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57-586: Jerome 's Against Helvidius (c. 383) paved the way for aspects of future Josephite devotion with his assertion that Joseph was always a virgin. The earliest record of a formal devotional following for Joseph in the Western Church is in the abridged Martyrology of Rheinau in Northern France, which dates to the year 800. References to Joseph as nutritor Domini ("educator/guardian of the Lord") from

114-415: A commemoration on 30 September. Jerome is also often depicted with a lion, in reference to the popular hagiographical belief that Jerome once tamed a lion in the wilderness by healing its paw. The source for the story may actually have been the second century Roman tale of Androcles , or confusion with the exploits of Gerasimus (Jerome in later Latin is "Geronimus"); it is "a figment" found in

171-582: A Soul , Thérèse of Lisieux stated that for a period of time, she prayed every day to "Saint Joseph, Father and Protector of Virgins..." and felt safe from danger as a result. The three mentioned in this paragraph are all Doctors of the Church . In 1870, Pope Pius IX proclaimed Saint Joseph "Patron of the Universal Church". In 1889, Pope Leo XIII issued the encyclical Quamquam pluries in which he urged Catholics to pray to Joseph as patron of

228-795: A crucial source of information on the pronunciation of the Hebrew language in Byzantine Palestine . Due to his work, Jerome is recognized as a saint and Doctor of the Church by the Catholic Church , and as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Lutheran Church , and the Anglican Communion . His feast day is 30 September ( Gregorian calendar ). Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus

285-461: Is depicted alongside his red cardinal hat. Jerome is often depicted in connection with the vanitas motif, the reflection on the meaninglessness of earthly life and the transient nature of all earthly goods and pursuits. In the 16th century Saint Jerome in his study by Pieter Coecke van Aelst and workshop, the saint is depicted with a skull. Behind him on the wall is pinned an admonition, Cogita Mori ("Think upon death"). Further reminders of

342-528: Is extensive. In addition to his biblical works, he wrote polemical and historical essays, always from a theologian's perspective. Jerome was known for his teachings on Christian moral life, especially those in cosmopolitan centers such as Rome. He often focused on women's lives and identified how a woman devoted to Jesus should live her life. This focus stemmed from his close patron relationships with several prominent female ascetics who were members of affluent senatorial families . In addition, his works are

399-678: Is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon". His Preface to the Books of Samuel and Kings (commonly called the Helmeted Preface ) includes the following statement: This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a "helmeted" introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is not found in our list must be placed amongst

456-885: The Vulgate ; the Vulgate eventually superseded the preceding Latin translations of the Bible (the Vetus Latina ). The Council of Trent in 1546 declared the Vulgate authoritative "in public lectures, disputations, sermons, and expositions". Jerome showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation. He lived as an ascetic for 4~5 years in the Syrian desert, and later near Bethlehem for 34 years. Nevertheless, his writings show outstanding scholarship and his correspondence has great historical importance. The Church of England honours Jerome with

513-847: The Capuchins which was approved in 1880. The formal veneration of the Holy Family began in the 17th century by Mgr François de Laval . From the 16th century onwards, a number of Catholic saints prayed to Saint Joseph, invoked his help and protection and encouraged others to do so. In Introduction to the Devout Life Francis de Sales included Joseph along with the Virgin Mary as saints to be invoked during prayers following an examination of conscience . Teresa of Avila attributed her recovery of health to Joseph and recommended him as an advocate. In her biography The Story of

570-687: The Marian encyclical Redemptoris Mater . It discusses the importance of Saint Joseph in the Holy Family, and presents the pope's view of Saint Joseph's role in the plan of redemption. John Paul II positions Saint Joseph as breaking the old vice of paternal familial domination, and suggests him as the model of a loving father. Jerome Jerome ( / dʒ ə ˈ r oʊ m / ; Latin : Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος ; c.  342–347 – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon ,

627-525: The philologist Aelius Donatus . There he learned Latin and at least some Koine Greek , though he probably did not yet acquire the familiarity with Greek literature that he later claimed to have acquired as a schoolboy. As a student, Jerome engaged in the superficial escapades and sexual experimentation of students in Rome; he indulged himself quite casually but he suffered terrible bouts of guilt afterwards. To appease his conscience , on Sundays he visited

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684-525: The sepulchers of the martyrs and the Apostles in the catacombs. This experience reminded him of the terrors of Hell : Often I would find myself entering those crypts, deep dug in the earth, with their walls on either side lined with the bodies of the dead, where everything was so dark that almost it seemed as though the Psalmist's words were fulfilled, Let them go down quick into Hell. Here and there

741-559: The vanitas motif of the passage of time and the imminence of death are the image of the Last Judgment visible in the saint's Bible, the candle and the hourglass. Both Agostino Carracci and Domenichino portrayed Jerome's last communion . Jerome is also sometimes depicted with an owl , the symbol of wisdom and scholarship. Writing materials and the trumpet of final judgment are also part of his iconography . A four and three quarters foot tall limestone statue of Jerome

798-514: The "Economy of God" or simply the "Economy" are in earlier Church fathers. Giorgio Agamben 's The Kingdom and the Glory: For a Theological Genealogy of Economy and Government (2007; Eng. translation, 2011, p. 51) argues that this concept of "economy" ( oikonomia ) becomes narrowed to refer to a divine plan of salvation only after the Nicene dogma is established. In early Church history,

855-632: The 1950s, the first in Valladolid , Spain, the second at Saint Joseph's Oratory in Montreal , and the third in the theologate of Viterbo , Italy. During the centenary of Quamquam pluries in 1989, Pope John Paul II delivered the Apostolic exhortation Redemptoris custos ("Guardian of the Redeemer"). This exhortation is part of the "redemption documents" issued by the pope, and refers to

912-605: The 9th to the 14th centuries continued to increase as Mariology developed, and by the 12th century, along with greater devotion to Mary, the writings of the Benedictine monks began to foster a following for Joseph and they inserted his name in their liturgical calendars and their martyrology . In the 13th century, the Dominican Doctor of the Church Thomas Aquinas discussed the necessity of

969-632: The Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of Quadi , Vandals , Sarmatians , Alans , Gepids , Herules, Saxons , Burgundians , Allemanni , and – alas! for the commonweal! – even Pannonians . His Commentary on Daniel was expressly written to offset the criticisms of Porphyry , who taught that Daniel related entirely to the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and

1026-729: The Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made "himself out to be like God." Jerome identified the four prophetic kingdoms symbolized in Daniel ;2 as the Neo-Babylonian Empire , the Medes and Persians , Macedon , and Rome. Jerome identified the stone cut out without hands as "namely, the Lord and Savior". Jerome refuted Porphyry's application of the little horn of chapter seven to Antiochus. He expected that at

1083-599: The Apocryphal writings. Wisdom , therefore, which generally bears the name of Solomon, and the book of Jesus, the Son of Sirach , and Judith , and Tobias , and the Shepherd are not in the canon. The first book of Maccabees I have found to be Hebrew, the second is Greek, as can be proved from the very style. The following passage, taken from Jerome's Life of St. Hilarion which was written c.  392 , appears to be

1140-820: The Carpenters), constructed in 1540 in the Forum Romanum , above the prison that by tradition had held the Apostles Peter and Paul . The spread of his following is then shown by the publication of the first Litany of St. Joseph in Rome in 1597 and the introduction of the Cord of St. Joseph in Antwerp in 1657. These were then followed by the Chaplet of St. Joseph in 1850, and the Scapular of St. Joseph of

1197-583: The Hebrews") translation of the Old Testament. However, detailed studies have shown that to a considerable degree Jerome was a competent Hebraist. Jerome also produced two onomastica : For the next 15 years, until he died, Jerome produced a number of commentaries on Scripture, often explaining his translation choices in using the original Hebrew rather than suspect translations. His patristic commentaries align closely with Jewish tradition, and he indulges in allegorical and mystical subtleties after

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1254-490: The actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the "synagogue of the Antichrist". "He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist," he wrote to Pope Damasus I . He believed that "the mystery of iniquity" written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when "every one chatters about his views." To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force

1311-690: The chancellor of the Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris . Gerson wrote a lengthy treatise in French titled Consideration sur Saint Joseph and a 120-verse poem in Latin about Saint Joseph. In 1416 to 1418, Gerson preached sermons on Saint Joseph at the Council of Constance in which he borrowed heavily from Marian themes. The growth of the following of Joseph is manifested with the earliest church dedicated to him in Rome, San Giuseppe dei Falegnami (St. Joseph of

1368-527: The church. This was in view of challenges facing the church, such as the growing depravity of morals in the young generation. He prescribed that every October, a prayer to Saint Joseph be added to the Rosary , with attached indulgences . With the growth of Mariology , the theological study of Joseph also began to grow to discuss his role in the Economy of Salvation . Three centers for Josephology were formed in

1425-446: The earliest account of the etiology , symptoms and cure of severe vitamin A deficiency : From his thirty-first to his thirty-fifth year he had for food six ounces of barley bread , and vegetables slightly cooked without oil. But finding that his eyes were growing dim, and that his whole body was shrivelled with an eruption and a sort of stony roughness ( impetigine et pumicea quad scabredine ) he added oil to his former food, and up to

1482-473: The end of the world, Rome would be destroyed, and partitioned among ten kingdoms before the little horn appeared. Jerome believed that Cyrus of Persia is the higher of the two horns of the Medo-Persian ram of Daniel 8:3. The he-goat is Greece smiting Persia. Jerome opposed the doctrine of Pelagianism , and wrote against it three years before his death. Jerome, despite being opposed to Origen,

1539-399: The equipment of a scholar, or in a rocky desert, or in a setting that combines both aspects, with him studying a book under the shelter of a rock-face or cave mouth. His study is often shown as large and well-provided for, he is often clean-shaven and well-dressed, and a cardinal's hat may appear. These images derive from the tradition of the evangelist portrait , though Jerome is often given

1596-605: The guidance of a converted Jew ; and he seems to have been in correspondence with Jewish Christians in Antioch. Around this time he had copied for himself a Hebrew Gospel, of which fragments are preserved in his notes. It is known today as the Gospel of the Hebrews , which the Nazarenes considered to be the true Gospel of Matthew . Jerome translated parts of this Hebrew Gospel into Greek. As protégé of Pope Damasus I , Jerome

1653-539: The library and desk of a serious scholar. His attribute of the lion, often shown at a smaller scale, may be beside him in either setting. The subject of "Jerome Penitent" first appears in the later 15th century in Italy; he is usually in the desert, wearing ragged clothes, and often naked above the waist. His gaze is usually fixed on a crucifix and he may beat himself with his fist or a rock. In one of Georges de La Tour's 17th century French versions of St. Jerome his penitence

1710-418: The light, not entering in through windows, but filtering down from above through shafts, relieved the horror of the darkness. But again, as soon as you found yourself cautiously moving forward, the black night closed around and there came to my mind the line of Virgil, "Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent". The quotation from Virgil reads, in translation, "On all sides round, horror spread wide;

1767-576: The mainstream Rabbinical Judaism had rejected the Septuagint as invalid Jewish scriptural texts because of what were ascertained as mistranslations along with its Hellenistic heretical elements. He completed this work by 405. Prior to Jerome's Vulgate, all Latin translations of the Old Testament were based on the Septuagint, not the Hebrew. Jerome's decision to use a Hebrew text instead of

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1824-635: The manner of Philo and the Alexandrian school . Unlike his contemporaries, he emphasizes the difference between the Hebrew Bible "Apocrypha" and the Hebraica veritas of the protocanonical books . In his Vulgate's prologues , he describes some portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non- canonical (he called them apocrypha ); for Baruch , he mentions by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it

1881-507: The one to whom he was writing. Due to the time he spent in Rome among wealthy families belonging to the Roman upper class, Jerome was frequently commissioned by women who had taken a vow of virginity to write to them in guidance of how to live their life. As a result, he spent a great deal of his life corresponding with these women about certain abstentions and lifestyle practices. Jerome warned that those substituting false interpretations for

1938-417: The point that she died just four months after starting to follow his instructions; much of the Roman populace was outraged that Jerome, in their view, thus caused the premature death of such a lively young woman. Additionally, his insistence to Paula that Blaesilla should not be mourned and complaints that her grief was excessive were seen as heartless, which further polarized Roman opinion against him. Jerome

1995-464: The presence of Joseph in the plan of the Incarnation for if Mary had not been married, her fellow Jews would have stoned her to death and that a young Jesus needed the care and protection of a human father. The Josephology of Aquinas often proceeded with the juxtaposition of Joseph and Mary. In the 15th century, major steps were taken by Bernardine of Siena , Pierre d'Ailly , and Jean Gerson ,

2052-476: The previously translated Septuagint went against the advice of most other Christians, including Augustine , who thought the Septuagint inspired . Modern scholarship, however, has sometimes cast doubts on the actual quality of Jerome's Hebrew knowledge. Many modern scholars believe that the Greek Hexapla is the main source for Jerome's "iuxta Hebraeos" (i.e. "close to the Hebrews", "immediately following

2109-457: The sixty-third year of his life followed this temperate course, tasting neither fruit nor pulse, nor anything whatsoever besides. Jerome's letters or epistles , both by the great variety of their subjects and by their qualities of style, form an important portion of his literary remains. Whether he is discussing problems of scholarship, or reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends, scourging

2166-545: The ten kings. ... After they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor. In his Commentary on Daniel , he noted, "Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form." Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought

2223-402: The thirteenth-century Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine . Hagiographies of Jerome talk of his having spent many years in the Syrian desert, and artists often depict him in a "wilderness", which for West European painters can take the form of a wood. From the late Middle Ages, depictions of Jerome in a wider setting became popular. He is either shown in his study, surrounded by books and

2280-461: The time, he was criticized for it. Even in his time, Jerome noted Porphyry's accusation that the Christian communities were run by women and that the favor of the ladies decided who could accede to the dignity of the priesthood. In Rome, Jerome was surrounded by a circle of well-born and well-educated women, including some from the noblest patrician families. Among these women were such as

2337-469: The very silence breathed a terror on my soul". Although at first afraid of Christianity, he eventually converted . Seized with a desire for a life of ascetic penance , Jerome went for a time to the desert of Chalcis , to the southeast of Antioch , known as the "Syrian Thebaid " from the number of eremites (hermits) inhabiting it. During this period, he seems to have found time for studying and writing. He made his first attempt to learn Hebrew under

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2394-507: The vices and corruptions of the time and against sexual immorality among the clergy, exhorting to the ascetic life and renunciation of the world , or debating his theological opponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics. (See Plowboy trope .) Because there was no distinct line between personal documents and those meant for publication, his letters frequently contain both confidential messages and treatises meant for others besides

2451-536: The view that all Christians would eventually be reunited to God was criticized by Augustine in his treatise "on faith and works". Jerome is the second-most voluminous writer – after Augustine of Hippo (354–430) – in ancient Latin Christianity. The Catholic Church recognizes him as the patron saint of translators, librarians, and encyclopedists . Jerome translated many biblical texts into Latin from Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. His translations formed part of

2508-433: The widows Lea , Marcella , and Paula , and Paula's daughters Blaesilla and Eustochium . The resulting inclination of these women towards the monastic life, away from the indulgent lasciviousness in Rome, and his unsparing criticism of the secular clergy of Rome, brought a growing hostility against him among the Roman clergy and their supporters. Soon after the death of his patron Pope Damasus I on 10 December 384, Jerome

2565-536: The world, especially with regard to Jesus' part in salvation, which includes his mission being fulfilled by his body, the Church, and through the sacraments. Paragraph 1103 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church also refers to the "Economy of Salvation" as the "economy of Revelation". The term "Economy of Salvation" is first used by Origen of Alexandria , although references to the "Divine Economy",

2622-509: The world, particularly his plan of salvation accomplished through the Church. Economy comes from the Greek oikonomia (economy), literally, "management of a household" or "stewardship". Church doctrine sees this as the elements and resources revealed by God as necessary for the sake of mankind's salvation through God's revelation and communication of himself to mankind. It refers to God's creation of all things, and of his governance of

2679-609: Was a scholar at a time when being a scholar implied a fluency in Greek. He knew some Hebrew when he started his translation project , but moved to Jerusalem to strengthen his grip on Jewish scripture commentary. A wealthy Roman aristocrat, Paula, funded Jerome's stay in a monastery in the nearby city of Bethlehem , where he settled next to the Church of the Nativity – built half a century prior on orders of Emperor Constantine over what

2736-533: Was an early Christian priest , confessor , theologian , translator , and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome . He is best known for his translation of the Bible into Latin (the translation that became known as the Vulgate ) and his commentaries on the whole Bible. Jerome attempted to create a translation of the Old Testament based on a Hebrew version, rather than the Septuagint , as prior Latin Bible translations had done. His list of writings

2793-459: Was born at Stridon around 342–347 AD. He was of Illyrian ancestry. He was not baptized until about 360–369 in Rome, where he had gone with his friend Bonosus of Sardica to pursue rhetorical and philosophical studies. (This Bonosus may or may not have been the same Bonosus whom Jerome identifies as his friend who went to live as a hermit on an island in the Adriatic.) Jerome studied under

2850-650: Was forced to leave his position at Rome after an inquiry was brought up by the Roman clergy into allegations that he had an improper relationship with the widow Paula. Still, his writings were highly regarded by women who were attempting to maintain vows of becoming consecrated virgins . His letters were widely read and distributed throughout the Christian empire and it is clear through his writing that he knew these virgin women were not his only audience. Additionally, Jerome's condemnation of Blaesilla's hedonistic lifestyle in Rome led her to adopt ascetic practices, but these affected her health and worsened her physical weakness to

2907-588: Was given duties in Rome, and he undertook a revision of the Vetus Latina Gospels based on Greek manuscripts. He also updated the Psalter containing the Book of Psalms then in use in Rome, based on the Septuagint . Throughout his epistles he shows himself to be surrounded by women and united with close ties; it is estimated that 40% of his epistles were addressed to someone of the female sex and, at

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2964-465: Was influenced by Origenism in his soteriology. Although he taught that the Devil and the unbelieving will be eternally punished (unlike Origen), he believed that the punishment for Christian sinners, who have once believed but sin and fall away will be temporal in nature. Some scholars such as J.N.D Kelly have also interpreted Ambrose to have held similar views considering the judgement of Christians. Although Augustine does not name Jerome personally,

3021-758: Was installed above the entrance of O'Shaughnessy Library on the campus of the University of St. Thomas (then College of St. Thomas) in St. Paul Minnesota in October 1950. The sculptor was Joseph Kiselewski and the stone carver was Egisto Bertozzi. Economy of Salvation The Economy of Salvation , also called the Divine Economy , is that part of divine revelation in the Roman Catholic tradition that deals with God 's creation and management of

3078-443: Was partially fulfilled by Antiochus. Instead, he advocated that the "little horn" was the Antichrist: We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of

3135-427: Was removed. He warned a noblewoman of Gaul : He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ "shall consume with the spirit of his mouth". "Woe unto them," he cries, "that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days." ... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun all parts of Gaul. The whole country between

3192-411: Was reputed to be the site of the Nativity of Jesus – and he completed his translation there. He began in 382 by correcting the existing Latin-language version of the New Testament, commonly referred to as the Vetus Latina . By 390 he turned to translating the Hebrew Bible from the original Hebrew, having previously translated portions from the Septuagint which came from Alexandria. He believed that

3249-410: Was written by an unknown individual living in the second century BC. Against Porphyry, Jerome identified Rome as the fourth kingdom of chapters two and seven, but his view of chapters eight and eleven was more complex. Jerome held that chapter eight describes the activity of Antiochus Epiphanes, who is understood as a "type" of a future antichrist; 11:24 onwards applies primarily to a future antichrist but

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