95-546: Izhbitza-Radzin is the name of a dynasty of Hasidic rebbes . The first rebbe of this dynasty was Rabbi Mordechai Yosef Leiner , author of Mei Hashiloach , in the city of Izhbitza. (Izhbitza is the Yiddish name of Izbica , located in present-day Poland .) Mordechai Yosef founded his own Hasidic movement in the year 5600 (1839), leaving the court of Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Kotzk . His son and successor, Rabbi Yaakov Leiner of Izhbitza, moved to Radzin . The dynasty today
190-645: A blue-water navy was vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to
285-592: A grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip was standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie . According to historian Zbyněk Zeman , in Vienna "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June,
380-540: A guerrilla warfare campaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 by instigating uprisings in India , while the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of
475-408: A change in policy and an Anglo-German naval arms race began. Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 gave the British a technological advantage. Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg acknowledged defeat, leading to
570-613: A direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , which it had occupied since 1878. Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as
665-471: A gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris. The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911,
760-721: A large following include: ( Bobov-45 ) Mordechai Dovid Unger (b. 1954) Hasidic dynasties (arranged alphabetically) with a small following include: Yosef Yitzchak Meir Singer Borough Park , Brooklyn Yitzchak yehoushoua Heschel Friedman Many of these dynasties have presently few or no devotees, due to most of the Hasidic groups being destroyed during the Holocaust , 1939–1945. Other communities are flourishing, and have growing Hasidic sects. There are many dynasties whose followers number around five to fifteen people, and are not listed here. World War I World War I or
855-548: A possibility. This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911 Agadir Crisis . German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz sought to use this growth to build an Imperial German Navy , that could compete with the British Royal Navy . This policy was based on the work of US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan , who argued that possession of
950-834: A revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity. Leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups believed support for the British war effort would hasten Indian Home Rule , a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 by Edwin Montagu , the Secretary of State for India . In 1914, the British Indian Army was larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and
1045-516: A significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912 Italo-Turkish War demonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of the Balkan League , an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro , and Greece . The League quickly overran most of
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#17327937628731140-558: A small part of his ideas were put to writing by his grandson, Rabbi Gershon Henoch Leiner of Radzin. After the death of the Mei Hashiloach , most of his followers appointed his eldest son, Rabbi Yaakov Leiner, author of "Beis Yaakov" and "Sefer Hazemanim" , as Izhbitzer Rebbe. He expanded vastly the Torah of his father, and constantly spoke Torah to his chassidim. During his days the numbers of Izhbitzer Chassidim grew vastly, as he
1235-451: A very calm leadership. Thus in his days Radziner Chassidim numbered in the thousands. He was very instrumental in the establishment of Agudat Yisrael , and served as its vice president until his death. During World War I he moved to Warsaw , leading his followers from there. The Rebbe re-instituted the famous shiurim on the Talmud , based on chassidic approaches, which were popular during
1330-478: A war on two fronts; the Schlieffen Plan envisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon. Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under
1425-402: A weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power like Bulgaria . Russia had ambitions in northeastern Anatolia while its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as
1520-455: A whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans. The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such as trench foot , lice , typhus , trench fever , and the ' Spanish flu '. At the start of the war, German cruisers were scattered across
1615-508: Is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. While Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russia considered itself the protector of Serbia and other Slav states, they preferred the strategically vital Bosporus straits to be controlled by
1710-536: Is therefore known more as the " Radziner Dynasty ". The third Rebbe , Rabbi Gershon Henoch Leiner of Radzin, re-instituted the use of a version of techeiles of the tzitzis . The better known works of the Izhbitzer-Radziner Rebbeim are Mei Hashiloach , Beis Yaakov , Sod Yesharim , and Tiferes Yosef . Today, the largest center of Radziner Hasidim is found in Bnei Brak , Israel , under
1805-574: The Schutzkorps was established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as
1900-641: The World War . In August 1914, the magazine The Independent wrote "This is the Great War. It names itself". In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War." Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as " the war to end war " and it was also described as "the war to end all wars" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life. The first recorded use of
1995-695: The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of New Britain , then part of German New Guinea . On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang . Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became the South Seas Mandate , as well as German Treaty ports on
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#17327937628732090-822: The Bayit VeGan neighborhood of Yerushalayim . Among many other noted Talmudic academies, Rav Moshe learned at the Yeshiva of Rabbi Meir Soloveitchik in Yerushalayim. In the second generation, after the death of the Beis Yaakov , his younger brother, Rabbi Shmuel Dov Asher Leiner, became Rebbe to a small and select group. At first he remained in Izhbitza, moving shortly after to the city of Biskivitz. The Biskivitzer Rebbe's ideas were printed in "Naos Deshe" . He died Acharaon Shel Pesach , 22 Nisan 5665 (1905), and
2185-598: The Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem , Rabbi Yitzchok Kolitz and Rabbi Zalman Nechemia Goldberg . In the summer of 1996, he left the kollel to learn for six years in Beth Medrash Govoah in Lakewood , New Jersey , once again reuniting with a Radziner, the rosh yeshiva , Rabbi Yerucham Olshin . During those six years he reviewed his Yoreh Deah many times and went through many Talmudic tractates. In 1992, at
2280-847: The First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War , was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers . Fighting took place mainly in Europe and the Middle East , as well as in parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific , and in Europe was characterised by trench warfare ; the widespread use of artillery , machine guns, and chemical weapons (gas); and
2375-450: The Nazi murderers. List of Hasidic dynasties A Hasidic dynasty or Chassidic dynasty is a dynasty led by Hasidic Jewish spiritual leaders known as rebbes , and usually has some or all of the following characteristics: Distinguished from a dynasty, a Hasidic group or Chassidic group has the following characteristics: Hasidic dynasties (arranged alphabetically) with
2470-721: The Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and subsequent 1905 Russian Revolution . Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions. Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia,
2565-524: The Tiferes Yosef , as Radziner Rebbe. The Rebbe was also the great-grandson of the second Radomsker Rebbe, Rabbi Avraham Yissachar Dov Rabinowicz , author of the Chessed Le'avrohom . In pre-war Radzin, he was appointed by his brother-in-law, Rabbi Shmuel Shlomo of Radzin, to head the network of Radziner Yeshivos Sod Yesharim. According to the elder chassidim, Rav Shmuel Shlomo crowned him during
2660-626: The Tzava'ah - the will - of the Tana Rabbi Eliezer HaGadol ) as his successor. He was the first rebbe in the dynasty known as "The Radziner Rebbe". Rav Gershon Henoch was a student of his grandfather and father. The Rebbe is referred to by Radziner Chasidim as the "Orchos Chayim" , based on his above-mentioned work. (When the Rebbe published this work, he commented to his brother that he's happy that he got to print his Tzava'ah.) In
2755-828: The United States entered the war on the Allied side following Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian October Revolution , and Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace in March 1918. That month, Germany launched an offensive in
2850-487: The hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at
2945-821: The tank . After the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the " Race to the Sea ". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from the Channel to the Swiss border. Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held
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3040-588: The 1839 Treaty of London did not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime Minister Asquith and his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention. On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply. Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre asked his government for permission to cross
3135-563: The 1879 Dual Alliance , which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up the Reinsurance Treaty , a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia
3230-441: The 1913 Treaty of London , which had created an independent Albania while enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-day Second Balkan War , when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania. The result was that even countries which benefited from
3325-569: The Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of the Cer and Kolubara ; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia. Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century. In 1915,
3420-646: The Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade . A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia , Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in
3515-553: The Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany. This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the " powder keg of Europe ". On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , heir presumptive to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria , visited Sarajevo ,
3610-404: The Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir offensive , which brought stabilisation of
3705-649: The Chinese Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao . After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914. Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. Some of the first clashes of
3800-623: The German High Seas Fleet was confined to port. German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond
3895-640: The German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30. He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan. Historian Richard Holmes argues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in
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3990-752: The German right wing would sweep through the Netherlands and Belgium , then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator, Alfred von Schlieffen , head of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor, Helmuth von Moltke
4085-486: The Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. The opening day on 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of the British Army , which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As
4180-436: The Holocaust, before his death, to lead in his place. Under his leadership, the Izhbitzer-Radziner Dynasty rebuilt itself, with the Center of Radziner Institutions being established in Bnei Brak . The Rebbe also established Radziner Shtieblech in many cities where Radziner Hassidim were concentrated. This includes Jerusalem , Haifa , Netanya , Tel Aviv , Bnei Brak , Holon and Petah Tikva . The Rebbe also re-established
4275-565: The Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded. The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting in the campaign for full independence led by Mahatma Gandhi . Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed
4370-703: The Ottoman Empire , which disturbed the long-standing balance of power in Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered by industrialisation and imperialism . Growing tensions between the great powers and in the Balkans reached a breaking point on 28 June 1914, when a Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible, and declared war on 28 July. After Russia mobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia and France , who had an alliance . The United Kingdom entered after Germany invaded Belgium , whose neutrality it guaranteed, and
4465-545: The Ottomans joined the Central Powers in November. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east, but its advance was halted in September , and by the end of the year the Western Front consisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives. Italy , Bulgaria , Romania , Greece and others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917,
4560-449: The Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913 First Balkan War , much to the surprise of outside observers. The Serbian capture of ports on the Adriatic resulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border in Galicia . The Russian government decided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through
4655-500: The Radziner Shtiebel and community there. In the third generation, after the death of the Orchos Chaim , his younger brother, Rabbi Avraham Yehoshua Heshel Leiner, became Rebbe in the city of Chelm . He was one of the top students of his older brother, the Orchos Chaim. After his death on 27 Shevat 5680 (1920), two of his sons became Rebbe in Chelm, Rabbi Gedalya and Rabbi Ovadya. A number of years later, his son, Rabbi Yeruchem Leiner, became Radziner Rebbe in Cricklewood, England . After
4750-447: The Radziner Yeshiva Sod Yesharim in Jerusalem. In Bnei Brak he established the Radziner Yeshiva Ateres Shlomo, and the Radziner Yeshiva Tiferes Yosef, with many Kollelim located in Jerusalem, Bnei Brak, and Haifa. An important achievement of Avrohom Yissachar was the re-institution of the dyeing of the techeiles . Much effort was put in by him to re-establish the exact procedure as was done in prewar Radzin. Due to his countless efforts,
4845-549: The Russian Stavka agreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that entered East Prussia on 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany
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#17327937628734940-429: The Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac on 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece. After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against
5035-455: The West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), was in full retreat , and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000. German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, but von Kluck used this freedom to disobey orders, opening
5130-430: The Younger . Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine , which was the strategy envisaged by their Plan XVII . However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as
5225-439: The age of 30, he married Miriam, of the Bookson family of Monsey, New York . They had eleven children. Rabbi Yaakov published all the writings of his grandfather, Rabbi Yeruchem, a few months before the former's death and considered that work to be his crowning achievement. After Rabbi Yaakov's death, his ideas were published in "Tiferes Yaakov" . Rabbi Moshe Leiner, second son of Rabbi Mordechai Yosef, serves as Radziner Rebbe in
5320-446: The aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July. That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to "cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary" within 12 hours. A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war. The German General Staff had long assumed they faced
5415-407: The attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania . The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo . Montenegro covered
5510-477: The best way of achieving this. However, the Foreign Ministry had no solid proof of Serbian involvement. On 23 July, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered general mobilization on 25 July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" inside Serbia, and take part in
5605-483: The border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion. Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August, Germany occupied Luxembourg and exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3 August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which
5700-427: The campaign saw the first use of anti-aircraft warfare after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air fire, as well as the first medical evacuation by the Serbian army. Upon mobilisation, in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan , 80% of the German Army was located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier,
5795-525: The capital of the recently annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina . Cvjetko Popović , Gavrilo Princip , Nedeljko Čabrinović , Trifko Grabež , Vaso Čubrilović ( Bosnian Serbs ) and Muhamed Mehmedbašić (from the Bosniaks community), from the movement known as Young Bosnia , took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the Serbian Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw
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#17327937628735890-466: The chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war. As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after the First Battle of the Marne , Crown Prince Wilhelm told an American reporter "We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already." On 30 August 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa (now Samoa ). On 11 September,
5985-414: The cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses,
6080-415: The creation of new independent states, including Poland , Finland , the Baltic states , Czechoslovakia , and Yugoslavia . The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Before World War II , the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply
6175-449: The creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such as barbed wire , machine guns and above all far more powerful artillery , which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and
6270-818: The crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened." Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historian Christopher Clark as a "9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna". Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo . Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as
6365-429: The death of Rabbi Avrohom Yissochor of Radzin, his followers crowned his son, Rabbi Shlomo Yosef Englard , as Radziner Rebbe. He currently resides in Bnei Brak, leading the Radziner Chassidim from the Central Radziner Institution. The Radziner Shtieblech continue to thrive in various cities. In Yerushalayim , the eldest grandson of Rav Avrohom Yissochor, Rabbi Nosson Nochum Englard , was appointed as Radziner Rav, leading
6460-438: The establishment of the "Center for the Dyeing of the Techeiles" was completed in Bnei Brak. The Rebbe appointed his son, Rabbi Yitzchok Englard, to head this institution. Avraham Yissachar led his followers with a calm and loving leadership, similar to that of his father-in-law, the Tiferes Yosef. He died 20 Tishrei 5766 (2005), and was buried in the Rabbinical section (Chelkas HoRabbanim) of Har HaMenuchos , Jerusalem. After
6555-420: The expansion of the French colonial empire . In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors , which included Austria-Hungary , Russia and Germany. After the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War , the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans , an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary then formed
6650-400: The first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at the Battle of Verdun , lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but
6745-486: The front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in the Vardar offensive , after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole , and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold
6840-542: The globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping . These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was the SMS ; Emden , part of the German East Asia Squadron stationed at Qingdao , which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron
6935-549: The high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered "temporary", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences. Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres , the Germans (violating the Hague Convention ) used chlorine gas for
7030-721: The holocaust, he relocated to the Boro Park neighborhood of Brooklyn , opening a Radziner Shtiebel there. His ideas were later published in "Tiferes Yeruchem" . After his death on 20 Av 5724 (1964), his son, Rabbi Mordechai Yosef Leiner, took his place, until his death on 3 Shevat 5751 (1991). After Rabbi Mordechai Yosef's death, his eldest son, Rabbi Yaakov Leiner, became Radziner Rebbe, until his sudden death on 5 Iyar 5769 (2009). Rav Yaakov studied at Yeshiva Rabbi Chaim Berlin , and then at Rabbi Nosson Dovid Rabinowitz's kollel in Shaarei Chesed . He received semichos from
7125-435: The introductions of tanks and aircraft . World War I was one of the deadliest conflicts in history , resulting in an estimated 10 million military dead and more than 20 million wounded , plus some 10 million civilian dead from causes including genocide . The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic. The causes of World War I included the rise of Germany and decline of
7220-470: The investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination. Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade . Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from the SPD political opposition by presenting Russia as
7315-625: The larger world, the Rebbe is better known as the Ba'al HaTecheiles . He led his followers with a more extreme leadership, similar to that of his grandfather, differing from his father's style. The Orchos Chaim died 4 Teves 5651 (1890), and was buried in Radzin. After the death of the Orchos Chaim , his followers appointed his only son, Rabbi Mordechai Yosef Elazar Leiner , the " Tiferes Yosef ", as Radziner Rebbe. The Tiferes Yosef led his followers with
7410-434: The leadership of Rabbi Shlomo Yosef Englard of Radzin. The Izhbitzer-Radziner dynasty was established on Succos 5600 (1839) by Rabbi Mordechai Yosef Leiner , author of the "Mei Hashiloach" . He was a close disciple of Rabbi Simcha Bunim of Peshischa . After Simcha Bunim's death, Mordechai Yosef joined the court of his long-time childhood friend, Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Kotzk. The Kotzker Rebbe appointed him to guide
7505-465: The ocean, even to neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. The Battle of Jutland in May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of
7600-801: The protection of the " cruiser rules ", which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare , realising the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys , escorted by destroyers . This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after
7695-469: The term First World War was in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel who stated, "There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word." For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power , known as the Concert of Europe . After 1848, this
7790-710: The thousands of Radziner Chassidim, did he finally consent. The final push was the pressure put on him by his great-uncle, Rav Mottel Leiner, son of the Beis Yaakov, and Rav Michel Rashes of Brisk , one of the most prominent Radziner Chassidim. The Rebbe led his followers with a very sharp and extreme leadership, similar to that of his grandfather, the Orchos Chaim. This caused many chassidim to have to leave Radzin. The Rebbe went as far as to close various shteiblach , which he believed were not appropriate of being called Radziner Shtieblech. His greatest strength of character
7885-691: The threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by the Balkan powers and Italy, which led to increased expenditure by the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It
7980-544: The times of the Mei HaShiloach . Many of these shiurim were later printed in his sefer , Tiferes Yosef . The Tiferes Yosef died on 26 Shevat 5689 (1929), and was buried in Warsaw. After the death of the Tiferes Yosef , his followers appointed his only son, Rabbi Shmuel Shlomo Leiner , as Radzyner Rebbe. At first, the Rebbe refused to take over his father's position. Only due to the enormous pressure put on him by
8075-645: The war ended with the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably the Treaty of Versailles , by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay large war reparations to the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in
8170-601: The war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates of Togoland and Kamerun . On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa , led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck , fought
8265-477: The west , which despite initial successes left the German Army exhausted and demoralised. A successful Allied counter-offensive from August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facing a revolution at home , Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November, and
8360-517: The young chassidim who joined the ranks in Kotzk. When the Kotzker Rebbe began distancing himself from his chassidim, Mordechai Yosef felt it was time for him to begin leading those who were in need of a Rebbe. He left Kotzk, settling in Izhbitza, being known hence as the "Izhbitzer Rebbe". The Mei Hashiloach died 7 Teves 5614 (1854), and was buried in Izhbitza. A number of years after his death
8455-732: Was brought to light during the years of The Holocaust . The Rebbe was known for encouraging resistance to the orders of the Nazis and the Judenrat , and for urging people to break out of the ghettos , flee to the forests and take up arms. The Nazis searched for him intensively, and he was eventually shot to death on 29 Iyar 5702 (1942). He was buried in Wladawa . After the Holocaust, the surviving Izhbitzer-Radziner Chassidim crowned Rabbi Avrohom Yissochor Englard (1905–2005), son-in-law of
8550-834: Was buried in Biskivitz. After the death of the Naos Deshe , his followers appointed his nephew, Rabbi Moshe Chaim Sochachevsky, in his place. Rav Moshe Chaim was a son-in-law of the Beis Yaakov , and a grandson of Rabbi Dovid Sochachevski, father-in-law of the Beis Yaakov . Rav Moshe Chaim relocated to the city of Reivitz, hence being known as the Reivitzer Rebbe. After his death, his son, Rabbi Yehoshua Avraham Alter Sochachevski, became Reivitzer Rebbe. In his later years, he moved to Chelm. The Reivitzer Rebbe, with his children and son-in-law, Rabbi Gershon Henoch Leiner, (son of Rabbi Chanina Dovid Leiner of Tomashov ), were killed by
8645-403: Was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid isolation , the decline of the Ottoman Empire , New Imperialism , and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck . Victory in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to consolidate a German Empire . Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was to avenge this defeat, but by the early 1890s, this had switched to
8740-496: Was much more accommodating for newcomers. Many of his thoughts were later published in Beis Yaakov, by his son and successor, Rabbi Gershon Henoch Leiner of Radzin. The Beis Yaakov died 15 Av 5638 (1878) in Druzgenik , Lithuania , and was buried in the nearby village of Rotnica , Lithuania. After the death of the Beis Yaakov , his followers appointed his eldest son, Rabbi Gershon Henoch Leiner , author of "Orchos Chayim" (on
8835-654: Was refused. Early on the morning of 4 August, the Germans invaded, and Albert I of Belgium called for assistance under the Treaty of London . Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Beginning on 12 August,
8930-667: Was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel in November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December. The SMS Dresden escaped with a few auxiliaries, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra , these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany . This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law. Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of
9025-781: Was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire by Wilhelm II . The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his new Chancellor , Leo von Caprivi . This gave France an opening to agree the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, which was then followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain. The Triple Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention . While not formal alliances, by settling long-standing colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became
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