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86-617: Jackson Boulevard is a street in Chicago, in whose grid system it is 300 South. Named for President Andrew Jackson , it is adjacent to Van Buren Street named for Jackson's associate Martin Van Buren . The Jackson Boulevard Bridge carries it across the Chicago River . This Chicago -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845)

172-598: A Freemason since at least 1798, became the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Tennessee for 1822–1823. Around this time, he also completed negotiations for Tennessee to purchase Chickasaw lands. This became known as the Jackson Purchase . Jackson, Overton, and another colleague had speculated in some of the land and used their portion to form the town of Memphis . In 1822, Jackson agreed to run in

258-577: A U.S. senator in 1797, but he resigned after serving only six months. In the spring of 1798, Governor John Sevier appointed Jackson to be a judge of the Tennessee Superior Court . In 1802, he also became major general, or commander, of the Tennessee militia , a position that was determined by a vote of the militia's officers. The vote was tied between Jackson and Sevier, a popular Revolutionary War veteran and former governor, but

344-636: A demagogue who ignored the law when it suited him. Scholarly rankings of presidents historically rated Jackson's presidency as above average. Since the late 20th century, his reputation declined, and in the 21st century his placement in rankings of presidents fell. Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in the Waxhaws region of the Carolinas . His parents were Scots-Irish colonists Andrew Jackson and Elizabeth Hutchinson, Presbyterians who had emigrated from Ulster , Ireland, in 1765. Jackson's father

430-525: A majority of 131 electoral votes, the House of Representatives held a contingent election under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment . The amendment specifies that only the top three electoral vote-winners are eligible to be elected by the House, so Clay was eliminated from contention. Clay, who was also Speaker of the House and presided over the election's resolution, saw a Jackson presidency as

516-458: A prisoner exchange . Robert died two days after arriving home, but Elizabeth was able to nurse Andrew back to health. Once he recovered, Elizabeth volunteered to nurse American prisoners of war housed in British prison ships in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina . She contracted cholera and died soon afterwards. The war made Jackson an orphan at age 14 and increased his hatred for

602-578: A British attack. When his forces arrived at Natchez , they were ordered to halt by General Wilkinson, the commander at New Orleans and the man Jackson accused of treason after the Burr adventure. A little later, Jackson received a letter from the Secretary of War , John Armstrong , stating that his volunteers were not needed, and that they were to hand over any supplies to Wilkinson and disband. Jackson refused to disband his troops; instead, he led them on

688-491: A Crawford relative. A British officer demanded to have his boots polished. Andrew refused, and the officer slashed him with a sword, leaving him with scars on his left hand and head. Robert also refused and was struck a blow on the head. The brothers were taken to a prisoner-of-war camp in Camden, South Carolina , where they became malnourished and contracted smallpox. In late spring, the brothers were released to their mother in

774-479: A disaster for the country. Clay threw his support behind Adams, who won the contingent election on the first ballot. Adams appointed Clay as his Secretary of State, leading supporters of Jackson to accuse Clay and Adams of having struck a " corrupt bargain ". After the Congressional session concluded, Jackson resigned his Senate seat and returned to Tennessee. After the election, Jackson's supporters formed

860-497: A fair policy toward Native Americans. Jackson invited the public to the White House , which was promptly overrun by well-wishers who caused minor damage to its furnishings. The spectacle earned him the nickname "King Mob". Jackson believed that Adams's administration had been corrupt and he initiated investigations into all executive departments. These investigations revealed that $ 280,000 (equivalent to $ 8,000,000 in 2023)

946-663: A force of about 5,000 men when the British arrived. The British arrived in New Orleans in mid-December. Admiral Alexander Cochrane was the overall commander of the operation; General Edward Pakenham commanded the army of 10,000 soldiers, many of whom had served in the Napoleonic Wars. As the British advanced up the east bank of the Mississippi River, Jackson constructed a fortified position to block them. The climactic battle took place on January 8 when

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1032-685: A national hero, and on February 27, 1815, he was given the Thanks of Congress and awarded a Congressional Gold Medal . Though the Treaty of Ghent had been signed in December 1814 before the Battle of New Orleans was fought, Jackson's victory assured that the United States control of the region between Mobile and New Orleans would not be effectively contested by European powers. This control allowed

1118-469: A new official cabinet. Force Bill Passed by Congress at the urging of President Andrew Jackson , the Force Bill consisted of eight sections expanding presidential power and was designed to compel the state of South Carolina 's compliance with a series of federal tariffs , opposed by John C. Calhoun and other leading South Carolinians. Among other things, the legislation stipulated that

1204-408: A new party to undermine Adams and ensure he served only one term. Adams's presidency went poorly, and Adams's behavior undermined it. He was perceived as an intellectual elite who ignored the needs of the populace. He was unable to accomplish anything because Congress blocked his proposals. In his First Annual Message to Congress, Adams stated that "we are palsied by the will of our constituents", which

1290-465: A partnership with fellow lawyer John Overton . Their partnership mainly dealt with claims made under a "land grab" act of 1783 that opened Cherokee and Chickasaw territory to North Carolina's white residents. Jackson also became a slave trader , transporting enslaved people for the interregional slave market between Nashville and the Natchez District of Spanish West Florida via

1376-521: A regular army unit, the 39th U.S. Infantry Regiment . The combined force of 3,000 men—including Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek allies—attacked a Red Stick fort at Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River , which was manned by about 1,000 men. The Red Sticks were overwhelmed and massacred. Almost all their warriors were killed, and nearly 300 women and children were taken prisoner and distributed to Jackson's Native American allies. The victory broke

1462-566: A sitting president. In one of his final presidential acts, he recognized the Republic of Texas . After leaving office, Jackson supported the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk , as well as the annexation of Texas . Jackson's legacy remains controversial, and opinions on his legacy are frequently polarized. Supporters characterize him as a defender of democracy and the Constitution , while critics point to his reputation as

1548-513: A thousand former soldiers of the British Royal and Colonial Marines, escaped slaves , and various indigenous peoples. It had become a magnet for escapees and was seen as a threat to the property rights of American enslavers, even a potential source of insurrection by enslaved people. Jackson ordered Colonel Duncan Clinch to capture the fort in July 1816. He destroyed it and killed many of

1634-644: A wealthy planter who owned hundreds of African American slaves during his lifetime. In 1801, he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and was elected its commander. He led troops during the Creek War of 1813–1814, winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend and negotiating the Treaty of Fort Jackson that required the indigenous Creek population to surrender vast tracts of present-day Alabama and Georgia. In

1720-439: A writ of habeas corpus for Louaillier's release. Jackson had Hall arrested too. A military court ordered Louaillier's release, but Jackson kept him in prison and evicted Hall from the city. Although Jackson lifted martial law when he received official word that the Treaty of Ghent , which ended the war with the British, had been signed, his previous behavior tainted his reputation in New Orleans. Jackson's victory made him

1806-680: The Battle of Stono Ferry in June 1779. After anti-British sentiment intensified in the Southern Colonies following the Battle of Waxhaws in May 1780, Elizabeth encouraged Andrew and Robert to participate in militia drills. They served as couriers, and were present at the Battle of Hanging Rock in August 1780. Andrew and Robert were captured in April 1781 when the British occupied the home of

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1892-456: The Battle of Talladega . By January 1814, the expiration of enlistments and desertion had reduced Jackson's force by about 1,000 volunteers, but he continued the offensive. The Red Sticks counterattacked at the Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek . Jackson repelled them but was forced to withdraw to Fort Strother. Jackson's army was reinforced by further recruitment and the addition of

1978-667: The Democratic Party and the various groups who did not support him eventually formed the Whig Party . The political campaign was dominated by the personal abuse that partisans flung at both candidates. Jackson was accused of being the son of an English prostitute and a mulatto , and he was accurately labeled a slave trader who trafficked in human flesh. A series of pamphlets known as the Coffin Handbills accused him of having murdered 18 white men, including

2064-532: The Indian Removal Act . This act, which has been described as ethnic cleansing , displaced tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands east of the Mississippi and resulted in thousands of deaths. Jackson faced a challenge to the integrity of the federal union when South Carolina threatened to nullify a high protective tariff set by the federal government. He threatened

2150-660: The Mississippi River and the Natchez Trace . While boarding at the home of Rachel Stockly Donelson, the widow of John Donelson , Jackson became acquainted with their daughter, Rachel Donelson Robards. The younger Rachel was in an unhappy marriage with Captain Lewis Robards , and the two were separated by 1789. After the separation, Jackson and Rachel became romantically involved, living together as husband and wife. Robards petitioned for divorce, which

2236-581: The Treaty of Moultrie Creek in 1823, which surrendered much of their land in Florida. The Panic of 1819 , the United States' first prolonged financial depression, caused Congress to reduce the military's size and abolish Jackson's generalship. In compensation, Monroe made him the first territorial governor of Florida in 1821. He served as the governor for two months, returning to the Hermitage in ill health. During his convalescence, Jackson, who had been

2322-565: The 1824 presidential election, and he was nominated by the Tennessee legislature in July. At the time, the Federalist Party had collapsed, and there were four major contenders for the Democratic-Republican Party nomination: William Crawford, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Jackson was intended to be a stalking horse candidate to prevent Tennessee's electoral votes from going to Crawford, who

2408-602: The American government to ignore one of the articles in the treaty, which would have returned the Creek lands taken in the Treaty of Fort Jackson. Following the war, Jackson remained in command of troops in the southern half of the United States and was permitted to make his headquarters at the Hermitage. Jackson continued to displace the Native Americans in areas under his command. Despite resistance from Secretary of

2494-475: The British launched a frontal assault. Their troops made easy targets for the Americans protected by their parapets, and the attack ended in disaster. The British suffered over 2,000 casualties (including Pakenham) to the Americans' 60. The British decamped from New Orleans at the end of January, but they still remained a threat. Jackson refused to lift martial law and kept the militia under arms. He approved

2580-576: The Constitution, since the United States had not declared war on Spain. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams defended him as he thought Jackson's occupation of Pensacola would lead Spain to sell Florida, which Spain did in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. In February 1819, a congressional investigation exonerated Jackson, and his victory was instrumental in convincing the Seminoles to sign

2666-598: The Democratic-Republicans in Congress boycotted the caucus, and the power to choose nominees was shifting to state nominating committees and legislatures. Jackson was nominated by a Pennsylvania convention, making him not merely a regional candidate but the leading national contender. When Jackson won the Pennsylvania nomination, Calhoun dropped out of the presidential race. Afterwards, Jackson won

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2752-486: The Governor of Louisiana William Claiborne and Tennessee Senator Daniel Smith that some of the people involved in the adventure might be intending to break away from the United States. In December, Jefferson ordered Burr to be arrested for treason. Jackson, safe from arrest because of his extensive paper trail, organized the militia to capture the conspirators. He testified before a grand jury in 1807, implying that it

2838-651: The Native American tribes, and pry Florida from the Spanish Empire . Jackson immediately offered to raise volunteers for the war, but he was not called to duty until after the United States military was repeatedly defeated in the American Northwest . After these defeats, in January 1813, Jackson enlisted over 2,000 volunteers, who were ordered to head to New Orleans to defend against

2924-520: The Red Sticks. He headed south from Fayetteville , Tennessee, in October with 2,500 militia, establishing Fort Strother as his supply base. He sent his cavalry under General Coffee ahead of the main force, destroying Red Stick villages and capturing supplies. Coffee defeated a band of Red Sticks at the Battle of Tallushatchee on November 3, and Jackson defeated another band later that month at

3010-589: The Southern states was eroded when he signed a tax on European imports, the Tariff of 1828 , which was called the "Tariff of Abominations" by opponents, into law. Jackson's victory in the presidential race was overwhelming. He won 56 percent of the popular vote and 68 percent of the electoral vote. The election ended the one-party system that had formed during the Era of Good Feelings as Jackson's supporters coalesced into

3096-583: The Spanish from Texas. Burr, who was touring what was then the Western United States after mortally wounding Alexander Hamilton in a duel , stayed with the Jacksons at the Hermitage in 1805. He eventually persuaded Jackson to join his adventure. In October 1806, Jackson wrote James Winchester that the United States "can conquer not only [Florida], but all Spanish North America". He informed

3182-406: The Tennessee militia that it should be ready to march at a moment's notice "when the government and constituted authority of our country require it", and agreed to provide boats and provisions for the expedition. Jackson sent a letter to President Thomas Jefferson telling him that Tennessee was ready to defend the nation's honor. Jackson also expressed uncertainty about the enterprise. He warned

3268-586: The Treasury William Crawford , he signed five treaties between 1816 and 1820 in which the Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee and Chickasaw ceded tens of millions of acres of land to the United States. These included the Treaty of Tuscaloosa and the Treaty of Doak's Stand . Jackson soon became embroiled in conflict in Florida. The former British post at Prospect Bluff , which became known to Americans as "the Negro fort", remained occupied by more than

3354-447: The United States. Jackson then turned his attention to the British and Spanish. He moved his forces to Mobile , Alabama, in August, accused the Spanish governor of West Florida , Mateo González Manrique , of arming the Red Sticks, and threatened to attack. The governor responded by inviting the British to land at Pensacola to defend it, which violated Spanish neutrality. The British attempted to capture Mobile, but their invasion fleet

3440-709: The age of 29 in a logging accident while clearing land in February 1767, three weeks before his son Andrew was born. Afterwards, Elizabeth and her three sons moved in with her sister and brother-in-law, Jane and James Crawford. Jackson later stated that he was born on the Crawford plantation, which is in Lancaster County, South Carolina , but second-hand evidence suggests that he might have been born at another uncle's home in North Carolina. When Jackson

3526-464: The air. Jackson began his new career in the frontier town of Nashville in 1788 and quickly moved up in social status . He became a protégé of William Blount , one of the most powerful men in the territory. Jackson was appointed attorney general of the Mero District in 1791 and judge-advocate for the militia the following year. He also got involved in land speculation, eventually forming

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3612-458: The basis of promissory notes fell apart in the wake of an earlier financial panic . He had to sell Hunter's Hill, as well as 25,000 acres (10,000 ha) of land he bought for speculation and bought a smaller 420-acre (170 ha) plantation near Nashville that he would call the Hermitage. He focused on recovering from his losses by becoming a successful planter and merchant . The Hermitage grew to 1,000 acres (400 ha), making it one of

3698-562: The concurrent war against the British , Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 made him a national hero. He later commanded U.S. forces in the First Seminole War , which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain. Jackson briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor before returning to the Senate. He ran for president in 1824 . He won a plurality of the popular and electoral vote, but no candidate won

3784-460: The difficult march back to Nashville, earning the nickname " Hickory " (later "Old Hickory") for his toughness. After returning to Nashville, Jackson and one of his colonels, John Coffee , got into a street brawl over honor with the brothers Jesse and Thomas Hart Benton . Nobody was killed, but Jackson received a gunshot in the shoulder that nearly killed him. Jackson had not fully recovered from his wounds when Governor Willie Blount called out

3870-415: The electoral majority. With the help of Henry Clay , the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams in a contingent election . Jackson's supporters alleged that there was a " corrupt bargain " between Adams and Clay and began creating their own political organization that would eventually become the Democratic Party . Jackson ran again in 1828 , defeating Adams in a landslide. In 1830, he signed

3956-530: The elite families of Tennessee. In May 1806, Jackson fought a duel with Charles Dickinson . Their dispute started over payments for a forfeited horse race, escalating for six months until they agreed to the duel. Dickinson fired first. The bullet hit Jackson in the chest, but shattered against his breastbone. He returned fire and killed Dickinson. The killing tarnished Jackson's reputation. Later that year, Jackson became involved in former vice president Aaron Burr 's plan to conquer Spanish Florida and drive

4042-593: The execution of six militiamen for desertion. Some Creoles registered as French citizens with the French consul and demanded to be discharged from the militia due to their foreign nationality. Jackson then ordered all French citizens to leave the city within three days, and had a member of the Louisiana legislature, Louis Louaillier, arrested when he wrote a newspaper article criticizing Jackson's continuation of martial law. U.S. District Court Judge Dominic A. Hall signed

4128-463: The feelings of a Father to retrace your steps. As you value liberty and the blessings of peace blot out from the page of your history a record so fatal to their security as this ordinance will become if it be obeyed. Rally again under the banners of the union whose obligations you in common with all your countrymen have, with an appeal to heaven, sworn to support, and which must be indissoluble as long as we are capable of enjoying freedom. Recollect that

4214-410: The first act of resistance to the laws which have been denounced as void by those who abuse your confidence and falsify your hopes is Treason, and subjects you to all the pains and penalties that are provided for the highest offence against your country. Can (you)...consent to become Traitors? Forbid it Heaven! Meanwhile, Congress passed the Force Bill, which was enacted on March 2, 1833. It authorized

4300-442: The garrison at Mobile, and led his troops to New Orleans. Jackson arrived in New Orleans on December 1, 1814. There he instituted martial law because he worried about the loyalty of the city's Creole and Spanish inhabitants. He augmented his force by forming an alliance with Jean Lafitte 's smugglers and raising units of free African Americans and Creek, paying non-white volunteers the same salary as whites. This gave Jackson

4386-479: The garrison. Some survivors were enslaved while others fled into the wilderness of Florida. White American settlers were in constant conflict with Native American people collectively known as the Seminoles , who straddled the border between the U.S. and Florida. In December 1817, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun initiated the First Seminole War by ordering Jackson to lead a campaign "with full power to conduct

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4472-475: The governor, Archibald Roane , broke the tie in Jackson's favor. Jackson later accused Sevier of fraud and bribery. Sevier responded by impugning Rachel's honor, resulting in a shootout on a public street. Soon afterwards, they met to duel, but parted without having fired at each other. Jackson resigned his judgeship in 1804. He had almost gone bankrupt when the land and mercantile speculations he had made on

4558-478: The largest cotton-growing plantations in the state. Like most planters in the Southern United States , Jackson used slave labor . In 1804, Jackson had nine African American slaves; by 1820, he had over 100; and by his death in 1845, he had over 150. Over his lifetime, he owned a total of 300 slaves. Jackson subscribed to the paternalistic idea of slavery, which claimed that slave ownership

4644-535: The militia in September 1813 following the August Fort Mims Massacre . The Red Sticks , a Creek Confederacy faction that had allied with Tecumseh , a Shawnee chief who was fighting with the British against the United States, killed about 250 militia men and civilians at Fort Mims in retaliation for an ambush by American militia at Burnt Corn Creek . Jackson's objective was to destroy

4730-556: The nomination in six other states and had a strong second-place finish in three others. In the presidential election, Jackson won a 42-percent plurality of the popular vote. More importantly, he won a plurality of electoral votes , receiving 99 votes from states in the South, West, and Mid-Atlantic. He was the only candidate to win states outside of his regional base: Adams dominated New England , Crawford won Virginia and Georgia, and Clay took three western states. Because no candidate had

4816-545: The nullification doctrine as being equivalent to treason. In an early draft of what would eventually become his " Proclamation to the People of South Carolina " on December 10, 1832, Jackson declared to the South Carolina government: Seduced as you have been, my fellow countrymen by the delusion theories and misrepresentation of ambitious, deluded & designing men, I call upon you in the language of truth, and with

4902-794: The ongoing disagreement led to its dissolution. In the spring of 1831, Jackson demanded the resignations of all the cabinet members except Barry, who would resign in 1835 when a Congressional investigation revealed his mismanagement of the Post Office. Jackson tried to compensate Van Buren by appointing him the Minister to Great Britain , but Calhoun blocked the nomination with a tie-breaking vote against it. Van Buren—along with newspaper editors Amos Kendall and Francis Preston Blair —would become regular participants in Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet , an unofficial, varying group of advisors that Jackson turned to for decision making even after he had formed

4988-410: The people, blaming banks for the country's depression. During his presidential candidacy, Jackson reluctantly ran for one of Tennessee's U.S. Senate seats. Jackson's political managers William Berkeley Lewis and John Eaton convinced him that he needed to defeat incumbent John Williams , who opposed him. The legislature elected Jackson in October 1823. He was attentive to his senatorial duties. He

5074-403: The popular will, but it functioned as political patronage and became known as the spoils system . Jackson spent much of his time during his first two and a half years in office dealing with what came to be known as the "Petticoat affair" or "Eaton affair". The affair focused on Secretary of War Eaton's wife, Margaret . She had a reputation for being promiscuous, and like Rachel Jackson, she

5160-525: The power of the Red Sticks. Jackson continued his scorched-earth campaign of burning villages, destroying supplies, and starving Red Stick women and children. The campaign ended when William Weatherford , the Red Stick leader, surrendered, although some Red Sticks fled to East Florida . On June 8, Jackson was appointed a brigadier general in the United States Army, and 10 days later

5246-406: The president could, if he deemed it necessary, deploy the U.S. Army to force South Carolina to comply with the law. The relevant sections of the Force Bill are: South Carolina had been sorely disappointed by negotiations surrounding the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 . The state declared the two acts unconstitutional and refused to collect federal import tariffs . President Andrew Jackson saw

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5332-477: The president to leave the existing appointees in office, replacing them through attrition. Jackson enforced the Tenure of Office Act , an 1820 law that limited office tenure, authorized the president to remove current office holders, and appoint new ones. During his first year in office, he removed about 10% of all federal employees and replaced them with loyal Democrats. Jackson argued that rotation in office reduced corruption by making officeholders responsible to

5418-444: The president to use whatever force he deemed necessary to enforce federal tariffs. As a matter of principle, the South Carolina legislature voted to nullify the Force Bill, but simultaneously, a Compromise Tariff was passed by Congress, defusing the crisis. While the Force Bill rejected the concept of individual states' rights to nullify federal law or to secede from the Union, this was not universally accepted. It would arise again in

5504-475: The soldiers he had executed for desertion and alleging that he stabbed a man in the back with his cane. They stated that he had intentionally massacred Native American women and children at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, ate the bodies of Native Americans he killed in battle, and threatened to cut off the ears of congressmen who questioned his behavior during the First Seminole War. Jackson and Rachel were accused of adultery for living together before her divorce

5590-409: The use of military force to enforce the tariff, but the crisis was defused when it was amended . In 1832, he vetoed a bill by Congress to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States , arguing that it was a corrupt institution. After a lengthy struggle , the Bank was dismantled. In 1835, Jackson became the only president to pay off the national debt . He survived the first assassination attempt on

5676-409: The values he associated with Britain, in particular aristocracy and political privilege. After the American Revolutionary War, Jackson worked as a saddler, briefly returned to school, and taught reading and writing to children. In 1784, he left the Waxhaws region for Salisbury, North Carolina , where he studied law under attorney Spruce Macay. He completed his training under John Stokes , and

5762-485: The war as he may think best". Jackson believed the best way to do this was to seize Florida from Spain once and for all. Before departing, Jackson wrote to President James Monroe , "Let it be signified to me through any channel ... that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished." Jackson invaded Florida, captured the Spanish fort of St. Marks , and occupied Pensacola . Seminole and Spanish resistance

5848-438: Was Burr's associate James Wilkinson who was guilty of treason, not Burr. Burr was acquitted of the charges. On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war on the United Kingdom , launching the War of 1812 . Though the war was primarily caused by maritime issues, it provided white American settlers on the southern frontier the opportunity to overcome Native American resistance to settlement, undermine British support of

5934-467: Was accused of adultery. She and Eaton had been close before her first husband John Timberlake died, and they married nine months after his death. With the exception of Barry's wife Catherine, the cabinet members' wives followed the lead of Vice-president Calhoun's wife Floride and refused to socialize with the Eatons. Though Jackson defended Margaret, her presence split the cabinet, which had been so ineffective that he rarely called it into session, and

6020-554: Was admitted to the North Carolina bar in September 1787. Shortly thereafter, his friend John McNairy helped him get appointed as a prosecuting attorney in the Western District of North Carolina, which would later become the state of Tennessee . While traveling to assume his new position, Jackson stopped in Jonesborough . While there, he bought his first slave, a woman who was around his age. He also fought his first duel , accusing another lawyer, Waightstill Avery , of impugning his character. The duel ended with both men firing in

6106-537: Was appointed chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs but avoided debate or initiating legislation. He used his time in the Senate to form alliances and make peace with old adversaries. Eaton continued to campaign for Jackson's presidency, updating his biography and writing a series of widely circulated pseudonymous letters that portrayed Jackson as a champion of republican liberty. Democratic-Republican presidential nominees had historically been chosen by informal congressional nominating caucuses . In 1824, most of

6192-539: Was born in Carrickfergus , County Antrim , around 1738, and his ancestors had crossed into Northern Ireland from Scotland after the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. Jackson had two older brothers who came with his parents from Ireland, Hugh (born 1763) and Robert (born 1764). Elizabeth had a strong hatred of the British that she passed on to her sons. Jackson's exact birthplace is unclear. Jackson's father died at

6278-497: Was born in the colonial Carolinas before the American Revolutionary War . He became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards . He briefly served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate , representing Tennessee . After resigning, he served as a justice on the Tennessee Superior Court from 1798 until 1804. Jackson purchased a property later known as the Hermitage , becoming

6364-404: Was effectively ended by May 1818. He also captured two British subjects , Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot , who had been working with the Seminoles. After a brief trial, Jackson executed both of them, causing an international incident with the British. Jackson's actions polarized Monroe's cabinet. The occupied territories were returned to Spain. Calhoun wanted him censured for violating

6450-501: Was elected to be its U.S. representative . In Congress, Jackson argued against the Jay Treaty , criticized George Washington for allegedly removing Democratic-Republicans from public office, and joined several other Democratic-Republican congressmen in voting against a resolution of thanks for Washington. He advocated for the right of Tennesseans to militarily oppose Native American interests. The state legislature elected him to be

6536-889: Was finalized, and Rachel heard about the accusation. She had been under stress throughout the election, and just as Jackson was preparing to head to Washington for his inauguration, she fell ill. She did not live to see her husband become president, dying of a stroke or heart attack a few days later. Jackson believed that the abuse from Adams' supporters had hastened her death, stating at her funeral: "May God Almighty forgive her murderers, as I know she forgave them. I never can." Jackson arrived in Washington, D.C. , on February 11, and began forming his cabinet. He chose Van Buren as Secretary of State, John Eaton as Secretary of War, Samuel D. Ingham as Secretary of Treasury, John Branch as Secretary of Navy, John M. Berrien as Attorney General, and William T. Barry as Postmaster General. Jackson

6622-529: Was granted in 1793 on the basis of Rachel's infidelity. The couple legally married in January 1794. In 1796, they acquired their first plantation, Hunter's Hill , on 640 acres (260 ha) of land near Nashville. Jackson became a member of the Democratic-Republican Party , the dominant party in Tennessee. He was elected as a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention in 1796. When Tennessee achieved statehood that year, he

6708-465: Was inaugurated on March 4, 1829; Adams, who was embittered by his defeat, refused to attend. Jackson was the first president-elect to take the oath of office on the East Portico of the U.S. Capitol . In his inaugural address, he promised to protect the sovereignty of the states, respect the limits of the presidency, reform the government by removing disloyal or incompetent appointees, and observe

6794-535: Was interpreted as his being against representative democracy. Jackson responded by championing the needs of ordinary citizens and declaring that "the voice of the people   ... must be heard". Jackson was nominated for president by the Tennessee legislature in October 1825, more than three years before the 1828 election. He gained powerful supporters in both the South and North, including Calhoun, who became Jackson's vice-presidential running mate, and New York Senator Martin Van Buren. Meanwhile, Adams's support from

6880-637: Was made a brevet major general with command of the Seventh Military District, which included Tennessee, Louisiana, the Mississippi Territory, and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy. With President James Madison 's approval, Jackson imposed the Treaty of Fort Jackson . The treaty required all Creek, including those who had remained allies, to surrender 23,000,000 acres (9,300,000 ha) of land to

6966-577: Was morally acceptable as long as slaves were treated with humanity and their basic needs were cared for. In practice, slaves were treated as a form of wealth whose productivity needed to be protected. Jackson directed harsh punishment for slaves who disobeyed or ran away. For example, in an 1804 advertisement to recover a runaway slave, he offered "ten dollars extra, for every hundred lashes any person will give him" up to three hundred lashes—a number that would likely have been deadly. Over time, his accumulation of wealth in both slaves and land placed him among

7052-561: Was repulsed at Fort Bowyer . Jackson then invaded Florida, defeating the Spanish and British forces at the Battle of Pensacola on November 7. Afterwards, the Spanish surrendered, and the British withdrew. Weeks later, Jackson learned that the British were planning an attack on New Orleans, which was the gateway to the Lower Mississippi River and control of the American West. He evacuated Pensacola, strengthened

7138-475: Was seen as a Washington insider. Jackson unexpectedly garnered popular support outside of Tennessee and became a serious candidate. He benefited from the expansion of suffrage among white males that followed the conclusion of the War of 1812. He was a popular war hero whose reputation suggested he had the decisiveness and independence to bring reform to Washington. He also was promoted as an outsider who stood for all

7224-568: Was stolen from the Treasury. They also resulted in a reduction in costs to the Department of the Navy, saving $ 1 million (equivalent to $ 28,600,000 in 2023). Jackson asked Congress to tighten laws on embezzlement and tax evasion, and he pushed for an improved government accounting system. Jackson implemented a principle he called " rotation in office ". The previous custom had been for

7310-422: Was the seventh president of the United States , serving from 1829 to 1837. Before his presidency , he gained fame as a general in the U.S. Army and served in both houses of the U.S. Congress . Often praised as an advocate for ordinary Americans and for his work in preserving the union of states , Jackson has also been criticized for his racial policies, particularly his treatment of Native Americans . Jackson

7396-547: Was young, Elizabeth thought he might become a minister and paid to have him schooled by a local clergyman. He learned to read, write, and work with numbers, and was exposed to Greek and Latin, but he was too strong-willed and hot-tempered for the ministry. Jackson and his older brothers, Hugh and Robert, served on the Patriot side against British forces during the American Revolutionary War . Hugh served under Colonel William Richardson Davie , dying from heat exhaustion after

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