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135-514: The Treaty of Peking of September 1861 between the Kingdom of Prussia and China allowed Prussian warships to operate in Chinese waters. As East Asia grew in economic and political importance to the recently united Germany, in 1881, a flying squadron was formed for the area under the command of a flag officer . Since African colonies were then seen as of greater value, an African Cruiser Squadron

270-472: A cavalry unit, a company of engineers, an artillery battery and rear-echelon units. They were to serve as recruiting bases for their front-line divisions and could also perform secondary combat operations, and if necessary they could be expanded into full divisions with a total of 24 territorial force regiments. However, formation of these units was hindered by a lack of sufficient amounts of equipment, especially uniforms. Japanese troops were equipped with

405-518: A German base in China." Hoffmann found his ships lacking for the job and petitioned the admiralty for replacements for the three aging ships. His request was granted and the armored frigate SMS  Kaiser , the light cruiser SMS  Prinzess Wilhelm and the small cruiser SMS  Cormoran were sent. But without a base, Hoffmann depended on the British at Hong Kong, the Chinese at Shanghai and

540-644: A Japanese inn in the International Settlement . After some hesitation, the British authorities in Shanghai concluded that rules against extradition did not apply to a corpse and turned his body over to Chinese authorities. His body was then taken aboard a Chinese warship and sent back to Korea, where it was cut up by the Korean authorities, quartered and displayed in all Korean provinces as a warning to other purported rebels and traitors. In Tokyo,

675-496: A base and to evaluate four potential locales on the Chinese coast. Although Tirpitz favored the bay at Jiaozhou , others in the government advocated for other sites, and even Tirpitz wavered on his commitment in his final report. Tirpitz was recalled by Wilhelm II, and after he returned to Berlin he lost interest in East Asia; he was now developing a battle fleet. Rear Admiral Otto von Diederichs succeeded Tirpitz as commander of

810-466: A constitutional monarchy; the revision of land tax laws; cancellation of the grain loan system; the unification of all internal fiscal administrations under the jurisdiction of the Ho-jo; the suppression of privileged merchants and the development of free commerce and trade, the creation of a modern police system including police patrols and royal guards; and severe punishment of corrupt officials. However,

945-614: A counterweight to Russia. After returning to Korea, Kim presented the document to King Gojong, who was so impressed with the document that he had copies made and distributed to his officials. In 1880, following Chinese advice and breaking with tradition, King Gojong decided to establish diplomatic ties with the United States. After negotiations through Chinese mediation in Tianjin, the Treaty of Peace, Amity, Commerce, and Navigation

1080-577: A few auxiliary vessels escaped destruction and fled back to the Pacific, where the auxiliaries were interned at Chilean ports and Dresden was scuttled at the Battle of Más a Tierra . The four small gunboats Iltis , Jaguar , Tiger , Luchs and the torpedo boats SMS Taku and S90 of the East Asia Squadron that had been left at Tsingtao were scuttled by their crews just prior to

1215-515: A larger role on the peninsula. To Meiji leaders, the issue was not whether Korea should be reformed but how these reforms might be implemented. There was a choice of adopting a passive role which required the cultivation of reformist elements within Korean society and rendering them assistance whenever possible, or adopting a more aggressive policy, actively interfering in Korean politics to assure that reform took place. Many Japanese advocates of Korean reform swung between these two positions. Japan in

1350-534: A lone commerce-raiding campaign in the Indian Ocean , while the cruisers of the squadron would head towards the eastern Pacific and the South American coast, where there were neutral countries with pro-German sympathies (notably Chile ) where Spee could potentially obtain supplies. The cruiser Cormoran was left behind due to the poor state of her engines, which had led her to be stripped to outfit

1485-753: A long-term lease of land to a foreign power, under which the foreign nation has complete control of the land, which is governed by consular representatives. First Sino-Japanese War Taishō period Shōwa period The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895), or the First China–Japan War, was a conflict between the Qing dynasty and the Empire of Japan primarily over influence in Korea . After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and

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1620-594: A matter of opportunism as the intervention by Chinese troops led to subsequent exile of the rival Daewongun in Tianjin and the expansion of Chinese influence in Korea, but it also reflected an ideological disposition shared by many Koreans toward the more comfortable and traditional relationship as a tributary of China. Consequently, the Min clan became advocates of the dongdo seogi ("adopting Western knowledge while keeping Eastern values") philosophy, which had originated from

1755-637: A mission sent to Japan to apologise for the Imo incident in 1882. He had been accompanied by Seo Gwang-beom and by Kim Ok-gyun, who later came under the influence of Japanese modernizers such as Fukuzawa Yukichi . Kim Ok-gyun, while studying in Japan, had also cultivated friendships with influential Japanese figures and became the de facto leader of the group. They were also strongly nationalistic and desired to make their country truly independent by ending Chinese interference in Korea's internal affairs. The Sadaedang

1890-533: A prolonged struggle with HMAS Sydney at the Battle of Cocos . At the outbreak of World War I, nearly all the ships of the East Asia Station were dispersed at various island colonies on routine missions; the armored cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were at anchor at Ponape in the Carolines. The fleet then rendezvoused at Pagan Island in the northern Marianas – the commanders planning

2025-481: A site for the building of a new legation. Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi , to overcome Japan's disadvantageous position in Korea followed by the abortive coup, visited China to discuss the matter with his Chinese counterpart, Li Hongzhang. The two parties succeeded in concluding the Convention of Tianjin on 31 May 1885. They also pledged to withdraw their troops from Korea within four months, with prior notification to

2160-602: A supporting, neighboring infrastructure (including the Tsingtao brewery ) was then built at the impoverished fishing village of Tsingtao to create the Ostasiatische Station [East Asian Station] of the Imperial Navy. Diederichs was recalled to Berlin in 1899 to serve as chief of the admiralty staff; he was succeeded at Tsingtao by Rear Admiral Prince Heinrich of Prussia . A series of other commanders of

2295-513: A wave of anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan. A poor harvest in 1889 led the governor of Korea's Hamgyong Province to prohibit soybean exports to Japan. Japan requested and received compensation in 1893 for their importers. The incident highlighted the growing dependence Japan felt on Korean food imports. On 28 March 1894, a pro-Japanese Korean revolutionary, Kim Ok-gyun, was assassinated in Shanghai . Kim had fled to Japan after his involvement in

2430-607: Is a collective name for several unequal treaties signed at Tianjin (then romanized as Tientsin) in June 1858. The Qing dynasty , Russian Empire , Second French Empire , United Kingdom , and the United States were the parties involved. These treaties, counted by the Chinese among the unequal treaties , opened more Chinese ports to foreign trade , permitted foreign legations in the Chinese capital Beijing , allowed Christian missionary activity, and effectively legalized

2565-595: Is commonly known in China as the War of Jiawu ( Chinese : 甲午戰爭 ; pinyin : Jiǎwǔ Zhànzhēng ), referring to the year (1894) as named under the traditional sexagenary system of years. In Japan, it is called the Japan–Qing War ( Japanese : 日清戦争 , Hepburn : Nisshin sensō ) . In Korea, where much of the war took place, it is called the Qing–Japan War ( Korean : 청일전쟁 ; Hanja : 淸日戰爭 ). After two centuries,

2700-636: The Daewongun acknowledged that any future daughters-in-law might threaten his authority. Therefore, he attempted to prevent any possible threat to his rule by selecting as a new queen for his son an orphaned girl from among the Yŏhŭng Min clan , which lacked powerful political connections. With Queen Min as his daughter-in-law and the royal consort, the Daewongun felt secure in his power. However, after she had become queen, Min recruited all her relatives and had them appointed to influential positions in

2835-513: The Sadaedang faction. After the coup, the Gaehwadang members formed a new government and devised a program of reform. The radical 14-point reform proposal stated that the following conditions be met: an end to Korea's tributary relationship with China; the abolition of ruling-class privilege and the establishment of equal rights for all; the reorganisation of the government as virtually

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2970-600: The Chinese concession of Incheon . During the 1880s two rival factions emerged in Korea. One was a small group of reformers that had centered around the Gaehwadang (Enlightenment Party), which had become frustrated at the limited scale and arbitrary pace of reforms. The members who constituted the Enlightenment Party were well-educated Koreans and most were from the yangban class. They were impressed by

3105-636: The Daewongun led to Korea's abandonment of its isolationist policy. On 26 February 1876, after Japanese troops attacked Korean forces in the Ganghwa Island incident , the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 was signed, opening Korea to Japanese trade. In 1880, the King sent a mission to Japan that was headed by Kim Hong-jip , an enthusiastic observer of the reforms taking place there. While in Japan,

3240-482: The Donghak Peasant Revolution . The Japanese considered this a violation of the 1885 Convention of Tientsin , and sent an expeditionary force of 8,000 troops, which landed at Chemulpo , moved to Seoul , seized the emperor, and set up a pro-Japanese government on 23 July 1894. The Qing government decided to withdraw its troops but rejected recognition of the pro-Japanese government, which granted

3375-634: The Imperial Japanese Army the right to expel the Chinese Huai Army from Korea. About 20,000 Chinese troops still remained in Korea and could be supplied only by sea; on 25 July, the Japanese Navy sank the steamer Kow-shing , which was carrying 1,200 Chinese reinforcements. A declaration of war followed on 1 August. Following the Battle of Pyongyang on 15 September, the Chinese troops retreated to Manchuria, allowing

3510-688: The Leipzig from damage that occurred in the Suez Canal, they traveled on to Samoa and New Zealand (November), and at the start of 1891 some visits to Hong Kong (14 February) and Chinese ports in March, running aground at Wusung-Road before its visit to Nanking. In May 1891, at Yokohama, Valois was ordered to protect German interests in Chile against the Chilean Civil War . She ran out of coal on

3645-618: The Royal Australian Navy  — in fact he described the latter's flagship, the battlecruiser HMAS  Australia , as being superior to his entire force by itself. Spee said of his predicament: "I am quite homeless. I cannot reach Germany. We possess no other secure harbor. I must plough the seas of the world doing as much mischief as I can, until my ammunition is exhausted, or a foe far superior in power succeeds in catching me." The initial successes by Emden led to Spee allowing her captain, von Muller, to take his ship on

3780-526: The Treaty of Chemulpo , signed on the evening of 30 August 1882. The agreement specified that the Korean conspirators would be punished and ¥ 50,000 would be paid to the families of slain Japanese. The Japanese government would also receive ¥500,000, a formal apology, and permission to station troops at their diplomatic legation in Seoul. In the aftermath of rebellion, the Daewongun was accused of fomenting

3915-445: The United States took on a protectionist stance, built up its navy, and tried to create a mercantile empire. The United States was one of the leading "treaty powers" in China, forcing open a total of 23 foreign concessions from the Chinese government. While it is often noted that the United States did not control any settlements in China, it shared British land grants and was actually invited to take land in Shanghai but refused because

4050-460: The 1884 coup, and the Japanese had turned down Korean demands for him to be extradited. Many Japanese activists saw in him potential for a future role in Korean modernisation; however, Meiji government leaders were more cautious. After some reservations, they exiled him to the Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands . Ultimately, he was lured to Shanghai, where he was killed by a Korean, Hong Jong-u , in his room at

4185-533: The 8-mm single-shot Murata Type 18 breech-loading rifle . The improved eight-round- magazine Type 22 was just being introduced and consequently in 1894, on the eve of the war, only the Imperial Guard and 4th Division were equipped with these rifles. The division artillery consisted of 75-mm field guns and mountain pieces manufactured in Osaka . The artillery was based on Krupp designs that were adapted by

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4320-523: The Americans firmly opposed such an article, arguing that a treaty with Korea should be based on the Treaty of Ganghwa, which stipulated that Korea was an independent state. A compromise was finally reached, with Shufeldt and Li agreeing that the King of Korea would notify the U.S. president in a letter that Korea had special status as a tributary state of China. The treaty between the Korean government and

4455-458: The Atlantic and force his way north in an effort to reach Germany. While off the coast of Chile, the squadron met up with the light cruiser Dresden , which had been operating as a commerce raider in the Atlantic and had rounded Cape Horn in an effort to increase chances of success. At this point, Dresden joined Spee's flag and set out with the rest of the East Asia Squadron. The main body of

4590-535: The Chinese diplomat Ma Jianzhong . A staff of Chinese officers also took over the training of the army, providing the Koreans with 1,000 rifles, two cannons, and 10,000 rounds of ammunition. Furthermore, the Chingunyeong (Capital Guards Command), a new Korean military formation, was created and trained along Chinese lines by Yuan Shikai . In October, the two countries signed a treaty stipulating that Korea

4725-477: The Chinese diplomat Huang Zunxian presented him with a study called "A Strategy for Korea" ( Chinese : 朝鮮策略 ; pinyin : Cháoxiǎn cèlüè ). It warned of the threat to Korea posed by the Russians and recommended that Korea maintain friendly relations with Japan, which was at the time too economically weak to be an immediate threat, to work closely with China, and seek an alliance with the United States as

4860-481: The Chinese for trial. Nationalistic groups immediately began to call for war with China. Tensions ran high between China and Japan, but war was not yet inevitable, and the fury in Japan over Kim's assassination began to dissipate. However, in late April, the Donghak Rebellion erupted in Korea. Korean peasants rose up in open rebellion against oppressive taxation and incompetent financial administration of

4995-481: The Chinese government in suppressing the Donghak Rebellion. Although the rebellion was not as serious as it had initially seemed and so the Chinese forces were not necessary, the decision was made to send 2,500 men under the command of General Ye Zhichao to the harbour of Asan , about 70 km (43 mi) from Seoul. The troops destined for Korea sailed on board three British-owned steamers chartered by

5130-403: The Chinese government, arriving at Asan on 9 June. On 25 June, a further 400 troops had arrived. Consequently, by the end of June, Ye Zhichao had about 2,800–2,900 soldiers under his command at Asan. Closely watching the events on the peninsula, the Japanese government had quickly become convinced that the rebellion would lead to Chinese intervention in Korea. As a result, soon after learning of

5265-577: The Chinese troops camped at Asan. Simultaneously, a reinforced brigade of approximately 8,000 troops (the Oshima Composite Brigade), under the command of General Ōshima Yoshimasa , was also dispatched to Chemulpo by 27 June. According to the Japanese, the Chinese government had violated the Convention of Tientsin by not informing the Japanese government of its decision to send troops, but the Chinese claimed that Japan had approved

5400-510: The Chinese troops stationed in Korea were withdrawn. On 4 December 1884, with the help of Japanese minister Takezoe Shinichiro who promised to mobilise Japanese legation guards to provide assistance, the reformers staged their coup under the guise of a banquet hosted by Hong Yeong-sik, the director of the General Postal Administration. The banquet was to celebrate the opening of the new national post office. King Gojong

5535-501: The Cruiser Division. Although the navy had not yet committed to a specific site for a base due to high-level indecision, Diederichs asserted "Kiautschou alone is the goal of my efforts." German offers to buy the site were refused, but the murder of two German missionaries on 1 November 1897 provided the casus belli for Diederichs to land troops on 14 November 1897. The imperial navy had a rather tenuous hold on Jiaozhou until

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5670-516: The East Asia Cruiser Squadron followed: Rear Admirals Curt von Prittwitz, Felix von Bendemann , Alfred Breusing, Carl Coerper, Friedrich von Ingenohl , Erich Gühler, Günther von Krosigk, and the fleet's last commanding officer, Maximilian von Spee . In these years a broad replacement and upgrade program provided for the assignment of modern ships to Tsingtao. From February 1900 until 1902, Admiral Felix von Bendemann commanded

5805-461: The East Asia Squadron ( Ostasiengeschwader ) from his flagships SMS Irene , and then SMS  Hertha . When Bendemann took command of the East Asia Squadron, he found it unprepared for the challenges presented by the brewing Boxer Rebellion . He actually had to borrow charts from the Russians and maps from the British in order to operate in the Yellow Sea . Nevertheless, he forcefully advanced

5940-588: The German-Prussian model as the basis for its army, adopting German doctrines and the German military system and organisation. In 1885 Jakob Meckel, a German adviser, implemented new measures, such as the reorganisation of the command structure into divisions and regiments; the strengthening of army logistics, transportation, and structures (thereby increasing mobility); and the establishment of artillery and engineering regiments as independent commands. It

6075-521: The Italians at the beginning of the 1880s; although it could hardly be described as modern in 1894, in general it still matched contemporary battlefield requirements. By the 1890s, Japan had at its disposal a modern, professionally trained Western-style army which was relatively well equipped and supplied. Its officers had studied in Europe and were well educated in the latest strategy and tactics . By

6210-516: The Japanese policy of seclusion under the shōguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was opened to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. In the years following the Meiji Restoration of 1868 and the fall of the shogunate , the newly formed Meiji government embarked on reforms to centralise and modernise Japan. The Japanese had sent delegations and students around

6345-401: The Japanese at Nagasaki for technical and logistical support of his ships. Wilhelm II, his chancellor, foreign minister and the naval secretary all saw the need for a base in East Asia; the German ambassador to China complained "... our ships cannot swim about here forever like homeless waifs." Rear Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz replaced Hoffmann in June 1896 with orders to find a site for

6480-577: The Japanese government took that as an outrageous affront. Kim Ok-gyun's brutal murder was portrayed as a betrayal by Li Hongzhang and a setback for Japan's stature and dignity. The Chinese authorities refused to press charges against the assassin, and he was even allowed to accompany Kim's mutilated body back to Korea, where he was showered with rewards and honours. Kim's assassination had also called Japan's commitment to its Korean supporters into question. The police in Tokyo had foiled an earlier attempt during

6615-404: The Japanese legation, where Hanabusa Yoshitada the minister to Korea and twenty seven members of the legation resided. The mob surrounded the legation shouting its intention of killing all the Japanese inside. Hanabusa gave orders to burn the legation and important documents were set on fire. As the flames quickly spread, the members of the legation escaped through a rear gate, where they fled to

6750-445: The Japanese minister Takezoe. From there they boarded a Japanese ship for exile in Japan. In January 1885, with a show of force the Japanese dispatched two battalions and seven warships to Korea, which resulted in the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1885 , signed on 9 January 1885. The treaty restored diplomatic relations between Japan and Korea. The Koreans also agreed to pay the Japanese ¥ 100,000 for damages to their legation and to provide

6885-671: The Japanese to take over Korea. Two days later, the Beiyang Fleet suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of the Yalu River , with its surviving ships retreating to Port Arthur. In October 1894, the Japanese Army invaded Manchuria, and captured Port Arthur on 21 November. Japan next captured Weihaiwei on the Shandong Peninsula on 12 February 1895. This gave them control over the approaches to Beijing, and

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7020-532: The Joseon government. It was the largest peasant rebellion in Korean history. However, on 1 June, rumours reached the Donghaks that the Chinese and Japanese were on the verge of sending troops and so the rebels agreed to a ceasefire to remove any grounds for foreign intervention. On 2 June, the Japanese cabinet decided to send troops to Korea if China did the same. In May, the Chinese had taken steps to prepare for

7155-457: The Korean government's request for Chinese military help, all Japanese warships in the vicinity were immediately ordered to Pusan and Chemulpo. By 9 June, Japanese warships had consecutively called at Chemulpo and Pusan. A formation of 420 sailors, selected from the crews of warships anchored in Chempulo, was immediately dispatched to Seoul, where they served as a temporary counterbalance to

7290-487: The Korean government. When Korea demanded that Japan withdraw its troops from Korea, the Japanese refused. In July 1894, the 8,000 Japanese troops captured the Korean king Gojong and occupied the Gyeongbokgung in Seoul. By 25 July, they had replaced the existing Korean government with members of the pro-Japanese faction. Even though Qing forces were already leaving Korea after they found themselves unneeded there,

7425-457: The Pacific. The unprotected cruiser Geier , which had failed to rendezvous at Pagan, tried to join Spee's squadron until forced to intern itself at Hawaii on 17 October 1914 due to mechanical breakdowns. Realizing that Allied activity in the Pacific had increased to such a level that he was vastly outnumbered and losing the element of surprise, Spee decided to move his fleet around Cape Horn into

7560-540: The Qing court began negotiations with Japan in early March. The war concluded with the Treaty of Shimonoseki on 17 April, which required China to pay a massive indemnity and to cede the island of Formosa (Taiwan) to Japan. Japan also gained a predominant position in Korea. The war demonstrated the failure of the Qing dynasty's attempts to modernise its military and fend off threats to its sovereignty, especially when compared with Japan's successful Meiji Restoration . For

7695-706: The South Sea was cancelled with the first signs of troubles in East Africa. As such she took part in the suppression of the Abushiri Revolt in German East Africa. On 8 May 1889 a landing party from the ship also took part in the storming of the Buschiri lager near Bagamojo . Another landing party from the ship took part in the capture of Pangani on 8 July 1889. After the end of the uprising,

7830-438: The United States became the model for all treaties between it and other Western countries. Korea later signed similar trade and commerce treaties with Britain and Germany in 1883, with Italy and Russia in 1884, and with France in 1886. Subsequently, commercial treaties were concluded with other European countries. After 1879, China's relations with Korea came under the authority of Li Hongzhang, who had emerged as one of

7965-413: The advocates of this school of thought sought piecemeal adoptions of institutions that would strengthen the state while preserving the basic social, political, and cultural order. Through the ascendancy of Queen Min to the throne, the Min clan had also been able to use newly created government institutions as bases for political power; subsequently with their growing monopoly of key positions they frustrated

8100-485: The agreement was not a treaty but was in effect issued as a regulation for a vassal. Additionally, during the following year, the Chinese supervised the creation of a Korean Maritime Customs Service, headed by von Möllendorff. Korea was reduced to a semi-colonial tributary state of China with King Gojong unable to appoint diplomats without Chinese approval, and with troops stationed in the country to protect Chinese interests. China also obtained concessions in Korea, notably

8235-512: The ambitions of the Enlightenment Party. In the two years preceding the Imo incident, the members of the Gaehwadang had failed to secure appointments to vital offices in the government and were unable to implement their reform plans. As a consequence they were prepared to seize power by any means necessary. In 1884, an opportunity to seize power by staging a coup d'état against the Sadaedang presented itself. In August, as hostilities between France and China erupted over Annam , half of

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8370-405: The army to quell the rebellion but it had become too late to suppress the mutiny. The original body of mutineers had been swelled by the poor and disaffected citizenry of the city; as a result the revolt had assumed major proportions. The rioters now turned their attention to the Japanese. One group headed to Lieutenant Horimoto's quarters and killed him. Another group, some 3,000 strong, headed for

8505-580: The arts of gunnery and seamanship. At the start of hostilities, the Imperial Japanese Navy was composed of a fleet of 12 modern warships, (the protected cruiser Izumi being added during the war), eight corvettes , one ironclad warship , 26 torpedo boats , and numerous auxiliary/armed merchant cruisers and converted liners . During peacetime, the warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy were divided among three main naval bases at Yokosuka , Kure and Sasebo and following mobilisation,

8640-410: The capture of the base by Japan in November 1914, during the Siege of Tsingtao . Four small river gunboats and some two dozen merchantmen and small vessels evaded Allied capture in inland waters of China until 1917, when China seized most of them save for two river gunboats, which were destroyed by their crews. Treaty of Tientsin The Treaty of Tientsin , also known as the Treaty of Tianjin ,

8775-512: The captured Russian vessel Ryazan as a commerce raider renamed SMS  Cormoran . Emden disrupted trade throughout the Indian Ocean, intercepting 29 ships and sinking those belonging to Britain or its allies. At the Battle of Penang she sank the Russian protected cruiser Zhemchug and the French destroyer Mousquet , catching the Russian ship by surprise while in harbor. At Madras she destroyed oil-storage facilities through shelling. The ship finally met its end on 9 November 1914 after

8910-404: The city. At the end of the Civil War, Leipzig visited various South American ports and then Cape Town. In March 1892, she anchored in Delagoa Bay, from which the Cruiser Squadron's new commander Friedrich von Pawelsz led a delegation to Paul Kruger , the new president of the South African Republic . The African Cruiser Squadron itself returned to Germany for deactivation at Kiel in 1893. With

9045-411: The command of Spee: Also assigned to the squadron in 1914 were the old Bussard -class unprotected cruisers SMS  Geier and Cormoran , torpedo boats SMS S90 and SMS Taku , and a variety of gunboats. At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Spee found himself both outnumbered and outgunned by Allied navies in the region. He was especially wary of the Imperial Japanese Navy and

9180-454: The corpse was outside its authority. However, the shocking murder of the Korean inflamed Japanese opinion since many Japanese considered the Chinese-supported actions to be directed against Japan as well. To the Japanese, the Chinese had also showed their contempt for international law when they set free the suspected assassin, who had been arrested by British authorities in Shanghai and then, in accordance with treaty obligations, turned over to

9315-412: The country, the Koreans had invited the Japanese military attaché Lieutenant Horimoto Reizō to serve as an adviser in creating a modern army. A new military formation called the Pyŏlgigun (Special Skills Force) was established, in which eighty to one hundred young men of the aristocracy were to be given Japanese military training. The following year, in January 1882, the government also reorganised

9450-411: The country. In 1882, the Korean Peninsula experienced a severe drought which led to food shortages, causing much hardship and discord among the population. Korea was on the verge of bankruptcy, even falling months behind on military pay, causing deep resentment among the soldiers. There was also resentment towards the Pyŏlgigun on the part of the soldiers of the regular Korean army, as the formation

9585-471: The court and was carried on the back of a faithful guard who claimed she was his sister. The Daewongun used the incident to reassert his power. The Chinese then deployed about 4,500 troops to Korea, under General Wu Changqing, which effectively regained control and quelled the rebellion. In response, the Japanese also sent four warships and a battalion of troops to Seoul to safeguard Japanese interests and demand reparations. However, tensions subsided with

9720-490: The decision. The Japanese countered by sending an expeditionary force to Korea. The first 400 troops arrived on 9 June en route to Seoul , and 3,000 landed at Incheon on 12 June. However, Japanese officials denied any intention to intervene. As a result, the Qing viceroy Li Hongzhang "was lured into believing that Japan would not wage war, but the Japanese were fully prepared to act". The Qing government turned down Japan's suggestion for Japan and China to co-operate to reform

9855-452: The development of railways, telegraph lines, and modern factories, which led to rapid industrial growth and enhanced the country's military capabilities. During the same period, the Qing dynasty also attempted to implement reforms in response to internal rebellions and external threats. The Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895) aimed to modernise China's military and industry by adopting Western technology and military techniques. However,

9990-516: The developments in Meiji Japan and were eager to emulate them. Members included Kim Ok-gyun , Park Yung-hyo , Hong Yeong-sik , Seo Gwang-beom , and Soh Jaipil . The group was also relatively young; Pak Yung-hio came from a prestigious lineage related to the royal family and was 23, Hong was 29, Seo Gwang-beom was 25, and Soh Jaipil was 20, with Kim Ok-gyun being the oldest at 33. All had spent some time in Japan; Pak Yung-hio had been part of

10125-455: The early 1880s was weak, as a result of internal peasant uprisings and samurai rebellions during the previous decade. The country was also struggling financially, with inflation as a result of these internal factors. Subsequently, the Meiji government adopted a passive policy, encouraging the Korean court to follow the Japanese model but offering little concrete assistance except for the dispatch of

10260-577: The eve of hostilities, was generally cautious and even apprehensive, as the navy had not yet received the warships ordered in February 1893, particularly the battleships Fuji and Yashima and the protected cruiser Akashi . Hence, initiating hostilities at the time was not ideal, and the navy was far less confident than the army about the outcome of a war with China. Many of Japan's major warships were built in British and French shipyards (eight British, three French and two Japanese-built) and 16 of

10395-548: The existing five-army garrison structure into the Muwiyŏng (Palace Guards Garrison) and the Changŏyŏng (Capital Guards Garrison). During the 1880s, discussions in Japan about national security focused on the issue of Korean reform. The political discourse over the two were interlinked; as the German military adviser Major Jakob Meckel stated, Korea was "a dagger pointed at the heart of Japan". What made Korea of strategic concern

10530-528: The first time, regional dominance in East Asia shifted from China to Japan; the prestige of the Qing dynasty, along with the classical tradition in China, suffered a major blow. The loss of Korea as a tributary state sparked an unprecedented public outcry . Within China, the defeat was a catalyst for a series of political upheavals led by Sun Yat-sen and Kang Youwei , culminating in the 1911 Revolution and ultimate end of dynastic rule in China . The war

10665-671: The government launched administrative reforms and established the T'ongni kimu amun (Office for Extraordinary State Affairs) which was modelled on Chinese administrative structures. Under this overarching organisation, twelve sa or agencies were created. In 1881, a technical mission was sent to Japan to survey its modernised facilities. Officials travelled all over Japan inspecting administrative, military, educational, and industrial facilities. In October, another small group went to Tianjin to study modern weapons manufacturing, and Chinese technicians were invited to manufacture weapons in Seoul. Additionally, as part of their plan to modernise

10800-526: The harbour and boarded a boat which took them down the Han River to Chemulpo . Taking refuge with the Incheon commandant, they were again forced to flee after word arrived of the events in Seoul and the attitude of their hosts changed. They escaped to the harbour during heavy rain and were pursued by Korean soldiers. Six Japanese were killed, while another five were seriously wounded. The survivors carrying

10935-521: The idea of taking the Taku Forts and the ships under his command were able to make a noteworthy contribution in the Battle of Taku Forts (1900) . On 8 June 1900, he brought the large cruisers SMS  Hansa , SMS Hertha and the small cruisers SMS  Gefion and SMS Irene before the Taku Forts (together with warships of other nations) to land detachments of marines ( Seebatallione ) for

11070-572: The ideas of moderate Chinese reformers who had emphasised the need to maintain the perceived superior cultural values and heritage of the Sino-centric world while recognising the importance of acquiring and adopting Western technology, particularly military technology, to preserve autonomy. Hence, rather than major institutional reforms such as the adoption of new values such as legal equality or introducing modern education like in Meiji Japan,

11205-686: The import of opium . They ended the first phase of the Second Opium War , which had begun in 1856 and were ratified by the Emperor of China in the Convention of Peking in 1860, after the end of the war. The Xianfeng Emperor authorized negotiations for the treaty on May 29, 1858. His chief representatives were the Manchu Guiliang  [ zh ] and the Mongol Huashana  [ zh ] . The Russian treaty

11340-470: The importation of "civilization" from the West. Korea required a program of self-strengthening like the post-Restoration reforms that were enacted in Japan. The Japanese interest in the reform of Korea was not purely altruistic. Not only would these reforms enable Korea to resist foreign intrusion, which was in Japan's direct interest, but through being a conduit of change they would also have opportunity to play

11475-416: The land was thought to be disadvantageous. The Treaties of Tientsin use several words that have somewhat ambiguous meanings. For example, the words "settlement" and "concession" can often be confused. The term "settlement" refers to a parcel of land, leased to a foreign power, which is composed of both foreign and national peoples, and governed by locally elected foreigners. The term " concession " refers to

11610-707: The logistics of their long journey to Germany, with the ships coaling. The light cruiser Nürnberg was dispatched to Honolulu in the United States Territory of Hawaii to gather war news since all German undersea cables through British controlled areas were cut. Spee headed for German Samoa with Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , then east, conducting the Bombardment of Papeete in French Polynesia. The East Asia Squadron coaled at Easter Island from colliers that had been on station throughout

11745-460: The loss of the ports of Lüshunkou (Port Arthur) and Weihaiwei , the Qing government sued for peace in February 1895 and signed the unequal Treaty of Shimonoseki two months later, ending the war. In the late 19th century, Korea remained one of China's tributary states , while Japan viewed it as its first target of expansion. In June 1894, the Qing government, at the request of the Korean emperor Gojong , sent 2,800 troops to aid in suppressing

11880-749: The members of the East African cruiser squadron with a special cabinet order. All the German vessels left for Italy and docked at Venice on November 12 to continue repairs interrupted at Cape Town. After 15 December, they departed for Malta waters then headed to Port Said, where Christmas and New Years was spent. Sailing solo, Leipzig set out for the Far East on 27 January 1890, with SMS  Carola , SMS  Schwalbe , and SMS  Sperber returned to East Africa, traveling only with gunboats Iltis and Wolf . The squadron's new commander Rear Admiral Victor Valois assumed command on 16 March. This

12015-546: The mobilisation of their forces in the provinces of Zhili, Shandong and in Manchuria as a result of the tense situation on the Korean Peninsula. However, those actions were planned more as an armed demonstration to strengthen the Chinese position in Korea than as preparation for war against Japan. On 3 June, King Gojong, on the recommendation of the Min clan and at the insistence of Yuan Shikai, requested aid from

12150-620: The most influential figures in China after playing an important role during the Taiping Rebellion , and was also an advocate of the Self-Strengthening Movement . In 1879, Li was appointed as governor-general of Zhili and the imperial commissioner for the northern ports. He was in charge of China's Korea policy and urged Korean officials to adopt China's own self-strengthening program to strengthen their country in response to foreign threats, to which King Gojong

12285-515: The movement faced significant challenges, including bureaucratic resistance, corruption, and a lack of central coordination. These difficulties affected the effectiveness of the reforms and prevented China from achieving the same level of modernisation and industrialisation as Japan. As a result, by the time of the First Sino-Japanese War, China remained a largely agrarian society with a relatively weak military, unable to match

12420-471: The name of the king. The Queen also allied herself with political enemies of the Daewongun , so that by late 1873 she had mobilised enough influence to oust him from power. In October 1873, when the Confucian scholar Choe Ik-hyeon submitted a memorial to King Gojong urging him to rule in his own right, Queen Min seized the opportunity to force her father-in-law's retirement as regent. The departure of

12555-487: The navy was composed of five divisions of seagoing warships and three flotillas of torpedo boats with a fourth being formed at the beginning of hostilities. The Japanese also had a relatively large merchant navy , which at the beginning of 1894 consisted of 288 vessels. Of these, 66 belonged to the Nippon Yusen Kaisha shipping company, which received national subsidies from the Japanese government to maintain

12690-423: The new government lasted no longer than a few days. This was possibly inevitable, as the reformers were supported by no more than 140 Japanese troops who faced at least 1,500 Chinese garrisoned in Seoul, under the command of General Yuan Shikai. With the reform measures being a threat to her clan's power, Queen Min secretly requested military intervention from the Chinese. Consequently, within three days, even before

12825-493: The new pro-Japanese Korean government granted Japan the right to expel Qing forces, and Japan dispatched more troops to Korea. The Qing Empire rejected the new Korean government as illegitimate. Japanese reforms under the Meiji government gave significant priority to the creation of an effective modern national army and navy, especially naval construction. Japan sent numerous military officials abroad for training and evaluation of

12960-518: The other if troops were to be sent to Korea in the future. After both countries withdrew their forces they left behind a precarious balance of power on the Korean Peninsula between the two nations. Meanwhile, Yuan Shikai remained in Seoul, appointed as the Chinese Resident, and continued to interfere with Korean domestic politics. The failure of the coup also marked a dramatic decline in Japanese influence over Korea. The Nagasaki incident

13095-574: The outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894, Germany revived her interest in China. With full support from Kaiser Wilhelm II , the German admiralty created an East Asia Cruiser Division (Kreuzerdivision in Ostasien) with the modern light cruiser SMS  Irene and three aging small ships under the command of Rear Admiral Paul Hoffmann . "His orders directed him to protect German interests and to examine possible sites for

13230-494: The overseer of government finances and Queen Min's nephew, to handle the matter. Min in turn handed the matter over to his steward who sold the good rice he had been given and used the money to buy millet which he mixed with sand and bran. As a result, the rice became rotten and inedible. The distribution of the alleged rice infuriated the soldiers. On 23 July, a military mutiny and riot broke out in Seoul . Enraged soldiers headed for

13365-500: The peninsula, where they began to interfere in Korean internal affairs directly. After stationing troops at strategic points in the capital Seoul, the Chinese undertook several initiatives to gain significant influence over the Korean government. The Qing dispatched two special advisers on foreign affairs representing Chinese interests to Korea: the German Paul Georg von Möllendorff , a close confidant of Li Hongzhang , and

13500-449: The physical requirements of military service, became third Reserve ( hojū ). In time of war, the first Reserve ( yōbi ) were to be called up first and they were intended to fill the ranks of the regular army units. Next to be called up were the kōbi reserve who were to be either used to further fill in the ranks of line units or to be formed into new ones. The hojū reserve members were to be called up only in exceptional circumstances, and

13635-532: The protection of their citizens in Tientsin . Lieutenant Otto Weniger, the commander of SMS Gefion then became commander of a landing corps of 500 marines, which took part in the failed Seymour Expedition for the relief of the Peking delegations later in June. In January 1913, the squadron visited Batavia (now Jakarta ), Indonesia. In 1914, the East Asia Squadron numbered a total of five major warships under

13770-495: The rapidly modernising Japanese forces. In January 1864, King Cheoljong died without a male heir, and through Korean succession protocols King Gojong ascended the throne at the age of 12. However, as King Gojong was too young to rule, the new king's father, Yi Ha-ŭng, became the Daewongun , or lord of the great court, and ruled Korea in his son's name as regent. Originally the term Daewongun referred to any person who

13905-470: The rebellion and its violence, and was arrested by the Chinese and taken to Tianjin. He was later carried off to a town about sixty miles southwest of Beijing, where for three years he was confined to one room and kept under strict surveillance. After the Imo Incident, early reform efforts in Korea suffered a major setback. In the aftermath of the incident, the Chinese reasserted their influence over

14040-423: The reform measures were made public, the coup was suppressed by Chinese troops who attacked and defeated the Japanese forces and restored power to the pro-Chinese Sadaedang faction. During the ensuing melee Hong Yeong-sik was killed, the Japanese legation building was burned down and forty Japanese were killed. The surviving Korean coup leaders including Kim Ok-gyun escaped to the port of Chemulpo under escort of

14175-584: The region was reinforced by the arrival of the protected cruiser SMS  Kaiserin Augusta and in January 1898 the marines of the Seebataillon disembarked to form the garrison for Tsingtao (now Qingdao). With the convention at Peking on 6 March 1898, the German ambassador and Chinese viceroy signed a 99-year lease for Jiaozhou and colonization of the territory began in earnest. A naval base with

14310-564: The relative strengths and tactics of Western armies and navies. The Imperial Japanese Navy was modelled after the British Royal Navy , at the time the foremost naval power. British advisors were sent to Japan to train the naval establishment, while Japanese students were in turn sent to Britain to study and observe the Royal Navy. Through drilling and tuition by Royal Navy instructors, Japan developed naval officers expert in

14445-481: The residence of Min Gyeom-ho, who they had suspected of having swindled them out of their rice. Min, on hearing word of the revolt, ordered the police to arrest some of the ringleaders and announced that they would be executed the next morning. He had assumed that this would serve as a warning to the other agitators. However, after learning what had transpired, the rioters broke into Min's house to take vengeance; as he

14580-399: The same year to assassinate Park Yung-hyo, one of the other Korean leaders of the 1884 uprising. When two suspected Korean assassins received asylum at the Korean legation, that had instigated a diplomatic outrage as well. Although the Japanese government could have immediately used Kim's assassination to its advantage, it concluded that since Kim had died on Chinese territory, the treatment of

14715-466: The ship put into Cape Town for an overhaul (August/September). In early September, Deinhardt received a telegram from Emperor Wilhelm II to report to his ship in the eastern Mediterranean. The ship entered the Mediterranean on 28 October and joined the training squadron off the island of Mitilini on 1 November. The emperor met Deinhardt on 6 November, who was returning from Constantinople, honored

14850-455: The small military mission headed by Lieutenant Horimoto Reizo to train the Pyŏlgigun . What worried the Japanese was the Chinese, who had loosened their hold over Korea in 1876 when the Japanese succeeded in establishing a legal basis for Korean independence by ending its tributary status. Chinese actions appeared to be thwarting the forces of reform in Korea and re-asserting their influence over

14985-565: The squadron engaged the British West Indies Squadron on 1 November 1914 at the Battle of Coronel , sinking two British cruisers, HMS  Good Hope and HMS  Monmouth . It was while attempting to return home via the Atlantic that most of the squadron was destroyed on 8 December 1914 in the Battle of the Falkland Islands by a superior British force of battlecruisers and cruisers. SMS Dresden and

15120-404: The start of the war, the Imperial Japanese Army could field a total force of 120,000 men in two armies and five divisions. The Japanese army despite the integration of supply troops into its divisions was unable to rely on its pre-existing logistical system and personnel to sustain its armies in the field with 153,000 labourers, contractors, and drivers being contracted to sustain the armies in

15255-425: The territorial militia or national guard ( kokumin ). Following the period of active military service ( gen-eki ), which lasted for three years, the soldiers became part of the first Reserve ( yōbi numbering 92,000 in 1893 ) and then the second Reserve ( kōbi numbering 106,000 in 1893 ). All young and able-bodied men who did not receive basic military training due to exceptions and those conscripts who had not fully met

15390-480: The territorial militia or national guard would only be called up in case of an immediate enemy attack on or invasion of Japan. The country was divided into six military districts (headquarters Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Sendai, Hiroshima and Kumamoto), with each being a recruitment area for a square infantry division consisting of two brigades of two regiments. Each of these divisions contained approximately 18,600 troops and 36 artillery pieces when mobilised . There

15525-587: The torpedo boats were known to have been built in France and assembled in Japan. The Meiji government at first modelled their army after the French Army . French advisers had been sent to Japan with two military missions (in 1872–1880 and 1884 ), in addition to one mission under the shogunate. Nationwide conscription was enforced in 1873 and a Western-style conscript army was established; military schools and arsenals were also built. In 1886, Japan turned toward

15660-480: The vessels for use by the navy in time of war. As a consequence, the navy could call on a sufficient number of auxiliaries and transports . Japan did not yet have the resources to acquire battleships and so planned to employ the Jeune École doctrine, which favoured small, fast warships, especially cruisers and torpedo boats, with the offensive capability to destroy larger craft. The Japanese naval leadership, on

15795-481: The way there and had to be towed for 97 hours. After stopping briefly in San Francisco, she traveled to Valparaiso arriving on 9 July. They traveled on to Iquique and Coquimbo during July and August. As the war came to a head, they returned to Valparaiso on 20 August and Leipzig and the British corvette HMS  Champion sent a joint landing party to Valparaíso to protect the British and German quarters of

15930-544: The world to learn and assimilate Western arts and sciences, with the intention of making Japan an equal to the Western powers. These reforms transformed Japan from a feudal society into a modern industrial state. The Meiji government focused on strengthening the military, adopting Western-style training and technology, which led to the establishing of a powerful navy and a well-equipped army. Furthermore, Japan's economic infrastructure saw significant improvements, including

16065-496: The wounded then boarded a small boat and headed for the open sea where three days later they were rescued by a British survey ship, HMS  Flying Fish , which took them to Nagasaki . The following day, after the attack on the Japanese legation, the rioters forced their way into the royal palace where they found and killed Min Gyeom-ho, as well as a dozen other high-ranking officers. They also searched for Queen Min. The queen narrowly escaped, however, dressed as an ordinary lady of

16200-467: Was a group of conservatives, which included not only Min Yeong-ik from the Min family but also other prominent Korean political figures that wanted to maintain power with China's help. Although the members of the Sadaedang supported the enlightenment policy, they favoured gradual changes based on the Chinese model. After the Imo incident, the Min clan pursued a pro-Chinese policy. This was also partly

16335-461: Was a riot that took place in the Japanese port city of Nagasaki in 1886. Four warships from the Qing Empire's navy, the Beiyang Fleet , stopped at Nagasaki, apparently to carry out repairs. Some Chinese sailors caused trouble in the city and started the riot. Several Japanese policemen confronting the rioters were killed. The Qing government did not apologise after the incident, which resulted in

16470-807: Was a routine period, including visits to Kotchin in India (20 March), traveled to Chinese and Japanese ports where Valois meet-up with his flagship at Nagasaki, From there they traveled to Hong Kong, and Manila to Singapore, where they meet up with SMS  Sophie . They subsequently traveled in July through Indonesia, the Strait of Dampier, the Bismarck Archipelago, then to Newcastle, Sydney (15 September) and Jervis Bay in Australia. They were joined by SMS  Alexandrine in Australia and after repairs to

16605-497: Was also an Imperial Guard division which recruited nationally, from all around Japan. This division was also composed of two brigades but had instead two- battalion , not three-battalion, regiments; consequently its numerical strength after mobilisation was 12,500 troops and 24 artillery pieces. In addition, there were fortress troops consisting of approximately six battalions, the Colonial Corps of about 4,000 troops which

16740-439: Was also an army that was equal to European armed forces in every respect. On the eve of the outbreak of the war with China all men between the ages of 17 and 40 years were eligible for conscription , but only those who turned 20 were to be drafted while those who had turned 17 could volunteer. All men between the ages of 17 and 40, even those who had not received military training or were physically unfit, were considered part of

16875-409: Was better equipped and treated. Additionally, more than 1000 soldiers had been discharged in the process of overhauling the army; most of them were either old or disabled, and the rest had not been given their pay in rice for thirteen months. In June of that year, King Gojong, being informed of the situation, ordered that a month's allowance of rice be given to the soldiers. He directed Min Gyeom-ho,

17010-529: Was dependent on China and granted Chinese merchants the right to conduct overland and maritime business freely within its borders. It also gave the Chinese advantages over the Japanese and Westerners and granted them unilateral extraterritoriality privileges in civil and criminal cases. Under the treaty, the number of Chinese merchants and traders significantly increased, a severe blow to Korean merchants. Although it allowed Koreans reciprocally to trade in Beijing,

17145-657: Was established in 1885 with permanent status, and shortly thereafter the Imperial German Navy reduced the East Asia presence to two small gunboats. From 1888 to 1892, Leipzig was flagship of the German East Asia Squadron, initially under Vice Admiral Karl August Deinhardt, appointed 14 July when the ship was in Aden and took command of the ship at Zanzibar on 2 August, and of the squadron 31 August at Manda-Bay (Kenya). The planned voyage to

17280-451: Was expected to attend together with several foreign diplomats and high-ranking officials, most of whom were members of the pro-Chinese Sadaedang faction. Kim Ok-gyun and his comrades approached King Gojong falsely stating that Chinese troops had created a disturbance and escorted him to the small Gyoengu Palace, where they placed him in the custody of Japanese legation guards. They then proceeded to kill and wound several senior officials of

17415-424: Was formally signed between the United States and Korea in Incheon on 22 May 1882. However, there were two significant issues raised by the treaty. The first concerned Korea's status as an independent nation. During the talks with the Americans, the Chinese insisted that the treaty contain an article declaring that Korea was a dependency of China and argued that the country had long been a tributary state of China. But

17550-513: Was negotiated by Yevfimiy Putyatin and finalized on June 13; the American treaty was negotiated by William Bradford Reed and finalized on June 18; the British treaty was negotiated by James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin , and finalized on June 26; and the French treaty was negotiated by Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gros and finalized on June 27. Following the pattern set by the great powers of Europe,

17685-476: Was not actually the king but whose son took the throne. With his ascendancy to power the Daewongun initiated a set of reforms designed to strengthen the monarchy at the expense of the Yangban class. He also pursued an isolationist policy and was determined to purge the kingdom of any foreign ideas that had infiltrated into the nation. In Korean history, the king's in-laws enjoyed great power, consequently

17820-405: Was not at his residence the rioters vented their frustrations by destroying his furniture and other possessions. The rioters then moved on to an armoury from which they stole weapons and ammunition, and then headed for the prison. After overpowering the guards, they released not only the men who had been arrested that day by Min Gyeom-ho but also many political prisoners as well. Min then summoned

17955-417: Was not merely its proximity to Japan but its inability to defend itself against outsiders. If Korea were truly independent, it posed no strategic problem to Japan's national security, but if the country remained undeveloped it would remain weak and consequently would be inviting prey for foreign domination. The political consensus in Japan was that Korean independence lay, as it had been for Meiji Japan, through

18090-455: Was receptive. The Korean government, immediately after opening the country to the outside world, pursued a policy of enlightenment aimed at achieving national prosperity and military strength through the doctrine of tongdo sŏgi ( Eastern ways and Western machines ). To modernise their country, the Koreans tried selectively to accept and master Western technology while preserving their country's cultural values and heritage. In January 1881,

18225-515: Was stationed on Hokkaido and the Ryukyu Islands , and a battalion of military police in each of the districts. In peacetime the regular army had a total of fewer than 70,000 men, while after mobilisation the numbers rose to over 220,000. Moreover, the army still had a trained reserve, which, following the mobilisation of the first-line divisions, could be formed into reserve brigades. These reserve brigades each consisted of four battalions,

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