force , which directly reports to the Supreme Leader. According to the constitution, all Supreme Leaders (following Ayatollah Khomeini) are to be elected by

9028-587: The form of Khomeini's concept of vilayat-e faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist), as expressed in the Islamic Republic . According to Ayatollah Khomeini, the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist was not restricted to orphans or mental incompetents, but applied to everyone in absence of the twelfth Imam . Jurists were the only rightful political/governmental leaders because "God had commanded Islamic government" and "no one knew religion better than

9150-466: The formation of a single world community (in accordance with the Koranic verse 'This your community is a single community, and I am your Lord, so worship Me' [21:92]), and to assure the continuation of the struggle for the liberation of all deprived and oppressed peoples in the world. According to author Seyyed Vali Nasr, Khomeini appealed to the masses, during the pre-1979 period, by referring to them as

9272-470: The general interests of the mostazafin, forcefully arguing that the clergy's sacred duty was to take over the state so that it could implement shari'a, and exhorting followers to protest. Despite their ideological differences, Khomeini also allied with the People's Mujahedin of Iran during the early 1970s and started funding their armed operations against the Shah. According to the BBC , Khomeini's contact with

9394-448: The general policies of the Islamic Republic (article 110), supervising the legislature , the judiciary , and the executive branches (article 57). The current lifetime officeholder, Seyyed Ali Hosseini Khameneh known as Ali Khamenei , has issued decrees and made the final decisions on the economy , the environment , foreign policy , education , national planning, and other aspects of governance in Iran . Khamenei also makes

9516-553: The government." On 11 February (Bahman 22), Khomeini appointed his own competing interim prime minister, Mehdi Bazargan , demanding, "since I have appointed him, he must be obeyed". He warned it was "God's government", and disobedience against him or Bazargan was considered a "revolt against God", and "revolt against God is Blasphemy". As Khomeini's movement gained momentum, soldiers began to defect to his side and Khomeini declared ill fortune on troops who did not surrender. On 11 February, as revolt spread and armories were taken over,

9638-470: The guidance of Mirza Ali Akbar Yazdi, a scholar of philosophy and mysticism. Yazdi died in 1924, but Khomeini continued to pursue his interest in philosophy with two other teachers, Javad Aqa Maleki Tabrizi and Rafi'i Qazvini. However, perhaps Khomeini's biggest influences were another teacher, Mirza Muhammad 'Ali Shahabadi , and a variety of historic Sufi mystics , including Mulla Sadra and Ibn Arabi . Khomeini studied ancient Greek philosophy and

9760-560: The hands of the government – and to eliminate military and civilian leaders who might foment a counter-revolution against Islamic rule. The first tribunal was convened secretly in Refah School in southern Tehran where Khomeini had set up his headquarters. The first four death sentences were issued by Hojjat al-Islam Sadegh Khalkhali , approved by Khomeini, and carried out in the early hours of February 16, 1979. By early November, 550 people – mostly military and SAVAK – had been sent to

9882-475: The highest form of criminal offense. Women were compelled to wear veils and the image of Western women was carefully reconstructed as a symbol of impiety. Morality and modesty were perceived as fundamental womanly traits that needed state protection, and concepts of individual gender rights were relegated to women's social rights as ordained in Islam. Fatima was widely presented as the ideal emulatable woman. At

10004-579: The highest-ranking cleric in the religious laws of Usuli Twelver Shia Islam . In 1989, however, the constitution was amended and simply asked for Islamic "scholarship" to allow the Supreme Leader to be a lower-ranking cleric. As the Guardian Jurist ( Vali-ye faqih ), the Supreme Leader guides the country, protecting it from heresy and imperialist predations, and ensuring the laws of Islam are followed. The style "Supreme Leader" ( Persian : رهبر معظم , romanized :  rahbar-e mo'azzam )

10126-524: The highest-ranking political and religious authority of the nation, which he held until his death. Most of his period in power was taken up by the Iran–Iraq War of 1980–1988. He was succeeded by Ali Khamenei on 4 June 1989. The subject of a pervasive cult of personality , Khomeini is officially known as Imam Khomeini inside Iran and by his supporters internationally. His funeral was attended by up to 10 million people, or one sixth of Iran's population,

10248-506: The home of Colonel Ali Cetiner of the Turkish Military Intelligence . In October 1965, after less than a year, he was allowed to move to Najaf, Iraq, where he stayed until 1978, when he was expelled by then-Vice President Saddam Hussein . By this time, discontent with the Shah was becoming intense and Khomeini visited Neauphle-le-Château , a suburb of Paris , France, on a tourist visa on 6 October 1978. By

10370-477: The importance of broadening his base, Khomeini reached out to Islamic reformist and secular enemies of the Shah, groups that were suppressed after he took and consolidated power. After the 1977 death of Ali Shariati , an Islamic reformist and political revolutionary author, academic, and philosopher who greatly assisted the Islamic revival among young educated Iranians, Khomeini became the most influential leader of

10492-426: The invasion. The invasion rallied Iranians behind the new regime, enhancing Khomeini's stature and allowing him to consolidate and stabilize his leadership. After this reversal, Khomeini refused an Iraqi offer of a truce, instead demanding reparations and the toppling of Saddam Hussein from power. In 1982, there was an attempted military coup against Khomeini. Although Iran's population and economy were three times

10614-414: The journalists, Peter Jennings , asked: "Ayatollah, would you be so kind as to tell us how you feel about being back in Iran?" Khomeini answered via his aide Sadegh Ghotbzadeh : " Hichi " (Nothing). This statement—much discussed at the time, and also since —was considered by some reflective of his mystical beliefs and non-attachment to ego. Others considered it a warning to Iranians who hoped he would be

10736-574: The largest funeral at the time and one of the largest human gatherings in history. In Iran, his gold-domed tomb in Tehran's Behesht-e Zahrāʾ cemetery has become a shrine for his adherents, and he is legally considered "inviolable", with Iranians regularly punished for insulting him. His supporters view him as a champion of Islamic revival , anti-racism and anti-imperialism. Critics accuse him of human rights violations (including his ordering of attacks against demonstrators, and execution of thousands of political prisoners , war criminals and prisoners of

10858-648: The last Friday of Ramadan as Quds Day in 1981. Shortly after assuming power, Khomeini began calling for Islamic revolutions across the Muslim world , including Iran's Arab neighbor Iraq, the one large state besides Iran with a Shia majority population. At the same time Saddam Hussein , Iraq's secular Arab nationalist Ba'athist leader, was eager to take advantage of Iran's weakened military and (what he assumed was) revolutionary chaos, and in particular to occupy Iran's adjacent oil-rich province of Khuzestan , and to undermine Iranian Islamic revolutionary attempts to incite

10980-615: The late 1960s, Khomeini was a marja -e taqlid (model for imitation) for "hundreds of thousands" of Shia, one of six or so models in the Shia world. While in the 1940s Khomeini accepted the idea of a limited monarchy under the Persian Constitution of 1906 —as evidenced by his book Kashf al-Asrar —by the 1970s he had rejected the idea. In early 1970, Khomeini gave a series of lectures in Najaf on Islamic government, later published as

11102-406: The majority of the population. Article 107 in the constitution mentions Khomeini by name and praises him as the most learned and talented leader for emulation ( marja-i taqlid ). The responsibilities of the Supreme Leader are vaguely stated in the constitution, thus any 'violation' by the Supreme Leader would be dismissed almost immediately. As the rest of the clergy governed affairs on a daily basis,

11224-470: The military declared neutrality and the Bakhtiar regime collapsed. On 30 and 31 March 1979, a referendum to replace the monarchy with an Islamic Republic—with the question: "should the monarchy be abolished in favour of an Islamic Government?"—passed with 98% voting in favour of the replacement. While in Paris, Khomeini had "promised a democratic political system" for Iran but once in power advocated for

11346-578: The nation by spreading the 'stain of wickedness.'" In 1979, he had declared that the execution of homosexuals (as well as prostitutes and adulterers) was reasonable in a moral civilization in the same sense as cutting off decayed skin. Supreme Leader of Iran The supreme leader of Iran , also referred to as Supreme Leader of the Islamic Revolution , but officially called the Supreme Leadership Authority ,

11468-473: The new constitution of the Islamic Republic was adopted by national referendum. Khomeini himself became instituted as the Supreme Leader of Iran , and officially became known as the "Leader of the Revolution". On 4 February 1980, Abolhassan Banisadr was elected as the first president of Iran. Critics complained that Khomeini had gone back on his word to advise, rather than rule the country. Before

11590-508: The opposition to the Shah. Adding to his mystique was the circulation among Iranians in the 1970s of an old Shia saying attributed to the Imam Musa al-Kadhem. Prior to his death in 799, al-Kadhem was said to have prophesied that "[a] man will come out from Qom and he will summon people to the right path". In late 1978, a rumour swept the country that Khomeini's face could be seen in the full moon. Millions of people were said to have seen it and

11712-486: The oppressed and with charisma and political ability was tremendously successful. He became a very popular role model for Shiites and hoped for the Iranian Revolution to be the first step to a much larger Islamic revolution, transcending Shia Islam, in the same way that Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky wanted their revolution to be a world revolution, not just a Russian one. Duties and Powers given to

11834-554: The people of Iran and with which the clergy would not interfere. He promised that "no one should remain homeless in this country", and that Iranians would have free telephone, heating, electricity, bus services and free oil at their doorstep. Under Khomeini's rule, s haria (Islamic law) was introduced, with the Islamic dress code enforced for both men and women by Islamic Revolutionary Guards and other Islamic groups. Women were required to cover their hair, and men were forbidden to wear shorts. Alcoholic drinks, most Western movies, and

11956-413: The people's vote without difficulty, and carry out presidential and parliamentary elections." The new constitution was successfully passed by referendum a month after the hostage crisis began. The crisis had the effect of splitting of the opposition into two groups: radicals supporting the hostage taking, and the moderates opposing it. On 23 February 1980, Khomeini proclaimed Iran's Majlis would decide

12078-508: The powerful and privileged Shi'a ulama (religious scholars), and as Westernizing trends by traditionalists. Khomeini viewed them as "an attack on Islam". Ayatollah Khomeini summoned a meeting of the other senior marjas of Qom and persuaded them to decree a boycott of the referendum on the White Revolution. On 22 January 1963, Khomeini issued a strongly worded declaration denouncing both the Shah and his reform plan. Two days later,

12200-614: The practice of men and women swimming or sunbathing together were banned. The Iranian educational curriculum was Islamized at all levels with the Islamic Cultural Revolution ; this was out thoroughly by the Committee for Islamization of Universities . The broadcasting of any music other than martial or religious on Iranian radio and television was banned by Khomeini in July 1979. The ban lasted 10 years (approximately

12322-431: The pretext of reversing the Shah's affinity for westernization and backed by a vocal conservative section of Iranian society, he revoked the divorce law. Under Khomeini the minimum age of marriage was lowered to 15 for boys and 13 for girls; nevertheless, the average age of women at marriage continued to increase. Laws were passed that encouraged polygamy, made it impossible for women to divorce men, and treated adultery as

12444-550: The previous military and police force; placing Iran's top theologians and Islamic intellectuals in charge of writing a theocratic constitutions, with a central role for Velayat-e faqih ; creating the Islamic Republic Party (IRP) through Khomeini's Motjaheds with the aim of establishing a theocratic government and tearing down any secular opposition; replacing all secular laws with Islamic laws; and neutralising or punishing top theologians ("Khomeini's competitors in

12566-574: The public to possibly limit the influence of the Faqih. After the revolution Shia Muslims (or at least Iranian Shia) were commanded to show allegiance to the current vali-e faghih , Guardian Jurist or Supreme Leader. In this new system, the jurist oversaw all governmental affairs. The complete control exercised by the Faqih was not to be limited to the Iranian Revolution because the revolution and its Leader had international aspirations. As

12688-438: The regime. During the last few months of his exile, Khomeini received a constant stream of reporters, supporters, and notables, eager to hear the spiritual leader of the revolution. While in exile, Khomeini developed what historian Ervand Abrahamian described as a "populist clerical version of Shii Islam". Khomeini modified previous Shii interpretations of Islam in a number of ways that included aggressive approaches to espousing

12810-550: The religious hierarchy"), whose ideas conflicted with Khomeini's, including Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari , Hassan Tabatabaei Qomi , and Hossein Ali Montazeri . Some newspapers were closed, and those protesting the closings were attacked. Opposition groups such as the National Democratic Front and Muslim People's Republican Party were attacked and finally banned. As part of the pivot from guide of

12932-451: The rest of his life). According to Janet Afari, "the newly established regime of Ayatollah Khomeini moved quickly to repress feminists, ethnic and religious minorities, liberals, and leftists – all in the name of Islam." Khomeini took on extensive and proactive support of the female populace during the ousting of the Shah and his subsequent homecoming, advocating for mainstreaming of women into all spheres of life and even hypothesizing about

13054-784: The same time, amidst the religious orthodoxy, there was an active effort to rehabilitate women into employment. Female participation in healthcare, education and the workforce increased drastically during his regime. Reception among women of his regime has been mixed. Whilst a section were dismayed at the increasing Islamisation and concurrent degradation of women's rights, others did notice more opportunities and mainstreaming of relatively religiously conservative women. Shortly after his accession as supreme leader in February 1979, Khomeini imposed capital punishment on homosexuals . Between February and March, sixteen Iranians were executed due to offenses related to sexual violations. Khomeini also created

13176-465: The shah and the imperial court". In Iran, a number of missteps by the Shah including his repression of opponents began to build opposition to his regime. Cassette copies of his lectures fiercely denouncing the Shah, for example as "the Jewish agent, the American serpent whose head must be smashed with a stone", became common items in the markets of Iran, helping to demythologize the power and dignity of

13298-652: The size of Iraq's, the latter was aided by neighboring Persian Gulf Arab states, as well as the Soviet Bloc and Western countries. The Persian Gulf Arabs and the West wanted to be sure the Islamic revolution did not spread across the Persian Gulf, while the Soviet Union was concerned about the potential threat posed to its rule in central Asia to the north; however, Iran had large amounts of ammunition provided by

13420-638: The spiritual elite (akhass-i khavass) and establishes its author as one of their number." The second book has been translated by Sayyid Amjad Hussain Shah Naqavi and released by Brill in 2015 under the title The Mystery of Prayer: The Ascension of the Wayfarers and the Prayer of the Gnostics . His seminary teaching often focused on the importance of religion to practical social and political issues of

13542-403: The watch council (Shura yi Nigahban) will keep watch over this. and the importance of the Supreme Leader. Article 5 states during the absence of the removed Twelfth Imam (may God hasten his reappearance) government and leadership of the community in the Islamic Republic of Iran belong to the rightful God fearing legal scholar (Faqih) who is recognized and acknowledged as the Islamic leader by

13664-591: The work, Khomeini argued that government must be run in accordance with traditional Islamic sharia , and for this to happen a leading Islamic jurist ( faqih ) must provide political "guardianship" ( wilayat or velayat ) over the people. The leading jurist were known as Marja' . The Constitution stresses the importance of the clergy in government, with Article 4 stating that all civil, criminal, financial, economic, administrative, cultural, military, political, and all other statutes and regulations (must) be keeping with Islamic measures;…the Islamic legal scholars of

13786-401: Was adopted after Khomeini and his followers took power, and Khomeini was the Islamic Republic's first "Guardian" or " Supreme Leader ". In the meantime, Khomeini talked only about "Islamic Government", never spelling out what exactly that meant. His network may have been learning about the necessity of rule by Jurists, but "in his interview, speeches, messages and fatvas during this period, there

13908-515: Was an Iranian Islamic revolutionary, politician and religious leader who served as the first Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 until his death in 1989 . He was the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the main leader of the Iranian Revolution , which overthrew Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and ended the Iranian monarchy . Ideologically a Shia Islamist , Khomeini's religious and political ideas are known as Khomeinism . Born in Khomeyn , in what

14030-695: Was born in Kintoor. He left Lucknow in 1830, on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Ali in Najaf , Ottoman Iraq (now Iraq ), and never returned. According to Moin, this migration was to escape from the spread of British power in India. In 1834, Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi visited Persia, and in 1839, he settled in Khomein . Although he stayed and settled in Iran, he continued to be known as Hindi , indicating his stay in India, and Ruhollah Khomeini even used Hindi as

14152-458: Was in fact a " status-of-forces agreement ", stipulating that U.S. servicemen facing criminal charges stemming from a deployment in Iran, were to be tried before a U.S. court martial, not an Iranian court. Khomeini was arrested in November 1964 and held for half a year. Upon his release, Khomeini was brought before Prime Minister Hassan Ali Mansur , who tried to convince him to apologize for his harsh rhetoric and going forward, cease his opposition to

14274-539: Was in session at the time, making the necessary arrangements to designate Khamene'i as his successor, and Article 109 was revised accordingly. "Khomeini is supposed to have written a letter to the Chairman of the assembly of Leadership Experts on 29.4.89 in which he emphasised that he had always been of the opinion that the marja'iyat was not a requirement for the office of leader." The constitution of Iran combines concepts of both democracy and theocracy , theocracy in

14396-642: Was influenced by both the philosophy of Aristotle , whom he regarded as the founder of logic, and Plato , whose views "in the field of divinity" he regarded as "grave and solid". Among Islamic philosophers, Khomeini was mainly influenced by Avicenna and Mulla Sadra . Apart from philosophy, Khomeini was interested in literature and poetry. His poetry collection was released after his death. Beginning in his adolescent years, Khomeini composed mystic, political and social poetry. His poetry works were published in three collections: The Confidant , The Decanter of Love and Turning Point , and Divan . His knowledge of poetry

14518-475: Was known for his support of the hostage takers during the Iran hostage crisis , his fatwa calling for the murder of British Indian novelist Salman Rushdie , and for referring to the United States as the " Great Satan " and the Soviet Union as the "Lesser Satan". Following the revolution, Khomeini became the country's first supreme leader, a position created in the constitution of the Islamic Republic as

14640-452: Was not equivalent to rape or zina, declaring "Issue 2412 – A woman who has entered into a permanent marriage should not go out of the house without her husband's permission, and she should surrender herself to whatever pleasure he wants and not prevent him from getting close to her without a legitimate excuse. If she obeys the husband in these matters, it is obligatory on the husband to provide her food, clothes, house and other items mentioned in

14762-505: Was scheduled to try Cartoonist Mana Neyestani and his editor-in-chief Mehrdad Qassemfar "for inciting ethnic unrest" after a Neyestani cartoon triggered protests and violence among the Azerbaijani-speaking population in northwestern parts of Iran after appearing in a weekly supplement "Iran Jomeh." Ruhollah Khomeini Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini (17 May 1900 or 24 September 1902  – 3 June 1989)

14884-420: Was tactically flexible; he played the moderate even pro-American card to take control but once change had come he put in place an anti-America legacy that would last for decades." Supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei denied the report, and described the documents as "fabricated". Other Iranian politicians including Ebrahim Yazdi , who was Khomeini's spokesman and adviser at the time of the revolution, denounced

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